Influence of mask color on facial expression recognition in Japanese adults and preschoolers

Influence of mask color on facial expression recognition in Japanese adults and preschoolers | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Influence of mask color on facial expression recognition in Japanese adults and preschoolers Fumikazu Furumi, Yumiko Nishio This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6102135/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigated how mask color affects the perception of facial expressions in Japanese adults and preschoolers. In Experiment 1, Japanese adults rated the intensity of neutral, happy, and sad expressions displayed by men and women wearing white, black, pink, or blue masks and no masks, using a visual analog scale. Experiment 2 focused on preschoolers, employing the same scale to evaluate emotional intensity in response to happy and sad expressions displayed by men and women wearing white, black, or pink masks or no masks. Experiment 1 revealed that pink masks increased perceptions of happiness and decreased perceptions of sadness for neutral female expressions and sad male and female expressions. Masks in colors other than black reduced the perception of happiness compared to no mask. Experiment 2 showed no significant differences in emotional perception among preschoolers based on the mask's presence or color. These findings suggest that mask color affects emotion recognition in adults, particularly in diminishing the perception of happiness, regardless of color. Although Japanese individuals typically emphasize the eyes in facial recognition, this study highlights the importance of mask color in emotion interpretation. Biological sciences/Psychology Biological sciences/Psychology/Human behaviour facial expression perception emotion recognition face mask color COVID-19 Japanese adults and preschoolers Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Throughout our social existence, humans employ both linguistic and non-linguistic communication to convey thoughts and comprehend those of others. Nonlinguistic communication, which encompasses facial expressions, body language, and vocal behaviors devoid of linguistic content 1 , was examined by Mehrabian 2 , who introduced the 7/38/55 rule. This rule suggests that listeners attribute only 7% of significance to linguistic content, 38% to vocal tone and pitch, and 55% to facial expressions and gestures when interpreting a message. Consequently, understanding facial expressions has become a pivotal aspect of communication. Furthermore, impressions formed from facial expressions resemble perceptions more than thoughts, consistent with Kahneman’s findings 3 . Todorov et al. 4 found that individuals form impressions within just 34 milliseconds of face-to-face interactions, using facial cues to assess characteristics such as trustworthiness and personality. The ability to recognize facial configurations associated with emotions begins in early infancy. By four months, infants begin to discern facial movements indicative of emotions such as anger and happiness 5 . As they grow, they develop the capacity to distinguish facial expressions related to surprise, happiness, and sadness 6 . During early childhood, the fundamental ability to process emotions begins to manifest, marking a critical developmental phase for refining emotion comprehension 7 . Studies on emotion processing in preschool children have shown that happiness is recognized most promptly and accurately, followed by sadness, anger, surprise, and fear 8 . Despite the enhancement of facial recognition accuracy with age, children below the age of 11 often misinterpret facial expressions more frequently than older adolescents 9 , and the ability to infer emotions from cues such as eye movements continues to develop into adolescence and early adulthood 10 . Thus, the development of facial expression recognition begins in infancy and progresses through childhood and adolescence, with an increase in recognition speed as age advances 10,11 . In recognizing others’ emotions, auditory emotional expressions and the surrounding environmental context play important roles alongside facial expressions 12,13 . Among environmental factors, color has been shown to influence emotion recognition 14 . The relationship between color and emotion has been substantiated in numerous studies. Gohar 15 demonstrated the significance of color as a perceptual cue for identifying six fundamental emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Specifically, red is associated with anger, green with disgust, black with fear, yellow with happiness, blue with sadness, and bright colors with surprise. Elliot et al. 16 developed a general model outlining the psychological functions of color, proposing that the relationship between color and emotion is shaped both intrinsically and through repeated associations with specific messages, concepts, or experiences. Meier et al. 17 indicated that bright colors are generally linked to positive emotions, whereas dark colors are associated with negative emotions. Similarly, Boyatzis and Varghese 18 investigated children’s emotional associations with colors, noting that positive emotions tend to be connected with bright colors, whereas negative emotions are linked to dark colors. Sutton and Altarriba 19 also established norms for associating positive and negative emotions, emotional words, and colors, highlighting a significant correlation between positive emotions and colors such as white and yellow. During the global spread of COVID-19, Blazhenkova et al. 20 conducted a study with university students to examine their ability to recognize emotions while wearing face masks, focusing on the influence of patterned and colored masks. Although the specific effects of mask patterns and colors on emotion recognition were unclear, the study found a preference for black masks over white ones. Additionally, individuals more resistant to mask-wearing tended to favor patterned masks. With the widespread use of masks due to COVID-19 21 , masks have become a common feature of everyday life as a preventive measure against infectious diseases such as COVID-19 and influenza. Besides physical barriers against viruses, masks promote hygienic behavior and reduce fear, encouraging active social engagement 22,23 . However, masks obscure the lower half of the face, which has been shown to affect the interpretation of emotions conveyed through facial expressions 24 . According to Bruce and Young 25 , human faces provide cues about identity and emotions. Several studies have investigated the impact of mask-wearing on emotion recognition, such as Tsantani et al. 26 , who found that masks reduce the accuracy of recognizing all emotions. The current study explored the developmental differences in how color influences emotion recognition in individuals wearing masks by comparing infants and adults. Although the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is diminishing, there are numerous situations, particularly in medical settings, where wearing masks is still necessary. This study investigated whether the color of a mask influences adults and young children’s ability to interpret the wearer’s emotions. By shedding light on this relationship, the findings may provide valuable insights into selecting appropriate mask colors based on contextual needs. Drawing from the understanding that surrounding color can affect emotion recognition 18 , the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 1 : Both adults and infants are influenced by mask color in their emotion recognition . Considering the idea that the association between color and emotion strengthens with experience 16 , the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 2: Infants, having less experience in their daily lives than adults, exhibit a weaker influence of color on emotion recognition. Additionally, given the association of bright and dark colors with positive and negative emotions, respectively 17,19 , the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 3: Individuals wearing white or pink masks are more likely to convey happiness, whereas those wearing black masks are more likely to convey sadness. Experiment 1 Materials and Methods Transparency and Openness This study adheres to the Journal Article Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology 27 . We detail the determination of our sample size, data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and the measures used. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 29.0.1 (IBM, 2023). The study’s design and analysis were not pre-registered. Participants Before data collection, a power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3 28 to estimate the required sample size. The analysis indicated that 20 participants (α = .05, power = .95) would be sufficient. A survey was conducted with 26 Japanese university students (4 men, 22 women; age range: 18–23 years; mean age: 20.36 years). The Color Mate Test (CMT; Furumi and Koyasu 29 ; Kaneko 30 ) was employed to assess color vision, and four participants with incorrect responses were excluded from the final analysis. Therefore, 22 participants (3 men, 19 women; age range: 18–23 years; mean age: 20.4 years) were included. Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional research ethics committee, which adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, before conducting the study. Materials To investigate the impact of mask color on facial expression recognition, we utilized facial photographs and some necessary equipment, including a laptop (LAPTOP-0SIC31AL) for stimulus presentation and the Super Lab 6 software for conducting psychological experiments. The CMT was administered to efficiently assess participants’ color vision. Facial photographs were sourced from the Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International Facial Expression Image Database (ATR-Promotions; Kyoto; Japan [RRID: SCR_011102], 2006), featuring images depicting three emotions—happy, neutral, and sad— from one male and one female model. Based on Plutchik and Kellerman’s 31 emotion model, which identifies eight basic emotions (anger, fear, anticipation, surprise, happiness, sadness, trust, and disgust) with happiness and sadness as opposing poles, we selected happy, neutral, and sad expressions, consistent with prior studies (e.g., Grenville and Dwyer 32 ), to examine facial expression recognition under conditions involving mask-wearing. We established two conditions for each emotion: one with a mask and one without. Referring to the work of Sutton and Altarriba 19 regarding the relationship between emotions and colors, we selected four mask colors: white, black, pink, and blue. A total of 30 stimuli, with 15 images per model, were prepared by incorporating these masks into the facial images. The photos, showing the upper head down to the neck, were consistently presented in a rectangular format. Fig 1 illustrates the facial stimuli used in the experiment. The stimuli were presented individually using Super Lab 6, with each participant randomly exposed to all three emotions under the four mask color conditions. To assess the intensity of emotions, we utilized a visual analog scale (VAS) featuring facial icons inspired by Zaman et al. 33 . The midpoint on the VAS represented a neutral emotion (0), with positive values indicating happiness (+10) and negative values indicating sadness (-10). The scale was presented at a distance of 10 cm from either side of the midpoint. Fig 2 provides an illustration of the VAS used in the study. Procedure The experiment was conducted in a quiet room with the experimenter and the participants seated face-to-face. Participants were first given a comprehensive overview of the study, after which their informed consent was obtained. Subsequently, the CMT was administered, followed by a practice session for the emotion judgment tasks before proceeding to the main trial. CMT The CMT involved a set of five cards designed in colors discernible even by individuals with color vision deficiencies. These cards comprised one practice card and four main trial cards that presented a challenge for those with such deficiencies. Each card displayed a cross with five colors arranged either vertically or horizontally, where colors of the same hue were aligned. Participants were first shown the practice card and instructed: “Colors such as red, green, and blue are categorized into ‘color families.’ Here, three colors are aligned vertically or horizontally. Your task is to determine whether the colors of the same family are aligned vertically or horizontally. If uncertain, you can say, ‘I don’t know.’” After understanding the practice task, participants were asked, “What about this one?” for the practice card, and their responses were recorded. Following the successful comprehension of the practice task, the main trial was conducted four times following the same procedure. Incorrect responses during the main trial were excluded from the analysis. Emotion Judgment Task A computer was placed in front of each participant, and both practice and main trials were conducted, employing different stimuli for each trial. Practice Trial. The practice trial was conducted to familiarize participants with the main trial procedure. Participants were first instructed: “We will now display facial photographs one by one on the computer screen, and for each photograph, you will answer two questions.” A sample facial photograph was presented on the screen during this instruction. Pointing to the VAS, participants were then guided: “Please place a sticker on the location of the scale that corresponds to the intensity of the emotion you believe fits the displayed face on the computer.” Main Trial. The main trials followed the same procedure as the practice trials. Participants were sequentially presented with individual facial photographs and were asked to assess the emotions conveyed using the VAS. This process was repeated for 30 trials in a randomized sequence. Participants were encouraged to respond instinctively—without overthinking—and to operate the computer independently. The distance between the neutral point (0) on the VAS and the center of the sticker was recorded as the participant’s response. Results The VAS scores ranged from -10 to 0 to +10 for happiness. A two-way repeated measures analysis of variance was performed, with participants’ evaluations of the gender of the facial images (i.e., male, female) and mask condition (i.e., uncovered, white, black, pink, blue) as within-participant factors. For neutral expressions, the interaction was significant [ F (4, 88) = 6.27, p = .001, η p 2 = .22]. Simple main-effects tests revealed a significant masking effect only for female faces [ F (4, 176) = 4.62, p = .02, η p 2 = .17]. Multiple comparisons revealed that participants rated the pink mask condition as significantly happier than the uncovered condition [ t (22) = 4.89, p < .001, r = .72]. Regarding happiness, the main effect of gender was significant [ F (1, 22) = 45.84, p < .001, η p 2 = .68], indicating that men were perceived as exhibiting greater happiness than women. The main effect of the masking condition was also significant [ F (4, 88) = 5.73, p = .001, η p 2 = .21]. Multiple comparisons showed that participants evaluated the uncovered condition as significantly happier than the white [ t (22) = 4.89, p < .001, r = .62], pink [ t (22) = 3.34, p = .03, r = .58], and the blue [ t (22) = 3.19, p = .03, r = .56] mask conditions. For sadness, the main effect of gender was significant [ F (1, 22) = 5.74, p = .03, η p 2 = .21], indicating that men were perceived as exhibiting stronger sadness than women. The main effect of the masking condition was also significant [ F (4, 88) = 5.73, p = .001, η p 2 = .21]. Multiple comparisons revealed that participants evaluated the uncovered condition as significantly sadder than the pink mask condition [ t (22) = 5.76, p < .001, r = .78]. The mean values and standard errors for each condition are shown in Fig 3. Discussion For neutral expressions, the color of the mask influenced emotion perception only when the image depicted a female face. Specifically, wearing a pink mask was associated with a stronger perception of happiness than having the entire face visible. Furthermore, for sadness, the absence of a mask led to a stronger perception of sadness than wearing a pink mask. These findings align with the notion proposed by Meier et al. 17 and Sutton and Altarriba 19 : that bright colors are linked to positive emotions. The impact of mask color on the emotion perception of female faces may be attributed to the social meanings attached to certain colors. As highlighted by Cunningham and Macrae 34 , despite efforts to reduce gender stereotypes, the association between pink and femininity remains strong. While Jonauskaite et al. 35 also highlighted the association of blue with masculinity, they suggested that blue is preferred by both sexes despite pink being generally favored by women. Therefore, while the connection between pink and femininity is well-established, the association between blue and masculinity is not absolute. This could explain why this study only observed differences in emotion perception with the pink mask. Regarding expressions of happiness, participants perceived happiness strongly when no mask was worn compared to when white, pink, or blue masks were worn. This may be attributed to the varying recognizability of different emotions; for example, sadness or anger are often associated with specific facial features around the eyes, while happiness is often associated with the mouth. When the mouth is concealed, as with masks or scarves, recognizing emotions such as happiness and fear, which rely heavily on mouth expressions, can become challenging 36–39 . Thus, the visibility of the mouth may have enabled participants to perceive stronger happiness in the facial expressions during this study. A significant gender-based effect was observed for both happy and sad expressions, with both happiness and sadness being perceived more strongly in male images. This finding appears to contradict previous studies, where women are seen as exhibiting happiness and sadness more intensely 13 . However, the facial stimuli in this study were provided by trained models who displayed clear and distinctive emotions, therefore making them appropriate for the experimental context involving Japanese participants. Since both male and female models exhibited strong expressions, the tendency to perceive stronger emotions in men—generally seen as less expressive—may have led participants to interpret male expressions as being more intense in this study. Experiment 2 Materials and Methods Transparency and Openness We detail the procedures for determining sample size, data exclusions (if any), manipulations, and measures used in the study, adhering to the Journal Article Reporting Standards for quantitative research in psychology 27 . Data were analyzed using SPSS version 29.0.1 (IBM, 2023). The design and analysis of this study were not pre-registered. Participants Experiment 2 followed a methodology similar to Experiment 1. Before data collection, a power analysis was conducted using Faul et al. ’s 28 G*Power 3 to determine the required sample size, which indicated that 20 participants would be sufficient (α = .05; power = 0.95). The study initially involved 28 Japanese preschoolers (11 boys, 17 girls; age range: 69–78 months; mean age: 72.5 months) from a university-affiliated kindergarten. Six participants who did not correctly complete the CMT and two who failed to understand the instructions were excluded from the analysis. Consequently, the final sample included 20 Japanese preschoolers (6 boys 14 girls; age range: 69–78 months; mean age: 72.8 months). Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional research ethics committee before conducting the study, and permission was secured from the relevant personnel at the institution. Materials Materials for Experiment 2 were similar to those used in Experiment 1. However, neutral expressions were omitted from the emotion judgment task to accommodate the attention span and time constraints of preschoolers. Instead, the current task focused on two easily discernible emotions: happiness and sadness. Three mask colors were used: white, black, and pink. A total of 16 stimuli were prepared, with eight stimuli per emotion. Procedure The study was conducted individually in a quiet room, with the experimenter and participant seated facing each other. Initially, a rapport was established, followed by collecting information about the participants’ names, ages, and birthdates. The CMT was administered, and participants who completed it then proceeded to a practice trial. Following this, these individuals participated in the main trial for the emotion judgment task. Emotion Judgment Task In Experiment 2, a computer was positioned in front of each participant for the emotion judgment task, with instructions to refrain from touching the computer. Both practice and main trials were administered using stimuli from different models. Practice Trial.The practice trial aimed to familiarize participants with the response procedure for the main trial. Participants received the following instruction: “We will show you faces, so please look carefully.” A facial photograph appeared on the computer screen, and the participants were instructed: “What emotions do you think this person is feeling? How happy or sad do you think they are? Place a sticker on this line where you believe the emotion falls.” While explaining, the experimenter pointed to the VAS on the screen, and participants responded accordingly. This process was repeated in two randomized trials. Main Trial.The main trial followed a procedure similar to the practice trial. Participants were shown individual facial photographs and they used the VAS to indicate the perceived emotion based on the facial expression. This procedure was repeated across 16 randomized trials. Results VAS scores were calibrated with -10 points for sadness and +10 points for happiness. A two-way within-participant analysis of variance was conducted, with the gender of the facial image (i.e., male, female) and mask condition (i.e., uncovered, white, black, pink) as within-participant factors for each facial expression. For happy expressions, the main effect of gender was significant [ F (1, 18) = 9.16, p = .007, η p 2 = .34], indicating that men were perceived to express happiness more strongly than women. Similarly, for sad expressions, the main effect of gender was significant [ F (1, 18) = 8.59, p = .009, η p 2 = .32], with men displaying more pronounced sadness than women. The mean values and standard errors for each condition are presented in Fig. 4. Discussion In Experiment 2, the results indicated that neither the presence nor the color of masks affected preschoolers’ perception of happy or sad emotions. Furumi et al. 40 reported that recognizing the facial expressions of individuals wearing masks was somewhat more challenging compared to when the entire face was visible. However, preschoolers achieved approximately 95% accuracy, suggesting that the impact of masks on emotion judgment in this age group might be minimal. Given that this study was conducted in November 2022, when the use of masks had become more prevalent due to COVID-19 prevention measures, it is likely that preschoolers had increased exposure to mask-wearing individuals, which may have lessened the impact of masks on their ability to judge emotions. The lack of observed differences in emotion perception based on mask color may stem from underdeveloped color-emotion associations in preschoolers. Previous research exploring the connection between colors and emotions among preschoolers has often employed image-based tasks. Burkitt et al. 41 found that children associated preferred colors with positive characters and less-favored colors with negative characters, while a similar study by Burkitt et al. 42 showed that self-drawn pictures yielded comparable results. These studies suggest that young children may link positive emotions with their preferred or familiar colors rather than general color-emotion associations. By contrast, Zentner 43 found that 3- and 4-year-olds associated bright colors with happiness and dark colors with sadness, suggesting that colors and emotions can be conceptually linked even in early childhood. Given these mixed findings, the relationship between color and emotion in preschoolers remains an area requiring further examination. The results of this study suggest that preschoolers may not necessarily link color with emotion, at least in the context of emotion judgment tasks. Similar to adults, significant gender-related differences were observed in preschoolers’ perceptions of stimuli. Men exhibited stronger representations of both happiness and sadness. Since women typically show more intense expressions of happiness and sadness 44 , it is plausible that preschoolers, like adults, follow comparable judgment processes in their emotion assessments. General Discussion This study aimed to investigate developmental changes in emotion perception related to mask color by comparing preschoolers and adults. The findings revealed no significant effects of mask color on the perception of happiness or sadness found in preschoolers, despite mask-wearing and color influencing emotion perception in adults, particularly for neutral female expressions and happy and sad expressions across genders. Therefore, Hypothesis 1, which predicted that mask color would influence emotion perception in both adults and preschoolers, was supported only for adults. Hypothesis 2 was also supported, which proposed that preschoolers would exhibit a reduced impact of color on emotion perception due to their fewer daily experiences. The observed impact of mask color on emotion perception in adults may be due to both inherent predispositions and learned associations between color and emotion, as proposed by Elliot et al. 16 . Previous research has demonstrated that background color can influence how facial expressions are interpreted 14,45,46 , and contextual information surrounding emotional states plays a role in how emotions are perceived 47,48 . This repeated integration of situational context into emotion interpretation likely leads to generalized concepts linking bright and dark colors with positive and negative emotions, respectively. While adults develop these concepts through experience, preschoolers may not yet have the same level of contextual understanding, resulting in less developed associations between color and emotion. In adults, the influence of mask colors was observed for neutral female expressions, where wearing a pink mask was associated with a heightened perception of happiness compared to not wearing a mask. Similarly, for sad male and female expressions, wearing a pink mask led to a reduced perception of sadness compared to not wearing a mask. This finding partially supports Hypothesis 3, which predicted that white or pink masks would enhance the perception of happiness, while black masks would intensify the perception of sadness. This finding aligns with previous research suggesting a positive association between bright colors and positive emotions 17,19 . The lack of impact from other colors may be due to associations of white masks with illness 49 . Additionally, since sadness is often linked with the eyes and happiness with the mouth 37–40,44 , the influence of mask color might be limited to the bright pink associated with happiness, whereas the dark black color (linked to sadness) may not have a similar effect 18 . This study is novel in that it employed an innovative approach using a VAS to assess emotion perception in preschoolers—a method relatively underutilized in emotion studies. Unlike conventional image-based tasks, our approach required participants to identify emotions based on facial images. While previous methods have effectively evaluated basic emotion discrimination, they may not be well-suited for measuring emotional intensity. Using scales such as the VAS for emotion measurement necessitates an understanding of and ability to differentiate between emotions such as happiness and sadness. Widen and Russell 50 found that categorizing basic emotions from facial expressions is feasible by age three, with most preschoolers being able to make these distinctions by the age of five. Since all participants in this study were five years or older, they could likely understand and differentiate between emotions. However, while the VAS lines provide visual cues for varying levels of emotional intensity, some preschoolers placed stickers at the extremes of the scale. This suggests that, despite their ability to match expressions with emotions, they might have struggled with understanding nuances in emotional intensity, such as “very happy” versus “a little happy.” Moreover, while mask color did not influence emotion perception in preschoolers, it did affect adults’ perceptions. Determining when mask color affects emotion perception in development remains a challenge for future research. Additionally, this study focused exclusively on Japanese participants, even though cultural differences are known to affect color impressions and emotion perception. Previous research demonstrates cross-cultural consistency in basic emotions such as happiness and sadness, which are linked to universal facial muscle movements 51 . However, interpretations of these emotions can differ across cultures. For instance, Yuki et al. 52 found that Japanese participants focus predominantly on the eyes, whereas American participants focus on the mouth when interpreting emotions. In cultures such as the United States, where the mouth is emphasized, a similar study might reveal a stronger influence of mask color on emotion recognition. Cross-cultural research, such as the study by Hupka et al. 53 , which examined color-emotion associations across five countries, highlights cultural disparities in color perception and emotion associations. Therefore, future research should encompass cross-cultural comparisons to explore how potential cultural differences influence the impact of mask color on emotion perception. In summary, this study examined how mask color affects emotion perception in preschoolers and adults. Although color affected emotion judgments for neutral, happy, and sad expressions among adults, preschoolers did not show significant effects based on mask color for recognizing happiness or sadness. The influence of mask color on adults’ perceptions could be due to a combination of innate predispositions and learned color-emotion associations. This study suggests that adults develop these associations through contextual information over time, with a stronger effect for bright colors linked to positive emotions. In contrast, preschoolers may not have established such associations due to limited contextual experience. The study partially supports the hypothesis that pink masks enhance the perception of happiness and reduce the perception of sadness. Limitations Although the present study reveals important findings, it has several limitations. Yuki et al. 52 found that Americans typically focus on the mouth when interpreting facial expressions, whereas Japanese individuals tend to concentrate on the eyes. Moreover, Furumi et al. 40 observed that Japanese toddlers exhibited higher accuracy in recognizing masked faces compared to similar studies conducted with Italians by Gori et al. 54 and Americans by Ruba and Pollak 55 . This suggests that Japanese individuals may be less affected by masks. Although all participants in both Experiments 1 and 2 of this study were Japanese, which limits the generalizability of the findings, it is noteworthy that the color of masks influenced facial recognition in Japanese adults, a group generally considered less impacted by masks. Additionally, the experimental stimuli used in this study were limited to adult Japanese males and females, further limiting the generalizability. However, considering all participants were Japanese, these stimuli were deemed appropriate for the study. The VAS developed in this study was user-friendly, indicating its potential applicability in future facial recognition research. Future research should aim to enhance the generalizability of the findings by collecting data from Western countries, where mask-wearing is less common and more likely to impact facial recognition than in Japan. Conclusion This study reveals significant differences in how mask color influences emotion recognition between preschoolers and adults. Among adults, the presence and the color of masks affected emotion recognition, particularly for neutral female expressions and happy and sad expressions in men and women. In contrast, preschoolers showed no significant differences in recognizing happiness or sadness based on mask color, suggesting that the association between color and emotion is not fully developed in early childhood and strengthens with age. Additionally, preschoolers exhibited comparable levels of emotion recognition regardless of whether masks were worn, aligning with Furumi et al. ’s 40 findings that preschoolers can accurately recognize emotions such as happiness, anger, sadness, and surprise in individuals wearing masks, with approximately 90% accuracy. Therefore, concerns about the impact of mask-wearing on emotion recognition in daily interactions with young children may be unwarranted. In adults, the concealment of the mouth by a mask, irrespective of its color, indicates that masks may weaken the perception of happiness. This emotion is significantly associated with mouth cues. Therefore, the difficulty of effectively conveying happiness when wearing a mask should be considered. Furthermore, the study found that adults perceived individuals wearing pink masks as displaying stronger happiness and weaker sadness, even when the facial expressions were sad or neutral. These findings indicate that mask color can significantly influence how emotions are conveyed to others, particularly in contexts such as infectious disease prevention. Overall, this study is significant in elucidating the developmental changes and the connection between the color of worn items (such as masks) and the emotions perceived by others. Declarations Declaration of Interest statement The authors have no conflicts of interest directly relevant to the content of this article. Acknowledgments: We thank Ms. Misaki Isu for the data collection. We would like to thank Editage ( www.editage.com ) for the English language editing. Funding: This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant number: 20K14155). Data availability statement All data have been made publicly available at the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/57vaw/. 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J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 94 , 365–381 (2008) (DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.365) (PubMed: 18284287) Nakamura, M., Buck, R. & Kenny, D. A. Relative contributions of expressive behavior and contextual information to the judgment of the emotional state of another. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 59 , 1032–1039 (1990) (DOI 10.1037//0022-3514.59.5.1032) (PubMed: 2266480) Miyazaki, Y. & Kawahara, J. I. The sanitary-mask effect on perceived facial attractiveness. Jpn. Psychol. Res. 58 , 261–272 (2016) (DOI 10.1111/jpr.12116) Widen, S. C. & Russell, J. A. Children acquire emotion categories gradually. Cogn. Dev. 23 , 291–312 (2008) (DOI 10.1016/j.cogdev.2008.01.002) Ekman, P. Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. Nebr. Symp. Motiv., 1971 , 19 , 207–283 (1972) Yuki, M., Maddux, W. W. & Masuda, T. Are the windows to the soul the same in the East and West? Cultural differences in using the eyes and mouth as cues to recognize emotions in Japan and the United States. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 43 , 303–311 (2007) (DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.004) Hupka, R. B., Zaleski, Z., Otto, J., Reidl, L. & Tarabrina, N. V. The colors of anger, envy, fear, and jealousy: A cross-cultural study. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 28 , 156–171 (1997) (DOI 10.1177/0022022197282002) Gori, M., Schiatti, L. & Amadeo, M. B. Masking emotions: face masks impair how we read emotions. Front. Psychol. 12 , 669432 (2021) (DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669432) (PubMed: 34113297) Ruba, A. L. & Pollak, S. D. Children’s emotion inferences from masked faces: implications for social interactions during COVID-19. PLOS One 15 , e0243708 (2020) (DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243708) (PubMed: 33362251) [i] [i] Abbreviations: CMT, Color Mate Test; VAS, visual analog scale. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6102135","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":423874093,"identity":"010d05e1-07fa-4380-9a1e-e71bcbdb2181","order_by":0,"name":"Fumikazu Furumi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gYGhoMNIBbzARApIQciDzzAo4XnAEwLWwJYizFYSwIBLYxIWhgSwRy8WiSyEw/OqKlLbGDjMfvMm2ORPj/s8EOgLXZyug24tORuOLjhGBtIi/Fs3m0SuRtvpxkAtSQbmx3ArsUepOUBG09ig3yPMTNYy+wEkJYDidtwaAHb8uCfBNgWkJZ0w9npHwhr2dhmANeSIC+dQ8AWnrcbDs7sSzBuY2MrZpy7TcJwg3ROwYEEA9x+4WHP3fyx51udbD8b82aGt9vq5OVnp2/+8KHCTg6XFjhggzEMwCoNCChHAfINpKgeBaNgFIyCkQAAv0RegTGmL+wAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Shizuoka University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fumikazu","middleName":"","lastName":"Furumi","suffix":""},{"id":423874095,"identity":"d1a29dae-5e76-4b0c-91b3-1da82c4dac18","order_by":1,"name":"Yumiko Nishio","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kio University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yumiko","middleName":"","lastName":"Nishio","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-02-25 06:53:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6102135/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6102135/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":77849777,"identity":"238c6155-cd83-4036-9806-08226aec81bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-06 06:37:37","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":361024,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacial stimuli for the experiment\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6102135/v1/c4778f8147c74fb7c01f7564.png"},{"id":77849786,"identity":"c6d85fe5-5c14-4ab8-97c6-3c3e4233179c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-06 06:37:37","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26841,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVisual analog scale (VAS)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote. The participants placed the sticker on the scale according to their perceived degree of the emotion.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6102135/v1/a305a547dfef916c69489aeb.png"},{"id":77849776,"identity":"4eb8aa71-9f8f-4bc8-b326-887d296d07bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-06 06:37:37","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23850,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean value of emotions (Experiment 1)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6102135/v1/8b0d7c57a9f55091213d0df7.png"},{"id":77850684,"identity":"6d6de469-9785-44a5-9d24-d827e9c7f86a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-06 06:45:37","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43963,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean value of emotions (Experiment 2)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6102135/v1/fb0660dc552f214eb6328f5c.png"},{"id":79072100,"identity":"3855fd3c-d264-4757-a155-a51020ac0ed9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-24 06:24:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1136685,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6102135/v1/df2b5133-a6ff-4576-ae32-6c1d03e03b34.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Influence of mask color on facial expression recognition in Japanese adults and preschoolers","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThroughout our social existence, humans employ both linguistic and non-linguistic communication to convey thoughts and comprehend those of others. Nonlinguistic communication, which encompasses facial expressions, body language, and vocal behaviors devoid of linguistic content\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, was examined by Mehrabian\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, who introduced the 7/38/55 rule. This rule suggests that listeners attribute only 7% of significance to linguistic content, 38% to vocal tone and pitch, and 55% to facial expressions and gestures when interpreting a message. Consequently, understanding facial expressions has become a pivotal aspect of communication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, impressions formed from facial expressions resemble perceptions more than thoughts, consistent with Kahneman’s findings\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. Todorov \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e found that individuals form impressions within just 34 milliseconds of face-to-face interactions, using facial cues to assess characteristics such as trustworthiness and personality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ability to recognize facial configurations associated with emotions begins in early infancy. By four months, infants begin to discern facial movements indicative of emotions such as anger and happiness\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e. As they grow, they develop the capacity to distinguish facial expressions related to surprise, happiness, and sadness\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e. During early childhood, the fundamental ability to process emotions begins to manifest, marking a critical developmental phase for refining emotion comprehension\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e. Studies on emotion processing in preschool children have shown that happiness is recognized most promptly and accurately, followed by sadness, anger, surprise, and fear\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e. Despite the enhancement of facial recognition accuracy with age, children below the age of 11 often misinterpret facial expressions more frequently than older adolescents\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e, and the ability to infer emotions from cues such as eye movements continues to develop into adolescence and early adulthood\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e. Thus, the development of facial expression recognition begins in infancy and progresses through childhood and adolescence, with an increase in recognition speed as age advances\u003csup\u003e10,11\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn recognizing others’ emotions, auditory emotional expressions and the surrounding environmental context play important roles alongside facial expressions\u003csup\u003e12,13\u003c/sup\u003e. Among environmental factors, color has been shown to influence emotion recognition\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e. The relationship between color and emotion has been substantiated in numerous studies. Gohar\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e demonstrated the significance of color as a perceptual cue for identifying six fundamental emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Specifically, red is associated with anger, green with disgust, black with fear, yellow with happiness, blue with sadness, and bright colors with surprise.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElliot \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e developed a general model outlining the psychological functions of color, proposing that the relationship between color and emotion is shaped both intrinsically and through repeated associations with specific messages, concepts, or experiences. Meier \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e indicated that bright colors are generally linked to positive emotions, whereas dark colors are associated with negative emotions. Similarly, Boyatzis and Varghese\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e investigated children’s emotional associations with colors, noting that positive emotions tend to be connected with bright colors, whereas negative emotions are linked to dark colors. Sutton and Altarriba\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e also established norms for associating positive and negative emotions, emotional words, and colors, highlighting a significant correlation between positive emotions and colors such as white and yellow.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the global spread of COVID-19, Blazhenkova \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e conducted a study with university students to examine their ability to recognize emotions while wearing face masks, focusing on the influence of patterned and colored masks. Although the specific effects of mask patterns and colors on emotion recognition were unclear, the study found a preference for black masks over white ones. Additionally, individuals more resistant to mask-wearing tended to favor patterned masks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith the widespread use of masks due to COVID-19\u003csup\u003e21\u003c/sup\u003e, masks have become a common feature of everyday life as a preventive measure against infectious diseases such as COVID-19 and influenza. Besides physical barriers against viruses, masks promote hygienic behavior and reduce fear, encouraging active social engagement\u003csup\u003e22,23\u003c/sup\u003e. However, masks obscure the lower half of the face, which has been shown to affect the interpretation of emotions conveyed through facial expressions\u003csup\u003e24\u003c/sup\u003e. According to Bruce and Young\u003csup\u003e25\u003c/sup\u003e, human faces provide cues about identity and emotions. Several studies have investigated the impact of mask-wearing on emotion recognition, such as Tsantani \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e26\u003c/sup\u003e, who found that masks reduce the accuracy of recognizing all emotions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study explored the developmental differences in how color influences emotion recognition in individuals wearing masks by comparing infants and adults. Although the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is diminishing, there are numerous situations, particularly in medical settings, where wearing masks is still necessary. This study investigated whether the color of a mask influences adults and young children’s ability to interpret the wearer’s emotions. By shedding light on this relationship, the findings may provide valuable insights into selecting appropriate mask colors based on contextual needs. Drawing from the understanding that surrounding color can affect emotion recognition\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e, the following hypothesis was proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHypothesis 1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e: Both adults and infants are influenced by mask color in their emotion recognition\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsidering the idea that the association between color and emotion strengthens with experience\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e, the following hypothesis was proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHypothesis 2:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Infants, having less experience in their daily lives than adults, exhibit a weaker influence of color on emotion recognition.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, given the association of bright and dark colors with positive and negative emotions, respectively\u003csup\u003e17,19\u003c/sup\u003e, the following hypothesis was proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHypothesis 3:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Individuals wearing white or pink masks are more likely to convey happiness, whereas those wearing black masks are more likely to convey sadness.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Experiment 1","content":"\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaterials and Methods\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eTransparency and Openness\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study adheres to the Journal Article Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology\u003csup\u003e27\u003c/sup\u003e. We detail the determination of our sample size, data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and the measures used. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 29.0.1 (IBM, 2023). The study\u0026rsquo;s design and analysis were not pre-registered.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore data collection, a power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3\u003csup\u003e28\u003c/sup\u003e to estimate the required sample size. The analysis indicated that 20 participants (\u0026alpha; = .05, power = .95) would be sufficient. A survey was conducted with 26 Japanese university students (4 men, 22 women; age range: 18\u0026ndash;23 years; mean age: 20.36 years). The Color Mate Test (CMT; Furumi and Koyasu\u003csup\u003e29\u003c/sup\u003e; Kaneko\u003csup\u003e30\u003c/sup\u003e) was employed to assess color vision, and four participants with incorrect responses were excluded from the final analysis. Therefore, 22 participants (3 men, 19 women; age range: 18\u0026ndash;23 years; mean age: 20.4 years) were included. Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional research ethics committee, which adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, before conducting the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaterials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo investigate the impact of mask color on facial expression recognition, we utilized facial photographs and some necessary equipment, including a laptop (LAPTOP-0SIC31AL) for stimulus presentation and the Super Lab 6 software for conducting psychological experiments. The CMT was administered to efficiently assess participants\u0026rsquo; color vision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFacial photographs were sourced from the Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International Facial Expression Image Database (ATR-Promotions; Kyoto; Japan [RRID: SCR_011102], 2006), featuring images depicting three emotions\u0026mdash;happy, neutral, and sad\u0026mdash; from one male and one female model. Based on Plutchik and Kellerman\u0026rsquo;s\u003csup\u003e31\u003c/sup\u003e emotion model, which identifies eight basic emotions (anger, fear, anticipation, surprise, happiness, sadness, trust, and disgust) with happiness and sadness as opposing poles, we selected happy, neutral, and sad expressions, consistent with prior studies (e.g., Grenville and Dwyer\u003csup\u003e32\u003c/sup\u003e), to examine facial expression recognition under conditions involving mask-wearing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe established two conditions for each emotion: one with a mask and one without. Referring to the work of Sutton and Altarriba\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e regarding the relationship between emotions and colors, we selected four mask colors: white, black, pink, and blue. A total of 30 stimuli, with 15 images per model, were prepared by incorporating these masks into the facial images. The photos, showing the upper head down to the neck, were consistently presented in a rectangular format. Fig 1 illustrates the facial stimuli used in the experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe stimuli were presented individually using Super Lab 6, with each participant randomly exposed to all three emotions under the four mask color conditions. To assess the intensity of emotions, we utilized a visual analog scale (VAS) featuring facial icons inspired by Zaman \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e33\u003c/sup\u003e. The midpoint on the VAS represented a neutral emotion (0), with positive values indicating happiness (+10) and negative values indicating sadness (-10). The scale was presented at a distance of 10 cm from either side of the midpoint. Fig 2 provides an illustration of the VAS used in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted in a quiet room with the experimenter and the participants seated face-to-face. Participants were first given a comprehensive overview of the study, after which their informed consent was obtained. Subsequently, the CMT was administered, followed by a practice session for the emotion judgment tasks before proceeding to the main trial.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eCMT\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CMT involved a set of five cards designed in colors discernible even by individuals with color vision deficiencies. These cards comprised one practice card and four main trial cards that presented a challenge for those with such deficiencies. Each card displayed a cross with five colors arranged either vertically or horizontally, where colors of the same hue were aligned. Participants were first shown the practice card and instructed: \u0026ldquo;Colors such as red, green, and blue are categorized into \u0026lsquo;color families.\u0026rsquo; Here, three colors are aligned vertically or horizontally. Your task is to determine whether the colors of the same family are aligned vertically or horizontally. If uncertain, you can say, \u0026lsquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t know.\u0026rsquo;\u0026rdquo; After understanding the practice task, participants were asked, \u0026ldquo;What about this one?\u0026rdquo; for the practice card, and their responses were recorded. Following the successful comprehension of the practice task, the main trial was conducted four times following the same procedure. Incorrect responses during the main trial were excluded from the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmotion Judgment Task\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA computer was placed in front of each participant, and both practice and main trials were conducted, employing different stimuli for each trial.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePractice Trial.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe practice trial was conducted to familiarize participants with the main trial procedure. Participants were first instructed: \u0026ldquo;We will now display facial photographs one by one on the computer screen, and for each photograph, you will answer two questions.\u0026rdquo; A sample facial photograph was presented on the screen during this instruction. Pointing to the VAS, participants were then guided: \u0026ldquo;Please place a sticker on the location of the scale that corresponds to the intensity of the emotion you believe fits the displayed face on the computer.\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMain Trial. The main trials followed the same procedure as the practice trials. Participants were sequentially presented with individual facial photographs and were asked to assess the emotions conveyed using the VAS. This process was repeated for 30 trials in a randomized sequence. Participants were encouraged to respond instinctively\u0026mdash;without overthinking\u0026mdash;and to operate the computer independently. The distance between the neutral point (0) on the VAS and the center of the sticker was recorded as the participant\u0026rsquo;s response.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eResults\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe VAS scores ranged from -10 to \u0026lt; 0 for sadness and \u0026gt; 0 to +10 for happiness. A two-way repeated measures analysis of variance was performed, with participants\u0026rsquo; evaluations of the gender of the facial images (i.e., male, female) and mask condition (i.e., uncovered, white, black, pink, blue) as within-participant factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor neutral expressions, the interaction was significant [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(4, 88) = 6.27, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .001, \u0026eta;\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .22]. \u0026nbsp;Simple main-effects tests revealed a significant masking effect only for female faces [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(4, 176) = 4.62, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .02, \u0026eta;\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .17]. Multiple comparisons revealed that participants rated the pink mask condition as significantly happier than the uncovered condition [\u003cem\u003et\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(22)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 4.89, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .72].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding happiness, the main effect of gender was significant [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(1, 22) = 45.84, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001, \u0026eta;\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .68], indicating that men were perceived as exhibiting greater happiness than women. The main effect of the masking condition was also significant [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(4, 88) = 5.73, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .001, \u0026eta;\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .21]. Multiple comparisons showed that participants evaluated the uncovered condition as significantly happier than the white [\u003cem\u003et\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(22)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 4.89, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .62], pink [\u003cem\u003et\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(22)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 3.34, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .03, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .58], and the blue [\u003cem\u003et\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(22)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 3.19, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .03, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .56] mask conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor sadness, the main effect of gender was significant [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(1, 22) = 5.74, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .03, \u0026eta;\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .21], indicating that men were perceived as exhibiting stronger sadness than women. The main effect of the masking condition was also significant [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(4, 88) = 5.73, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .001, \u0026eta;\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .21]. Multiple comparisons revealed that participants evaluated the uncovered condition as significantly sadder than the pink mask condition [\u003cem\u003et\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(22)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 5.76, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .78]. The mean values and standard errors for each condition are shown in Fig 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiscussion\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor neutral expressions, the color of the mask influenced emotion perception only when the image depicted a female face. Specifically, wearing a pink mask was associated with a stronger perception of happiness than having the entire face visible. Furthermore, for sadness, the absence of a mask led to a stronger perception of sadness than wearing a pink mask. These findings align with the notion proposed by Meier \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e and Sutton and Altarriba\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e: that bright colors are linked to positive emotions. The impact of mask color on the emotion perception of female faces may be attributed to the social meanings attached to certain colors. As highlighted by Cunningham and Macrae\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e, despite efforts to reduce gender stereotypes, the association between pink and femininity remains strong. While Jonauskaite \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e35\u003c/sup\u003e also highlighted the association of blue with masculinity, they suggested that blue is preferred by both sexes despite pink being generally favored by women. Therefore, while the connection between pink and femininity is well-established, the association between blue and masculinity is not absolute. This could explain why this study only observed differences in emotion perception with the pink mask.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding expressions of happiness, participants perceived happiness strongly when no mask was worn compared to when white, pink, or blue masks were worn. This may be attributed to the varying recognizability of different emotions; for example, sadness or anger are often associated with specific facial features around the eyes, while happiness is often associated with the mouth. When the mouth is concealed, as with masks or scarves, recognizing emotions such as happiness and fear, which rely heavily on mouth expressions, can become challenging\u003csup\u003e36\u0026ndash;39\u003c/sup\u003e. Thus, the visibility of the mouth may have enabled participants to perceive stronger happiness in the facial expressions during this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA significant gender-based effect was observed for both happy and sad expressions, with both happiness and sadness being perceived more strongly in male images. This finding appears to contradict previous studies, where women are seen as exhibiting happiness and sadness more intensely\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e. However, the facial stimuli in this study were provided by trained models who displayed clear and distinctive emotions, therefore making them appropriate for the experimental context involving Japanese participants. Since both male and female models exhibited strong expressions, the tendency to perceive stronger emotions in men\u0026mdash;generally seen as less expressive\u0026mdash;may have led participants to interpret male expressions as being more intense in this study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Experiment 2","content":"\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaterials and Methods\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eTransparency and Openness\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe detail the procedures for determining sample size, data exclusions (if any), manipulations, and measures used in the study, adhering to the Journal Article Reporting Standards for quantitative research in psychology\u003csup\u003e27\u003c/sup\u003e. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 29.0.1 (IBM, 2023). The design and analysis of this study were not pre-registered.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExperiment 2 followed a methodology similar to Experiment 1. Before data collection, a power analysis was conducted using Faul \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e’s\u003csup\u003e28\u003c/sup\u003e G*Power 3 to determine the required sample size, which indicated that 20 participants would be sufficient (α = .05; power = 0.95). The study initially involved 28 Japanese preschoolers (11 boys, 17 girls; age range: 69–78 months; mean age: 72.5 months) from a university-affiliated kindergarten. Six participants who did not correctly complete the CMT and two who failed to understand the instructions were excluded from the analysis. Consequently, the final sample included 20 Japanese preschoolers (6 boys 14 girls; age range: 69–78 months; mean age: 72.8 months). Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional research ethics committee before conducting the study, and permission was secured from the relevant personnel at the institution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaterials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaterials for Experiment 2 were similar to those used in Experiment 1. However, neutral expressions were omitted from the emotion judgment task to accommodate the attention span and time constraints of preschoolers. Instead, the current task focused on two easily discernible emotions: happiness and sadness. Three mask colors were used: white, black, and pink. A total of 16 stimuli were prepared, with eight stimuli per emotion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eProcedure\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted individually in a quiet room, with the experimenter and participant seated facing each other. Initially, a rapport was established, followed by collecting information about the participants’ names, ages, and birthdates. The CMT was administered, and participants who completed it then proceeded to a practice trial. Following this, these individuals participated in the main trial for the emotion judgment task.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmotion Judgment Task\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Experiment 2, a computer was positioned in front of each participant for the emotion judgment task, with instructions to refrain from touching the computer. Both practice and main trials were administered using stimuli from different models.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePractice Trial.The practice trial aimed to familiarize participants with the response procedure for the main trial. Participants received the following instruction: “We will show you faces, so please look carefully.” A facial photograph appeared on the computer screen, and the participants were instructed: “What emotions do you think this person is feeling? How happy or sad do you think they are? Place a sticker on this line where you believe the emotion falls.” While explaining, the experimenter pointed to the VAS on the screen, and participants responded accordingly. This process was repeated in two randomized trials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMain Trial.The main trial followed a procedure similar to the practice trial. Participants were shown individual facial photographs and they used the VAS to indicate the perceived emotion based on the facial expression. This procedure was repeated across 16 randomized trials.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eResults\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVAS scores were calibrated with -10 points for sadness and +10 points for happiness. A two-way within-participant analysis of variance was conducted, with the gender of the facial image (i.e., male, female) and mask condition (i.e., uncovered, white, black, pink) as within-participant factors for each facial expression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor happy expressions, the main effect of gender was significant [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(1, 18) = 9.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .007, η\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .34], indicating that men were perceived to express happiness more strongly than women. Similarly, for sad expressions, the main effect of gender was significant [\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(1, 18) = 8.59, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .009, η\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e= .32], with men displaying more pronounced sadness than women. The mean values and standard errors for each condition are presented in Fig. 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiscussion\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Experiment 2, the results indicated that neither the presence nor the color of masks affected preschoolers’ perception of happy or sad emotions. Furumi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003e reported that recognizing the facial expressions of individuals wearing masks was somewhat more challenging compared to when the entire face was visible. However, preschoolers achieved approximately 95% accuracy, suggesting that the impact of masks on emotion judgment in this age group might be minimal. Given that this study was conducted in November 2022, when the use of masks had become more prevalent due to COVID-19 prevention measures, it is likely that preschoolers had increased exposure to mask-wearing individuals, which may have lessened the impact of masks on their ability to judge emotions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lack of observed differences in emotion perception based on mask color may stem from underdeveloped color-emotion associations in preschoolers. Previous research exploring the connection between colors and emotions among preschoolers has often employed image-based tasks. Burkitt \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e41\u003c/sup\u003e found that children associated preferred colors with positive characters and less-favored colors with negative characters, while a similar study by Burkitt \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e42\u003c/sup\u003e showed that self-drawn pictures yielded comparable results. These studies suggest that young children may link positive emotions with their preferred or familiar colors rather than general color-emotion associations. By contrast, Zentner\u003csup\u003e43\u003c/sup\u003e found that 3- and 4-year-olds associated bright colors with happiness and dark colors with sadness, suggesting that colors and emotions can be conceptually linked even in early childhood. Given these mixed findings, the relationship between color and emotion in preschoolers remains an area requiring further examination. The results of this study suggest that preschoolers may not necessarily link color with emotion, at least in the context of emotion judgment tasks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilar to adults, significant gender-related differences were observed in preschoolers’ perceptions of stimuli. Men exhibited stronger representations of both happiness and sadness. Since women typically show more intense expressions of happiness and sadness\u003csup\u003e44\u003c/sup\u003e, it is plausible that preschoolers, like adults, follow comparable judgment processes in their emotion assessments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\n"},{"header":"General Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to investigate developmental changes in emotion perception related to mask color by comparing preschoolers and adults. The findings revealed no significant effects of mask color on the perception of happiness or sadness found in preschoolers, despite mask-wearing and color influencing emotion perception in adults, particularly for neutral female expressions and happy and sad expressions across genders. Therefore, Hypothesis 1, which predicted that mask color would influence emotion perception in both adults and preschoolers, was supported only for adults. Hypothesis 2 was also supported, which proposed that preschoolers would exhibit a reduced impact of color on emotion perception due to their fewer daily experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe observed impact of mask color on emotion perception in adults may be due to both inherent predispositions and learned associations between color and emotion, as proposed by Elliot \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e. Previous research has demonstrated that background color can influence how facial expressions are interpreted\u003csup\u003e14,45,46\u003c/sup\u003e, and contextual information surrounding emotional states plays a role in how emotions are perceived\u003csup\u003e47,48\u003c/sup\u003e. This repeated integration of situational context into emotion interpretation likely leads to generalized concepts linking bright and dark colors with positive and negative emotions, respectively. While adults develop these concepts through experience, preschoolers may not yet have the same level of contextual understanding, resulting in less developed associations between color and emotion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn adults, the influence of mask colors was observed for neutral female expressions, where wearing a pink mask was associated with a heightened perception of happiness compared to not wearing a mask. Similarly, for sad male and female expressions, wearing a pink mask led to a reduced perception of sadness compared to not wearing a mask. This finding partially supports Hypothesis 3, which predicted that white or pink masks would enhance the perception of happiness, while black masks would intensify the perception of sadness. This finding aligns with previous research suggesting a positive association between bright colors and positive emotions\u003csup\u003e17,19\u003c/sup\u003e. The lack of impact from other colors may be due to associations of white masks with illness\u003csup\u003e49\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, since sadness is often linked with the eyes and happiness with the mouth\u003csup\u003e37–40,44\u003c/sup\u003e, the influence of mask color might be limited to the bright pink associated with happiness, whereas the dark black color (linked to sadness) may not have a similar effect\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study is novel in that it employed an innovative approach using a VAS to assess emotion perception in preschoolers—a method relatively underutilized in emotion studies. Unlike conventional image-based tasks, our approach required participants to identify emotions based on facial images. While previous methods have effectively evaluated basic emotion discrimination, they may not be well-suited for measuring emotional intensity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing scales such as the VAS for emotion measurement necessitates an understanding of and ability to differentiate between emotions such as happiness and sadness. Widen and Russell\u003csup\u003e50\u003c/sup\u003e found that categorizing basic emotions from facial expressions is feasible by age three, with most preschoolers being able to make these distinctions by the age of five. Since all participants in this study were five years or older, they could likely understand and differentiate between emotions. However, while the VAS lines provide visual cues for varying levels of emotional intensity, some preschoolers placed stickers at the extremes of the scale. This suggests that, despite their ability to match expressions with emotions, they might have struggled with understanding nuances in emotional intensity, such as “very happy” versus “a little happy.”\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, while mask color did not influence emotion perception in preschoolers, it did affect adults’ perceptions. Determining when mask color affects emotion perception in development remains a challenge for future research. Additionally, this study focused exclusively on Japanese participants, even though cultural differences are known to affect color impressions and emotion perception. Previous research demonstrates cross-cultural consistency in basic emotions such as happiness and sadness, which are linked to universal facial muscle movements\u003csup\u003e51\u003c/sup\u003e. However, interpretations of these emotions can differ across cultures. For instance, Yuki \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e52\u003c/sup\u003e found that Japanese participants focus predominantly on the eyes, whereas American participants focus on the mouth when interpreting emotions. In cultures such as the United States, where the mouth is emphasized, a similar study might reveal a stronger influence of mask color on emotion recognition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCross-cultural research, such as the study by Hupka \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e53\u003c/sup\u003e, which examined color-emotion associations across five countries, highlights cultural disparities in color perception and emotion associations. Therefore, future research should encompass cross-cultural comparisons to explore how potential cultural differences influence the impact of mask color on emotion perception.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study examined how mask color affects emotion perception in preschoolers and adults. Although color affected emotion judgments for neutral, happy, and sad expressions among adults, preschoolers did not show significant effects based on mask color for recognizing happiness or sadness. The influence of mask color on adults’ perceptions could be due to a combination of innate predispositions and learned color-emotion associations. This study suggests that adults develop these associations through contextual information over time, with a stronger effect for bright colors linked to positive emotions. In contrast, preschoolers may not have established such associations due to limited contextual experience. The study partially supports the hypothesis that pink masks enhance the perception of happiness and reduce the perception of sadness.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the present study reveals important findings, it has several limitations. Yuki \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e52\u003c/sup\u003e found that Americans typically focus on the mouth when interpreting facial expressions, whereas Japanese individuals tend to concentrate on the eyes. Moreover, Furumi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003e observed that Japanese toddlers exhibited higher accuracy in recognizing masked faces compared to similar studies conducted with Italians by Gori \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e54\u003c/sup\u003e and Americans by Ruba and Pollak\u003csup\u003e55\u003c/sup\u003e. This suggests that Japanese individuals may be less affected by masks. Although all participants in both Experiments 1 and 2 of this study were Japanese, which limits the generalizability of the findings, it is noteworthy that the color of masks influenced facial recognition in Japanese adults, a group generally considered less impacted by masks. Additionally, the experimental stimuli used in this study were limited to adult Japanese males and females, further limiting the generalizability. However, considering all participants were Japanese, these stimuli were deemed appropriate for the study. The VAS developed in this study was user-friendly, indicating its potential applicability in future facial recognition research. Future research should aim to enhance the generalizability of the findings by collecting data from Western countries, where mask-wearing is less common and more likely to impact facial recognition than in Japan.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals significant differences in how mask color influences emotion recognition between preschoolers and adults. Among adults, the presence and the color of masks affected emotion recognition, particularly for neutral female expressions and happy and sad expressions in men and women. In contrast, preschoolers showed no significant differences in recognizing happiness or sadness based on mask color, suggesting that the association between color and emotion is not fully developed in early childhood and strengthens with age. Additionally, preschoolers exhibited comparable levels of emotion recognition regardless of whether masks were worn, aligning with Furumi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e’s\u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003e findings that preschoolers can accurately recognize emotions such as happiness, anger, sadness, and surprise in individuals wearing masks, with approximately 90% accuracy. Therefore, concerns about the impact of mask-wearing on emotion recognition in daily interactions with young children may be unwarranted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn adults, the concealment of the mouth by a mask, irrespective of its color, indicates that masks may weaken the perception of happiness. This emotion is significantly associated with mouth cues. Therefore, the difficulty of effectively conveying happiness when wearing a mask should be considered. Furthermore, the study found that adults perceived individuals wearing pink masks as displaying stronger happiness and weaker sadness, even when the facial expressions were sad or neutral. These findings indicate that mask color can significantly influence how emotions are conveyed to others, particularly in contexts such as infectious disease prevention. Overall, this study is significant in elucidating the developmental changes and the connection between the color of worn items (such as masks) and the emotions perceived by others.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Interest statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no conflicts of interest directly relevant to the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWe thank Ms. Misaki Isu for the data collection. We would like to thank Editage (\u003cu\u003ewww.editage.com\u003c/u\u003e) for the English language editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant number: 20K14155).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data have been made publicly available at the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/57vaw/. The analysis code and research materials for this study are available and can be accessed upon reasonable request by emailing the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFF – writing (original draft), writing (review and editing), conceptualization, methodology, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, resources, software, validation, and project administration; YN – writing (review and editing), conceptualization, methodology, and visualization.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHall, J. A., Horgan, T. G. \u0026amp; Murphy, N. A. Nonverbal communication. \u003cem\u003eAnnu. Rev. Psychol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e70\u003c/strong\u003e, 271–294 (2019) (DOI 10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103145) (PubMed: 30256720)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMehrabian, A. Communication without words in (ed. Mortensen, C. 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Children’s emotion inferences from masked faces: implications for social interactions during COVID-19. \u003cem\u003ePLOS One\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e, e0243708 (2020) (DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243708) (PubMed: 33362251)\u003csup\u003e[i]\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[i]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Abbreviations: CMT, Color Mate Test; VAS, visual analog scale.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"facial expression perception, emotion recognition, face mask color, COVID-19, Japanese adults and preschoolers","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6102135/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6102135/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated how mask color affects the perception of facial expressions in Japanese adults and preschoolers. In Experiment 1, Japanese adults rated the intensity of neutral, happy, and sad expressions displayed by men and women wearing white, black, pink, or blue masks and no masks, using a visual analog scale. Experiment 2 focused on preschoolers, employing the same scale to evaluate emotional intensity in response to happy and sad expressions displayed by men and women wearing white, black, or pink masks or no masks. Experiment 1 revealed that pink masks increased perceptions of happiness and decreased perceptions of sadness for neutral female expressions and sad male and female expressions. Masks in colors other than black reduced the perception of happiness compared to no mask. Experiment 2 showed no significant differences in emotional perception among preschoolers based on the mask's presence or color. These findings suggest that mask color affects emotion recognition in adults, particularly in diminishing the perception of happiness, regardless of color. Although Japanese individuals typically emphasize the eyes in facial recognition, this study highlights the importance of mask color in emotion interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Influence of mask color on facial expression recognition in Japanese adults and preschoolers","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-06 06:37:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6102135/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d106ffb9-9685-4712-b691-b9051ef355be","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":45168202,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":45168203,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology/Human behaviour"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-24T06:23:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-06 06:37:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6102135","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6102135","identity":"rs-6102135","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}