The role of prenatal maternal sex steroid hormones in weight and adiposity at birth and growth trajectories during infancy

The role of prenatal maternal sex steroid hormones in weight and adiposity at birth and growth trajectories during infancy | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The role of prenatal maternal sex steroid hormones in weight and adiposity at birth and growth trajectories during infancy Ying Meng, Loralei Thornburg, Caitlin Dreisbach, Charlotte Orzolek, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4178000/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Mar, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal of Obesity → Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective : Intrauterine factors can impact fetal and child growth and may underlie the developmental origins of childhood obesity. Sex steroid hormone exposure during pregnancy is a plausible target because of the impact on placental vascularization, nutrient transportation, bone growth, adipogenesis, and epigenetic modifications. In this study we assessed maternal sex steroid hormones in each trimester in relation to birthweight, neonatal adiposity, and infant growth trajectories, and evaluate sensitive windows of development. Methods : Participants from a prospective pregnancy cohort who delivered at term were included in the analysis (n=252). Estrone, estradiol, and estriol, as well as total and free testosterone throughout gestation were assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Path analyses were used to assess the direct associations of sex steroid hormones in each trimester with birth outcomes and infant growth trajectories (birth to 12 months) adjusting for covariates and considering moderation by sex. Results : The associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and fetal/infant growth varied by sex and hormone assessment timing. First trimester estrone were associated with higher birthweight z-scores (β=0.37, 95%CI: 0.02, 0.73) and truncal skinfold thickness (TST) at birth (β=0.94, 95%CI: 0.34, 1.54) in female infants. Third trimester total testosterone was associated with higher TST at birth (β=0.61, 95%CI: 0.02, 1.21) in male infants. First trimester estrone/estradiol and first and third trimesters testosterone were associated with lower probabilities of high stable weight trajectory compared to low stable weight trajectory (Estrone: β=-3.87, 95%CI: -6.59, -1.16; First trimester testosterone: β=-3.53, 95%CI: -6.63, -0.43; Third trimester testosterone: β=-3.67, 95%CI: -6.66, -0.69) during infancy in male infants. Conclusions : We observed associations between prenatal sex steroid hormone exposure and birthweight, neonatal adiposity and infant growth that were sex and gestational timing dependent. Our findings suggest further investigation on additional mechanisms linking prenatal sex steroid exposure and fetal/postnatal growth is needed. Health sciences/Endocrinology/Endocrine system and metabolic diseases/Obesity Health sciences/Health care/Paediatrics Health sciences/Risk factors testosterone estrogen weight trajectory adiposity trajectory infants Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions, affecting nearly one in five youths in the United States ( 1 ). The risk of childhood obesity is evident in early infancy, as both high and low birthweight as well as rapid weight gain during infancy have been consistently linked to childhood obesity ( 2 – 4 ). Emerging evidence has suggested that prenatal factors, including gestational weight gain, gestational diabetes, and smoking during pregnancy play a role in the development of childhood obesity ( 5 , 6 ). The underlying mechanism may involve fetal programming, whereby physiological and metabolic set points are modulated by the intrauterine milieu, affecting fetal growth and obesity susceptibility ( 7 ). Therefore, identification of intrauterine factors linked to birthweight and infant growth trajectories is critical to understand the early developmental origins of childhood obesity. Sex steroid hormones are potential key intrauterine factors that modify fetal growth and obesity susceptibility. Sex steroid hormones regulate a wide range of maternal and fetal functions ( 8 , 9 ), including placental vascularization, endometrial and placental nutrient transporter expression, and epigenetic modification of fetal tissues ( 9 – 12 ). Additionally, estrogens and testosterone can induce cell proliferation, particularly in bone and adipocytes, and thus potentially contribute to offspring growth and adiposity in utero as well as postnatally ( 13 – 15 ). Therefore, early life exposure to sex steroid hormones may contribute to the intrauterine origins of childhood obesity. The majority of studies assessing sex steroids and birthweight have focused on estriol (E3) due to its widespread availability as part of prenatal screening test, reporting positive associations ( 16 – 18 ). However, fewer studies have examined the relationship between other sex steroid hormones and birthweight and results have been controversial ( 19 – 25 ). Also, the majority of previous studies assessed prenatal sex steroid hormones at a single time point, most often mid-late pregnancy ( 16 , 18 , 19 , 25 ). Recognizing that variations in fetal growth originates in early pregnancy, repeated assessment of sex steroids across pregnancy may be suitable to identify critical periods during which fetal growth is most sensitive to endocrine activity. Whether associations persist beyond birth into infancy remains an open question as well ( 16 , 25 , 26 ). In this study, we leveraged clinical data and biospecimens from a pregnancy cohort to assess maternal sex steroid concentrations (estrone, estradiol, E3, total testosterone, and free testosterone) in each trimester in relation to birthweight, neonatal adiposity, and infant weight and adiposity growth trajectories through the age of 12 months. Additionally, we evaluated moderation by infant sex in light of prior evidence indicating sex differences in fetal growth, placental function and adipose tissue biology ( 27 , 28 ). Methods Study Overview This study analyzed data from a prospective pregnancy cohort, the Understanding Pregnancy Signals and Infant Development (UPSIDE) study, which is part of the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program ( 29 ). The UPSIDE study recruited pregnant people (n = 326) in their first trimester from 2015 to 2019 through University of Rochester Medical Center (Rochester, NY, USA) affiliated obstetric clinics. Eligibility criteria for the current study included: ( 1 ) available serum sex steroid hormone data in all trimesters, ( 2 ) infants born at term (gestational age ≥ 37 weeks) to assess associations in low-risk population, ( 3 ) available data on birth and/or infant growth outcomes. There were 252 mother-child dyads included in the final analyses (Supplementary Fig. 1). The UPSIDE study was approved by the institutional review boards at the University of Rochester and Rutgers University. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Sex Steroid Hormone Assays Blood was collected during study visits in each trimester (1st trimester: 12.2 ± 1.3 weeks; 2nd trimester: 21.2 ± 1.8 weeks; 3rd trimester: 31.4 ± 2.0 weeks). The detail of sex steroid assessment was described in our previous study ( 30 ). Briefly, sex steroid hormones from serum samples were quantified using validated liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods at the Endocrine and Metabolic Research Laboratory at the Lundquist Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center. Total testosterone (TT) was measured using a Shimadzu HPLC system (Columbia, MD) and an Applied Biosystems API5500 LC–MS/MS (Foster City, CA) equipped with a Turbo-Ion-Spray source with positive mode. Equilibrium dialysis using labeled testosterone was used to quantify free testosterone (fT). The Shimadzu HPLC system (Columbia, MD) and a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (API5000 LC–MS/MS, Foster City, CA) were used to measure estrogens. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was 50 pg/mL for E3. \(\text{L}\text{O}\text{Q}/\sqrt{2}\) was used to replace E3 values less than \(\text{L}\text{O}\text{Q}/\sqrt{2}\) or missing (n = 54) in the 1st trimester. Birth and Infant Growth Outcomes We considered four outcomes: ( 1 ) birthweight, ( 2 ) newborn truncal skinfold thickness (TST [as a surrogate of adiposity]), ( 3 ) growth trajectories for weight-for-age percentile, and ( 4 ) TST trajectories from birth to 12 months of age. Birthweights were abstracted from medical records and converted to standardized (Z) scores adjusting for gestational age and infant sex according to Fenton growth standards ( 31 ). At 1, 6, and 12 months, infant weight was measured using a Seca Infant Scale. Age- and sex-specific infant weight-for-age percentile was calculated following the WHO growth standards ( 32 ). Subscapular and suprailiac skinfold thicknesses (mm) were measured twice by trained study coordinators with Holtain calipers following the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey protocols at each visit. A third measure was obtained if the difference between the first two measures was more than 1.0 mm or either of the two measures was out of reference ranges. For each anatomic site, skinfold thickness was calculated as the average value of the two closest measures. TST, a proxy for central fat mass, was calculated by taking the average of subscapular and suprailiac skinfold thickness ( 33 , 34 ). Covariates Maternal and infant factors previously determined to be associated with sex steroid concentrations and/or birth outcomes were selected a priori as covariates ( 35 , 36 ). Maternal factors included age, race/ethnicity, education, parity, gestational age at the time of blood sample collection, early-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), smoking, and pregnancy complications (i.e., gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, and gestational diabetes). Infant factors included gestational age at birth and sex. Detail categories of covariates are described in the supplementary materials. Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics were calculated for all variables. Sex steroid hormones were log-transformed. Group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) was used to identify growth trajectories for weight-for-age (WFA) percentile and TST measured from birth to 12 months of age (birth, 1, 6, 12 months) ( 37 ). Individuals with 2 or more measures at the study visits were included in the identification of growth trajectories. Trajectories were selected based on Bayesian information criterion (BIC). To identify potential sensitive windows when prenatal sex steroid hormones may impact fetal/infant growth, path analysis was conducted to simultaneously assess individual sex steroids at all trimesters and their independent associations with birth and infant growth outcomes using structural equation modeling adjusting for covariates (Supplementary Fig. 2). Bias-corrected bootstrap methods were used to estimate the confidence interval for the direct effect of individual sex steroids in each trimester in the path analysis. Additionally, due to prior evidence indicating sex differences in fetal growth, we examined the modification effects of infant sex by including interactions between infant sex and individual sex steroid concentrations in each trimester using linear regression models for birth outcomes and multinomial logistic regression models for infant growth trajectories. To understand the effect of birth outcomes on the relationship between prenatal sex steroids and postnatal growth, we fitted the multinomial logistic regression models with and without birth size as a covariate. All analyses were conducted using STATA 18.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX, USA). Results Characteristics of the Study Cohort The majority of the mothers were Caucasian (62.7%), overweight/obesity in early pregnancy (63.6%), and had education beyond high school (67.5%) (Table 1 ). Maternal serum estrogen levels (p < 0.001), but not testosterone levels (TT: p = 0.48; fT: p = 0.09), increased during pregnancy. Four growth trajectories were identified for WFA percentiles: ( 1 ) low stable WFA percentiles (W1: 26.7%); ( 2 ) declining WFA percentiles in early infancy (W2: 22.7%); ( 3 ) accelerating WFA percentiles (W3: 22.4%); and ( 4 ) high stable WFA percentiles (W4: 28.2%) (Fig. 1 A). Four growth trajectories were also identified for TST: ( 1 ) low stable TST (T1: 38.9%); ( 2 ) moderate stable TST (T2: 44.9%); ( 3 ) accelerating TST through 6 months followed by decelerating TST (T3: 11.3%); and ( 4 ) high TST that steadily increased through 12 months of age (T4: 4.9%) (Fig. 1 B). The correlation between WFA and TST trajectories was relatively weak (Spearman’s ρ = 0.29, p < 0.01) Table 1 Characteristics of UPSIDE mother-infant dyads in this study Variable a All Participants (n = 252) Mothers Age (years) 29.3 ± 4.4 Race/Ethnicity White, Non-Hispanic 158 (62.7%) Black, Non-Hispanic 54 (21.4%) Hispanic 21 (8.3%) Others 19 (7.5%) Nulliparous 84 (33.3%) High school or less education 82 (32.5%) Smoking during pregnancy 17 (6.8%) Gestational hypertension or preeclampsia 30 (11.9%) Gestational diabetes 14 (5.6%) Early-pregnancy BMI Normal/underweight 117 (46.4%) Overweight 62 (24.6%) Obesity 73 (29.0%) Trimester 1 E1 (pg/mL) 1152.4 ± 900.5 E2 (pg/mL) 1853.9 ± 1017.1 E3 (pg/mL) 291.3 ± 260.3 TT (ng/dL) 69.1 ± 44.6 fT (ng/dL) 0.4 ± 0.3 Trimester 2 E1 (pg/mL) 4255.6 ± 2987.7 E2 (pg/mL) 6539.7 ± 3021.5 E3 (pg/mL) 3247.4 ± 1337.1 TT (ng/dL) 77.4 ± 53.6 fT (ng/dL) 0.4 ± 0.3 Trimester 3 E1 (pg/mL) 6664.7 ± 4492.2 E2 (pg/mL) 11868.0 ± 4756.9 E3 (pg/mL) 7026.4 ± 3147.2 TT (ng/dL) 75.6 ± 55.3 fT (ng/dL) 0.4 ± 0.3 Infants Gestational age (weeks) 39.7 ± 1.1 Female 126 (50%) Birthweight (g) 3422 ± 472 WFA percentile at birth 48.3 ± 26.7 WFA percentile at 1 month (n = 199) 46.0 ± 28.7 WFA percentile at 6 months (n = 193) 46.4 ± 29.1 WFA percentile at 12 months (n = 168) 53.6 ± 29.4 TST (mm) at birth (n = 234) 4.4 ± 1.3 TST (mm) at 1 month (n = 202) 5.9 ± 1.5 TST (mm) at 6 months (n = 189) 7.0 ± 1.8 TST (mm) at 12 months (n = 161) 6.9 ± 1.6 Note. a Continuous variables are summarized using mean and standard deviation; Categorical variables are summarized using count and percentage. E1, estrone; E2, estradiol; E3, estiol; TT, total testosterone; fT, free testosterone; WFA, weight for age; TST, truncal skinfold thickness. Associations of Prenatal Sex Steroid Hormones with Birth Size Birthweight z-scores . Direct associations between individual sex steroid hormones in each trimester and birth outcomes were estimated using path analysis (Table 2 ). E3 levels in the 3rd trimester were directly associated with higher birthweight z-scores in the full cohort (β = 0.53, 95% CI: 0.23, 0.78) and in both sexes. Sex differences were evident in the associations between other sex steroid hormones and birthweight (Fig. 2 A and Table 2 ). In female infants, higher E1 concentrations in the 1st trimester were associated with greater birthweight z-scores (E1: β = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.73) whereas associations in males were non-significant. In male infants, fT levels in the 2nd trimester were positively associated with birthweight z-scores (β = 0.32, 95% CI: 0.005, 0.64), whereas the association was reversed in the 3rd trimester (β= -0.31, 95% CI: -0.61, -0.02). Associations between TT and birthweight z-scores were similar, but weaker and non-significant (Table 2 ). Table 2 Associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and birthweight and central adiposity in total samples and by infant sex. Total Male Female Birthweight (z scores) Truncal skinfold thickness (mm) Birthweight (z scores) Truncal skinfold thickness (mm) Birthweight (z scores) Truncal skinfold thickness (mm) Β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI β 95% CI* β 95% CI Estrone Trimester 1 0.24 -0.03, 0.52 0.32 -0.10, 0.86 -0.05 -0.39, 0.30 -0.39* -0.99, 0.21 0.37 0.02, 0.73 0.94* 0.34, 1.54 Trimester 2 -0.10 -0.52, 0.22 -0.15 -0.78, 0.40 -0.003 -0.44, 0.43 0.08 -0.65, 0.81 -0.12 -0.60, 0.36 -0.48 -1.29, 0.34 Trimester 3 -0.10 -0.43, 0.27 -0.09 -0.62, 0.42 -0.21 -0.65, 0.23 0.13 -0.62, 0.88 0.04 -0.40, 0.48 -0.22 -0.97, 0.54 Estradiol Trimester 1 0.11 -0.28, 0.47 0.11 -0.46, 0.74 -0.27* -0.73, 0.19 -0.80* -1.57, -0.04 0.34* -0.09, 0.77 0.79* 0.07, 1.51 Trimester 2 -0.11 -0.72, 0.45 0.22 -0.63, 1.03 0.002 -0.65, 0.65 0.33 -0.74, 1.40 -0.22 -0.89, 0.45 0.05 -1.09, 1.19 Trimester 3 0.26 -0.17, 0.70 -0.18 -1.08, 0.63 0.20 -0.39, 0.79 0.30 -0.73, 1.34 0.54 -0.09, 1.18 -0.32 -1.40, 0.75 Estriol Trimester 1 0.004 -0.11, 0.12 -0.22 -0.40, -0.03 -0.06 -0.20, 0.09 -0.22 -0.47, 0.02 0.09 -0.06, 0.24 -0.19 -0.44, 0.06 Trimester 2 -0.16 -0.49, 0.16 0.42 -0.16, 0.98 -0.31 -0.73, 0.12 0.04 -0.69, 0.77 -0.06 -0.42, 0.29 0.70 0.09, 1.32 Trimester 3 0.53 0.23, 0.78 0.06 -0.63, 0.50 0.48 0.14, 0.82 0.09 -0.55, 0.74 0.63 0.20, 1.05 -0.25 -0.99, 0.49 Total testosterone Trimester 1 0.13 -0.17, 0.40 0.12 -0.29, 0.56 -0.003 -0.40, 0.39 -0.10 -0.76, 0.55 0.27 -0.13, 0.67 0.33 -0.34, 0.99 Trimester 2 -0.03 -0.37, 0.28 -0.36 -0.80, 0.04 0.19 -0.21, 0.59 -0.36 -1.01, 0.29 -0.30 -0.74, 0.14 -0.33 -1.14, 0.49 Trimester 3 -0.09 -0.34, 0.22 0.47 0.03, 0.86 -0.22 -0.57, 0.14 0.61 0.02, 1.21 0.09 -0.31, 0.48 0.31 -0.39, 1.01 Free testosterone Trimester 1 0.06 -0.19, 0.28 0.11 -0.27, 0.46 0.06 -0.25, 0.37 0.04 -0.48, 0.56 0.07 -0.26, 0.40 0.25 -0.30, 0.80 Trimester 2 0.09 -0.16, 0.31 -0.34 -0.72, 0.03 0.32* 0.005, 0.64 -0.08 -0.60, 0.45 -0.20* -0.55, 0.15 -0.75 -1.39, -0.10 Trimester 3 -0.07 -0.30, 0.18 0.45 0.09, 0.87 -0.31* -0.61, -0.02 0.29 -0.23, 0.81 0.20* -0.11, 0.51 0.67 0.13, 1.20 Note. The sample size for birthweight was 252 and the sample size for truncal skinfold thickness was 234. Direct associations of individual sex steroid hormones at each trimester were estimated using path analysis in the total samples and linear regression models for sex differences. Sex steroid hormones were log transformed. Model was adjusted for gestational age of blood draw, maternal age, race/ethnicity, parity, early-pregnancy BMI, gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, education, smoking during pregnancy, infant sex and gestational age. * indicates interaction with infant sex significant at p < 0.05. TST at birth . TST was considered a proxy for central adiposity. The patterns of associations for TST at birth were relatively different from those for birthweight. E3 in the 1st trimester was inversely associated with TST (mm) at birth (β= -0.22, 95% CI: -0.40, -0.03), a trend that was consistent in male and female infants. Again, sex differences were evident in the associations between other estrogens and TST at birth (Fig. 2 B and Table 2 ). In the 1st trimester, higher E1 and E2 levels were associated with greater TST in female infants (E1: β = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.34, 1.54; E2: β = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.07, 1.51), whereas in male infants, 1st trimester E2 was associated with lower TST (β= -0.80, 95% CI: -1.57, -0.04). In the 2nd trimester, E3 was positively associated with TST in female (β = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.09, 1.32), but not male, infants. Additionally, in the full cohort TT and fT in the 2nd trimester showed a trend towards inverse associations with TST at birth (TT: β= -0.36, 95% CI: -0.80, 0.04; fT: β= -0.34, 95% CI: -0.72, 0.03), but these associations were reversed in the 3rd trimester (TT: β = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.86; fT: β = 0.45, 95% CI: 0.09, 0.87). Associations between testosterone and TST at birth tended to be similar among male and female infants. Associations of Prenatal Sex Steroid Hormones with Infant Growth Trajectories Infant WFA trajectories . Using the low stable WFA trajectory (W1) as the referent, 3rd trimester E3 was associated with higher probability (β = 2.10, 95% CI: 0.18, 3.27) of membership in the declining WFA trajectory (W2, Table 3 ). This association was stronger in male infants (Supplementary Table 1). Numerous sex differences were evident in the associations between other sex steroid hormones and WFA trajectories (Supplementary Table 1). In male infants, 1st trimester E1 and E2 were associated with lower probability of the declining WFA trajectory (W2: E1: β= -2.18, 95% CI: -3.85, -0.50; E2: β= -2.57, 95% CI: -4.78, -0.36) and the high stable WFA trajectory (W4: E1: β= -1.50, 95% CI: -2.99, -0.01; E2: β= -2.30, 95% CI: -4.32, -0.29). These associations tended to be reversed and non-significant in female infants. Similarly, the associations of testosterone with WFA trajectories were in opposite directions in male and female infants. In male infants, 2nd trimester TT and fT were associated with higher probability of the declining WFA and high stable WFA trajectories (W2 and W4), while 3rd trimester TT and fT were associated with lower probability of the accelerating WFA and high stable WFA trajectories (W3 and W4). These associations were again reversed in female infants. Finally, 1st trimester TT was associated with higher probability of the high stable WFA trajectory (W4) in female infants (β = 2.17, 95% CI: 0.26, 4.09). Table 3 The direct association of sex steroid hormone at each trimester and weight-for-age and central adiposity growth patterns during infancy. Weight-for-age percentile trajectories (n = 218) β, 95% CI a Truncal skinfold thickness trajectories (n = 215) β, 95% CI a W1 Low stable W2 Declining W3 Accelerating W4 High stable T1 Low stable T2 Moderate stable T3 Accelerating-decelerating Estrone Trimester 1 Ref -0.43 (-1.87, 0.97) 0.67 (-1.04, 1.82) -0.44 (-1.75, 0.87) Ref 0.05 (-1.09, 0.97) 1.52 (-1.20, 6.14) Trimester 2 0.70 (-1.14, 2.35) -0.73 (-2.47, 1.09) 1.10 (-0.86, 2.79) 0.96 (-0.30, 2.22) -2.58 (-6.71, 1.20) Trimester 3 -0.13 (-1.77, 1.30) 0.55 (-0.94, 2.04) -0.74 (-2.25, 1.07) -1.16 (-2.40, 0.06) 2.19 (-4.42, 5.01) Estradiol Trimester 1 Ref -0.48 (-2.33, 1.17) -0.32 (-2.12, 1.42) -0.83 (-2.51, 1.08) Ref 0.13 (-1.28, 1.32) 1.15 (-2.68, 5.19) Trimester 2 0.59 (-2.30, 3.31) -0.61 (-3.21, 2.26) 1.38 (-1.36, 4.51) 1.35 (-0.47, 3.41) -1.83 (-6.23, 5.68) Trimester 3 1.31 (-1.23, 3.58) 1.94 (-0.97, 3.62) 0.04 (-2.71, 2.24) -0.90 (-2.80, 0.80) 0.86 (-3.01, 4.53) Estriol Trimester 1 Ref 0.12 (-0.58, 0.60) -0.12 (-0.70, 0.55) 0.03 (-0.59, 0.64) Ref -0.13 (-0.55, 0.28) -0.66 (-1.75, 0.74) Trimester 2 0.35 (-1.29, 2.05) -0.35 (-1.93, 1.57) 0.39 (-1.18, 2.23) 1.67 (0.33, 2.82) 0.40 (-1.87, 2.98) Trimester 3 2.10 (0.18, 3.27) 0.82 (-0.84, 2.12) 1.09 (-0.74, 2.40) -0.41 (-1.50, 0.66) -0.35 (-2.48, 3.27) Total testosterone Trimester 1 Ref 0.03 (-1.59, 1.53) -0.09 (-1.99, 1.44) 0.44 (-1.20, 1.81) Ref -0.79 (-1.85, 0.26) -0.90 (-3.94, 4.20) Trimester 2 0.56 (-0.95, 2.73) 0.40 (-1.27, 2.46) 0.04 (-1.49, 1.83) 0.13 (-1.27, 1.34) 0.15 (-3.42, 4.54) Trimester 3 -0.93 (-2.08, 0.54) -0.26 (-1.62, 1.20) -0.78 (-1.97, 0.66) 0.57 (-0.43, 1.68) 0.28 (-2.80, 2.31) Free testosterone Trimester 1 Ref -0.25 (-1.47, 0.82) -0.08 (-1.45, 1.30) -0.01 (-1.29, 1.15) Ref -0.46 (-1.35, 0.37) 0.07 (-3.42, 2.38) Trimester 2 0.34 (-0.78, 1.64) 0.35 (-1.02, 1.58) 0.11 (-0.94, 1.32) -0.20 (-1.07, 0.67) -0.02 (-2.31, 3.52) Trimester 3 -0.42 (-1.50, 0.85) -0.21 (-1.21, 1.02) -0.24 (-1.30, 0.87) 0.31 (-0.47, 1.20) -0.47(-2.59, 2.08) Note. Path analysis was used to estimate direct association. Sex steroid hormones were log transformed. Model was adjusted for gestational age of blood draw, maternal age, race/ethnicity, parity, early-pregnancy BMI, gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, education, smoking during pregnancy, infant sex and gestational age. a bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval. The associations between sex steroid hormones and T4 for truncal skinfold thickness were not estimated due to limited sample size. Infant TST trajectories . Few associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and infant TST trajectories were observed. Using the low stable TST trajectory (T1) as the referent, 2nd trimester E3 was associated with higher probability of the moderate stable TST trajectory (T2) (β = 1.67, 95% CI: 0.33, 2.82) (Table 3 ). This association was consistent in both male and female infants (Supplementary Table 1). Sex differences were not evident in the associations between sex steroid hormones and TST trajectories (Supplementary Table 1). Of note, the comparisons of sex steroid hormones between the high accelerating TST trajectory (T4) and the low stable TST trajectory (T1) were not estimated due to limited number of infants with the high accelerating TST trajectory (T4). Associations of Prenatal Sex Steroid Hormones with Infant Growth Trajectories Adjusting for Birth Size To evaluate the associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and postnatal growth beyond birthweight and adiposity at birth, we refitted models with additional adjustment for birth anthropometrical measures. Birthweight was associated with the WFA trajectories (p < 0.001), and TST at birth was also associated with the TST trajectories (p ≤ 0.001). Overall, when including birthweight, models had the same directions of associations between sex steroid hormones and WFA trajectories, however the magnitude of associations tended to be enhanced in male infants and attenuated magnitude in female infants compared to models without adjustment of birthweight (Table 4 ). Particularly, in male infants, the associations of 1st trimester TT and fT with lower probability of the declining WFA trajectory (W2; TT: β= -3.64, 95% CI: -6.70, -0.58; fT: β= -2.56, 95% CI: -4.96, -0.16) and the high stable WFA trajectory (W4: TT: β= -3.53, 95% CI: -6.63, -0.43; fT: β= -2.47, 95% CI: -4.85, -0.10) were strengthened. Also, 2nd trimester TT was associated with increased probability of the accelerating WFA trajectory (W3; β = 2.89, 95% CI: 0.03, 5.76). In female infants the associations of TT and fT with the high stable WFA trajectory (W4) were attenuated when birthweight was included in the model. Table 4 The direct association of sex steroid hormone at each trimester and weight-for-age and central adiposity growth patterns by infant sex adjusting for birth outcomes. Weight-for-age percentile trajectories (n = 218) β, 95% CI a Truncal skinfold thickness trajectories (n = 215) β, 95% CI a W1 Low stable W2 Declining W3 Accelerating W4 High stable T1 Low stable T2 Moderate stable T3 Accelerating-decelerating Male Estrone Trimester 1 Ref -4.00* (-6.82, -1.17) 0.26 (-1.39, 1.91) -3.87 (-6.59, -1.16) Ref -0.01 (-1.16, 1.14) 0.70 (-1.70, 3.09) Trimester 2 1.79 (-1.82, 5.40) -0.92 (-3.05, 1.20) 1.87 (-1.70, 5.43) 0.70 (-0.81, 2.22) -2.53 (-5.94, 0.89) Trimester 3 1.20 (-2.42, 4.82) 1.05 (-1.02, 3.11) -0.09 (-3.71, 3.54) -1.32 (-2.80, 0.15) 2.32 (-0.51, 5.15) Estradiol Trimester 1 Ref -3.23* (-6.35, -0.10) -0.28 (-2.24, 1.69) -4.36* (-7.62, -1.11) Ref 0.20 (-1.33, 1.74) 1.27 (-1.72, 4.25) Trimester 2 0.43 (-4.39, 5.25) -1.97 (-5.32, 1.39) 1.42 (-3.52, 6.36) 1.13 (-1.12, 3.38) -3.64 (-8.40, 1.13) Trimester 3 4.03 (-0.40, 8.45) 2.72 (-0.36, 5.80) 0.98 (-3.57, 5.53) -1.25 (-3.31, 0.82) 2.44 (-1.97, 6.85) Estriol Trimester 1 Ref -0.45 (-1.44, 0.54) -0.17 (-0.85, 0.51) -0.88* (-1.89, 0.14) Ref -0.17 (-0.65, 0.30) -0.29 (-1.31, 0.72) Trimester 2 0.58 (-2.63, 3.78) -1.18 (-3.36, 0.99) 2.23 (-1.03, 5.48) 1.42 (-0.15, 2.99) -1.21 (-4.10, 1.68) Trimester 3 3.93* (0.99, 6.88) 1.03 (-0.72, 2.78) 1.22 (-1.47, 3.91) -0.53 (-1.87, 0.82) -1.32 (-4.11, 1.47) Total testosterone Trimester 1 Ref -3.64* (-6.70, -0.58) -0.51 (-2.68, 1.65) -3.53* (-6.63, -0.43) Ref -0.65 (-2.01, 0.71) -0.38 (-2.89, 2.14) Trimester 2 4.48* (0.55, 8.41) 2.89 (0.03, 5.76) 3.72* (-0.22, 7.66) 0.55 (-1.05, 2.14) -1.76* (-5.49, 1.97) Trimester 3 -2.80 (-5.80, 0.19) -2.69* (-4.69, -0.69) -3.67* (-6.66, -0.69) -0.06 (-1.35, 1.24) 0.50 (-2.08, 3.07) Free testosterone Trimester 1 Ref -2.56 (-4.96, -0.16) 0.16 (-1.41, 1.73) -2.47 (-4.85, -0.10) Ref -0.51 (-1.57, 0.56) -0.06 (-1.83, 1.72) Trimester 2 1.68 (-0.96, 4.31) 1.62 (-0.45, 3.68) 1.86* (-0.82, 4.54) 0.06 (-1.11, 1.24) -0.71 (-3.13, 1.70) Trimester 3 -1.21 (-3.35, 0.93) -1.72* (-3.32, -0.12) -2.79* (-5.02, -0.56) 0.19 (-0.87, 1.25) -0.34 (-2.81, 2.13) Female Estrone Trimester 1 Ref 0.93* (-1.34, 3.20) 1.24 (-0.74, 3.22) -0.75 (-3.26, 1.75) Ref -0.04 (-1.31, 1.23) 2.55 (-0.64, 5.74) Trimester 2 0.77 (-1.58, 3.12) -0.003 (-2.12, 2.11) 2.53 (-0.11, 5.16) 1.03 (-0.59, 2.65) -3.12 (-7.61, 1.36) Trimester 3 -1.84 (-4.46, 0.78) -0.73 (-2.95, 1.49) -2.15 (-5.12, 0.81) -0.80 (-2.39, 0.79) 3.67 (-0.58, 7.92) Estradiol Trimester 1 Ref 1.75* (-0.86, 4.37) -1.01 (-3.38, 1.36) -0.23* (-3.00, 2.55) Ref 0.85 (-0.67, 2.36) 1.54 (-1.72, 4.79) Trimester 2 -1.22 (-4.79, 2.35) 1.33 (-1.75, 4.41) 1.79 (-2.19, 5.77) 1.17 (-1.14, 3.49) -2.18 (-7.05, 2.69) Trimester 3 -0.39 (-3.95, 3.18) 1.92 (-1.25, 5.08) -2.15 (-6.05, 1.75) -1.67 (-3.91, 0.56) 1.46 (-2.64, 5.56) Estriol Trimester 1 Ref 0.70 (-0.17, 1.58) -0.03 (-0.76, 0.69) 0.77* (-0.18, 1.72) Ref 0.12 (-0.39, 0.62) -0.50 (-1.45, 0.46) Trimester 2 1.64 (-0.33, 3.61) 0.47 (-1.10, 2.03) 1.55 (-0.61, 3.72) 1.22 (-0.20, 2.64) 1.29 (-1.61, 4.19) Trimester 3 -0.11* (-2.53, 2.31) 0.49 (-1.57, 2.54) -0.89 (-3.53, 1.74) -0.40 (-1.94, 1.14) 0.58 (-2.32, 3.48) Total testosterone Trimester 1 Ref 0.50* (-1.60, 2.61) -0.74 (-2.63, 1.15) 1.53* (-1.12, 4.19) Ref -1.10 (-2.48, 0.29) -3.76 (-6.91, -0.61) Trimester 2 -1.80* (-4.45, 0.84) -0.96 (-3.59, 1.66) -3.11* (-6.53, 0.32) 0.62 (-1.15, 2.39) 4.88* (0.54, 9.23) Trimester 3 0.12 (-1.87, 2.11) 1.09* (-0.97, 3.16) 1.54* (-1.03, 4.10) -0.05 (-1.43, 1.34) -0.47 (-3.46, 2.53) Free testosterone Trimester 1 Ref -0.64 (-2.34, 1.05) -1.15 (-2.76, 0.46) -0.05 (-1.99, 1.88) Ref -0.52 (-1.69, 0.65) -0.91 (-3.51, 1.70) Trimester 2 -1.29 (-3.27, 0.68) -0.34 (-2.08, 1.41) -2.08* (-4.48, 0.31) -0.11 (-1.45, 1.22) 2.26 (-0.79, 5.32) Trimester 3 0.22 (-1.51, 1.96) 0.70* (-0.98, 2.39) 1.39* (-0.63, 3.41) -0.42 (-1.51, 0.67) -1.27 (-3.40, 0.85) Note. Path analysis was used to estimate direct association. Sex steroid hormones were log transformed. Model was adjusted for gestational age of blood draw, maternal age, race/ethnicity, parity, early-pregnancy BMI, gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, education, smoking during pregnancy, infant sex and gestational age. a bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval. The associations between sex steroid hormones and T4 for truncal skinfold thickness were not estimated due to limited sample size. * indicates interaction with infant sex significant at p < 0.05. The comparisons of sex steroid hormones between TST T4 and T1 patterns were not estimated due to limited number of infants with T4 pattern. When including TST at birth, the associations of 2nd trimester E3 with the moderate stable TST trajectory (T2) were attenuated in both male and female infants. But, in female infants, 1st trimester TT was associated with lower probability of the accelerating and decelerating TST trajectory (T3; β= -3.76, 95% CI: -6.91, -0.61), while the relationship was reversed in the 2nd trimester (β = 4.88, 95% CI: 0.54, 9.23). Discussion To date, this study is the most comprehensive evaluation of the associations between prenatal maternal sex steroid hormones and fetal/infant growth with 4 major sex steroid hormones measured in all trimesters and 4 timepoints of infant anthropometric assessments. Our findings reveal the complex interplay between prenatal sex steroid hormones, birth size, and postnatal growth, with implications for understanding the developmental origins of childhood obesity. Notably, the associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and both birth size and postnatal growth were found to vary by the specific individual sex steroids and the timing of pregnancy. Furthermore, the study uncovered significant sex differences in these associations, suggesting potential underlying mechanisms that may differ between male and female infants. Importantly, the observed associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and postnatal weight and adiposity growth were beyond birth size, underscoring the unique role of prenatal sex steroids in shaping later childhood growth. Specifically for birth size, our finding of the positive association between 3rd trimester E3 and birthweight aligned with prior findings ( 16 , 17 , 19 – 21 ). However, limited research has explored the associations of other sex steroid hormones with birthweight, as well as their interactions with infant sex. To our knowledge, the associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and neonatal adiposity have not been investigated, although neonatal adiposity has been linked to later childhood obesity ( 3 ). This study found that 1st trimester E1 and E2 were associated with increased birthweight and neonatal TST in female infants after adjustment of early-pregnancy BMI. Two prior studies assessing 1st trimester E2 reported inconsistent results, with one only assessing female infants and showing a similar but non-significant trend of birthweight ( 21 ), and the other finding no associations with birthweight without assessing sex differences ( 24 ). Hence, early-pregnancy E1/E2 is potentially associated with fetal growth in female infants, which warrants further investigation. Additionally, we observed that fT, the bioactive form of TT, in the 2nd trimester were positively associated with birthweight in male infants, while the associations were reversed in the 3rd trimester. TT showed similar trends as fT. The association of 3rd trimester, but not 2nd trimester, testosterone with birthweight was consistent with previous findings ( 23 , 25 , 38 ). But a prior study found higher 2nd trimester TT was associated with lower birthweights in infants of both sexes ( 23 ). Contrary to the associations with birthweight, 3rd trimester TT and fT were positively associated with neonatal TST in both sexes in this study. These findings underscored the need for further investigation into the specific relationships between prenatal sex steroid hormones and birth size, while considering sex-specific associations and the timing of hormone exposure. For weight growth trajectories during infancy, unlike the limited previous research, which predominantly focused on 3rd trimester sex steroid hormones ( 16 , 25 , 26 ), this study assessed multiple sex steroid hormones across pregnancy. Additionally, the associations with infant adiposity growth trajectories were assessed in this study, as infant adiposity has been associated with childhood adiposity and cardiovascular risks ( 39 ). Specifically, a negative association between 3rd trimester E3 and the declining WFA trajectory observed in this study contrasted with a prior study that found a correlation between E3 and children’s weight at two years of age ( 16 ). This difference in findings might be attributed to the prior study’s focus on weight rather than weight trajectories and its lack of adjustment for birthweight. Additionally, this study found that associations between 1st trimester E1 and E2 and WFA growth trajectories were stronger in male infants. Also, dynamic associations were observed between E1 in the 2nd and 3rd trimesters with postnatal TST changes in infants of both sexes. With regards to testosterone, sex differences were evident in the associations between TT/fT and postnatal growth independent of birth size. Particularly, 1st and 3rd trimester TT/fT tended to be associated with a lower probability of the declining (W2), accelerating (W3), and high stable (W4) WFA trajectories compared to the low stable WFA trajectory (W1) in male infants, while the associations were reversed in relation to 2nd trimester TT/fT. Two prior studies primarily focused on 3rd trimester TT and androgen activity, with one study in a small sample (n = 49) reporting a positive association with rapid weight gain (birth to 6 months) in male infants ( 25 ), and the other identifying an association with a higher probability of an accelerated catch-up growth pattern compared to a consistent high weight pattern in male children ( 26 ). We observed a similar trend of 3rd trimester TT with a high probability of accelerating WFA trajectory (W3) compared to high stable WFA trajectory (W4) in male infants (not shown). Interestingly, the associations between prenatal testosterone and postnatal TST trajectories were more noticeable in female infants. Overall, these findings emphasized the importance of considering longitudinal growth patterns, sex-specific differences, and controlling for birth size when assessing the impact of prenatal hormone exposure on postnatal growth with potential implications for understanding the developmental origins of childhood obesity. The findings of this study underscored the multifaceted mechanisms potentially involved in the role of prenatal hormone exposure in fetal and postnatal growth. During early pregnancy, E1 and E2, the primary estrogens ( 40 ), stimulate angiogenesis, vascularization, blood flow in myometrial and placental arteries, and facilitating nutrient transportation from the placenta to the growing fetus through regulating uteroplacental expression of glucose transporters.( 9 , 10 ). During mid-late pregnancy, E3 is mainly synthesized by the placenta from dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate produced by fetal adrenal glands after 10 weeks of gestation and becomes the principle estrogen ( 16 , 40 ). Therefore, E3 is an indicator of the function of placental sulfatases and fetal adrenal glands, which has been postulated to reflect fetal well-being ( 16 , 41 ). E3 has also been proposed to regulate uteroplacental vascularization and blood flow in late pregnancy, but its full physiological function remains to be elucidated ( 42 ). Regarding postnatal growth, estrogens have been found to interact with several epigenetic enzymes and regulate epigenetic modifications ( 12 , 43 ). Particularly, prenatal E3 exposure affects epigenetic modification in brain, muscle, and adipose tissues that may be involved in postnatal adiposity and growth ( 12 ). We observed sex-specific difference in the associations between prenatal testosterone exposure and fetal and postnatal growth and adiposity. The role of 2nd trimester testosterone appeared to differ from that of testosterone in the 1st and/or 3rd trimesters. These variations in infant sex and timing of pregnancy may be attributed to the peak fetal testosterone production in late 1st and early 2nd trimesters in male fetuses ( 44 ). Testosterone of fetal origin may promote musculoskeletal development in male fetuses during this stage ( 45 ). However, testosterone of maternal origin downregulated placental amino acid transport activity in a rat model ( 11 ). Also, maternal testosterone reduced uterine artery blood flow and affected placental vasculature particularly in male rat fetuses ( 46 ). This evidence could explain how high maternal testosterone levels were associated with lower birthweight, particularly in male fetuses. Furthermore, testosterone has been implicated in promoting visceral preadipocyte proliferation and adiposity in human ( 13 , 47 ), with sex-specific responses likely influenced by sex dimorphism in adipose tissue biology, such as differential expression of sex steroid receptors in adipose tissue, the number of adipocyte precursor cells, and differential programming by sex chromosome ( 27 ). Additionally, testosterone interacts with epigenetic enzymes and can regulate epigenetic modifications ( 48 ), potentially influencing postnatal growth and adiposity. Finally, postnatal endogenous testosterone production in male infants before 6 months of age may contribute to sex differences in postnatal growth ( 49 ). The association between prenatal maternal and postnatal infant testosterone levels remains unclear and warrants further investigation. If maternal hormones play a role in programming the developing infant hormone axis during pregnancy, it may offer another mechanism for understanding associations between prenatal maternal sex steroids and postnatal infant size. The strengths of this study include: ( 1 ) the prospective repeated measures of the major estrogens and testosterone across all three trimesters; ( 2 ) sensitive LC-MS/MS and equilibrium dialysis method were used to quantify estrogens and testosterone, particularly the low concentrations of E3 in early pregnancy and testosterone across pregnancy; ( 3 ) by using path analysis models and including interactions with infant sex, we were able to estimate direct associations of sex steroids in three trimesters simultaneously, giving insight into sensitive periods of hormone exposure and sex-specific responses; ( 4 ) birth size was adjusted in the models of postnatal growth, underscoring the role of prenatal sex steroid hormones in postnatal growth beyond birth size. Several caveats are important to consider when interpreting the findings of this study. We focused on estrogens and testosterone and did not assess additional prenatal hormones, such as dihydrotestosterone, and progesterone, that may mediate the role of estrogens and testosterone in fetal and postnatal growth ( 26 ). Also, the concentrations of fT were low, making them susceptible to methodological issues. Therefore, the results of fT should be interpreted alongside those of TT. Additionally, we used a relatively crude measure of adiposity, and more advanced tools, such as dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, magnetic resonance imaging, or air displacement plethysmography may provide more accurate measures. Conclusion Prenatal sex steroids were associated with fetal and postnatal growth at different stages of pregnancy. Sex differences were evident in these relationships and require further investigation. Furthermore, the associations between prenatal sex steroids and postnatal growth might be beyond birth anthropometry. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between prenatal sex steroid hormones and fetal and postnatal growth, emphasizing the need for further research to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and potential long-term implications for childhood obesity. Declarations Funding Statement Funding for the UPSIDE-ECHO study is provided by Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD083369), NIH Office of the Director grants (UG3OD023349; UH3OD023349), National Institute of Nursing Research (R01NR01760203, K23NR019014, K01NR020504) and the Mae Stone Goode Foundation (no grant number). Additional support is provided by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES005022), and the Wynne Center for Family Research (no grant number). 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Additional Declarations There is NO conflict of interest to disclose Supplementary Files MengSexsteroidsandFetalgrowthSupplementarymaterials031224.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Mar, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal of Obesity → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: revise 16 May, 2024 Review # 4 received at journal 13 May, 2024 Review # 3 received at journal 05 May, 2024 Reviewer # 4 agreed at journal 29 Apr, 2024 Reviewer # 3 agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2024 Reviewer # 2 agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2024 Reviewer # 1 agreed at journal 17 Apr, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 07 Apr, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Mar, 2024 First submitted to journal 27 Mar, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 27 Mar, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4178000","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":288385330,"identity":"37222636-e510-4a00-91ee-5bbafc73ac0a","order_by":0,"name":"Ying Meng","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3557-0735","institution":"University of Rochester","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ying","middleName":"","lastName":"Meng","suffix":""},{"id":288385331,"identity":"22ab1c61-1a89-4dfc-b215-dbaaf4c5f829","order_by":1,"name":"Loralei Thornburg","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rochester Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Loralei","middleName":"","lastName":"Thornburg","suffix":""},{"id":288385332,"identity":"4942792f-3dd3-4ea1-83e6-0d18b4dd81a5","order_by":2,"name":"Caitlin Dreisbach","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3964-3161","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Caitlin","middleName":"","lastName":"Dreisbach","suffix":""},{"id":288385333,"identity":"174c8878-1685-4f29-904c-1cc08abf17c0","order_by":3,"name":"Charlotte Orzolek","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rochester Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Charlotte","middleName":"","lastName":"Orzolek","suffix":""},{"id":288385334,"identity":"da0e844e-896b-4152-ab8c-ae137919df2b","order_by":4,"name":"Amber Kautz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rochester Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amber","middleName":"","lastName":"Kautz","suffix":""},{"id":288385335,"identity":"bf19de3b-9a00-4232-9f67-c683ed496c62","order_by":5,"name":"Hannah Murphy","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vizient Inc.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hannah","middleName":"","lastName":"Murphy","suffix":""},{"id":288385336,"identity":"43a1110f-5bd6-460e-adea-ae322b2560fb","order_by":6,"name":"Zorimar Rivera- Núñez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rutgers University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zorimar","middleName":"Rivera-","lastName":"Núñez","suffix":""},{"id":288385337,"identity":"9497c8b1-aafa-495a-a748-70a6fdd7f0ef","order_by":7,"name":"Christina Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Lundquist Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christina","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":288385338,"identity":"1974ff0a-29bf-439e-add7-c365fc2754e6","order_by":8,"name":"Richard Miller","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rochester Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Richard","middleName":"","lastName":"Miller","suffix":""},{"id":288385339,"identity":"cf10bc59-51ef-4ebf-b5df-653294c0561b","order_by":9,"name":"Thomas O'Connor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Rochester","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thomas","middleName":"","lastName":"O'Connor","suffix":""},{"id":288385340,"identity":"c244e732-87f9-44fb-813c-967affa551b1","order_by":10,"name":"Emily Barrett","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rutgers University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emily","middleName":"","lastName":"Barrett","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-27 19:00:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4178000/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4178000/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-025-01743-3","type":"published","date":"2025-03-17T04:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54446317,"identity":"d5d546d2-9d6b-4972-a24a-15b4c398e5e6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-10 16:21:16","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":527927,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrowth trajectory patterns during infancy. A. Weight-for-age percentile growth patterns. B. Truncal skinfold thickness growth patterns.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4178000/v1/221090247c779301f3f298ba.png"},{"id":54446318,"identity":"199c55ee-cc2c-4cfa-9f87-eea65ac5bd1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-10 16:21:17","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":169017,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSex differences in the associations between sex steroid hormones and birth outcomes. A. The associations between sex steroid hormones and birthweight z scores by trimester. B. The associations between sex steroid hormones and truncal skinfold thickness at birth by trimester. Black: total participants; Blue: male infants; Red: female infants.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4178000/v1/feb1ae988c737fc34b692234.png"},{"id":78729674,"identity":"e24c11a2-5b04-46c1-9f5d-aa9f33b4132e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-18 07:12:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2138276,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4178000/v1/4bfc9251-a98f-4f78-93f6-366ff181f2cf.pdf"},{"id":54446319,"identity":"84856e22-ecaf-4e40-87a3-4f9746c9ca50","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-10 16:21:17","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":148764,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"MengSexsteroidsandFetalgrowthSupplementarymaterials031224.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4178000/v1/f9c4d03c2f8283e0a85588d3.docx"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e conflict of interest to disclose","formattedTitle":"The role of prenatal maternal sex steroid hormones in weight and adiposity at birth and growth trajectories during infancy","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eChildhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions, affecting nearly one in five youths in the United States (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The risk of childhood obesity is evident in early infancy, as both high and low birthweight as well as rapid weight gain during infancy have been consistently linked to childhood obesity (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR3\" citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Emerging evidence has suggested that prenatal factors, including gestational weight gain, gestational diabetes, and smoking during pregnancy play a role in the development of childhood obesity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The underlying mechanism may involve fetal programming, whereby physiological and metabolic set points are modulated by the intrauterine milieu, affecting fetal growth and obesity susceptibility (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, identification of intrauterine factors linked to birthweight and infant growth trajectories is critical to understand the early developmental origins of childhood obesity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex steroid hormones are potential key intrauterine factors that modify fetal growth and obesity susceptibility. Sex steroid hormones regulate a wide range of maternal and fetal functions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), including placental vascularization, endometrial and placental nutrient transporter expression, and epigenetic modification of fetal tissues (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10 CR11\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, estrogens and testosterone can induce cell proliferation, particularly in bone and adipocytes, and thus potentially contribute to offspring growth and adiposity in utero as well as postnatally (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, early life exposure to sex steroid hormones may contribute to the intrauterine origins of childhood obesity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of studies assessing sex steroids and birthweight have focused on estriol (E3) due to its widespread availability as part of prenatal screening test, reporting positive associations (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). However, fewer studies have examined the relationship between other sex steroid hormones and birthweight and results have been controversial (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20 CR21 CR22 CR23 CR24\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Also, the majority of previous studies assessed prenatal sex steroid hormones at a single time point, most often mid-late pregnancy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). Recognizing that variations in fetal growth originates in early pregnancy, repeated assessment of sex steroids across pregnancy may be suitable to identify critical periods during which fetal growth is most sensitive to endocrine activity. Whether associations persist beyond birth into infancy remains an open question as well (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, we leveraged clinical data and biospecimens from a pregnancy cohort to assess maternal sex steroid concentrations (estrone, estradiol, E3, total testosterone, and free testosterone) in each trimester in relation to birthweight, neonatal adiposity, and infant weight and adiposity growth trajectories through the age of 12 months. Additionally, we evaluated moderation by infant sex in light of prior evidence indicating sex differences in fetal growth, placental function and adipose tissue biology (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Overview\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study analyzed data from a prospective pregnancy cohort, the Understanding Pregnancy Signals and Infant Development (UPSIDE) study, which is part of the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). The UPSIDE study recruited pregnant people (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;326) in their first trimester from 2015 to 2019 through University of Rochester Medical Center (Rochester, NY, USA) affiliated obstetric clinics. Eligibility criteria for the current study included: (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) available serum sex steroid hormone data in all trimesters, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) infants born at term (gestational age\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;37 weeks) to assess associations in low-risk population, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) available data on birth and/or infant growth outcomes. There were 252 mother-child dyads included in the final analyses (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). The UPSIDE study was approved by the institutional review boards at the University of Rochester and Rutgers University. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSex Steroid Hormone Assays\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood was collected during study visits in each trimester (1st trimester: 12.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3 weeks; 2nd trimester: 21.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8 weeks; 3rd trimester: 31.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0 weeks). The detail of sex steroid assessment was described in our previous study (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). Briefly, sex steroid hormones from serum samples were quantified using validated liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods at the Endocrine and Metabolic Research Laboratory at the Lundquist Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center. Total testosterone (TT) was measured using a Shimadzu HPLC system (Columbia, MD) and an Applied Biosystems API5500 LC\u0026ndash;MS/MS (Foster City, CA) equipped with a Turbo-Ion-Spray source with positive mode. Equilibrium dialysis using labeled testosterone was used to quantify free testosterone (fT). The Shimadzu HPLC system (Columbia, MD) and a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (API5000 LC\u0026ndash;MS/MS, Foster City, CA) were used to measure estrogens. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was 50 pg/mL for E3. \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\text{L}\\text{O}\\text{Q}/\\sqrt{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e was used to replace E3 values less than \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\text{L}\\text{O}\\text{Q}/\\sqrt{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e or missing (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;54) in the 1st trimester.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBirth and Infant Growth Outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe considered four outcomes: (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) birthweight, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) newborn truncal skinfold thickness (TST [as a surrogate of adiposity]), (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) growth trajectories for weight-for-age percentile, and (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) TST trajectories from birth to 12 months of age. Birthweights were abstracted from medical records and converted to standardized (Z) scores adjusting for gestational age and infant sex according to Fenton growth standards (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). At 1, 6, and 12 months, infant weight was measured using a Seca Infant Scale. Age- and sex-specific infant weight-for-age percentile was calculated following the WHO growth standards (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). Subscapular and suprailiac skinfold thicknesses (mm) were measured twice by trained study coordinators with Holtain calipers following the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey protocols at each visit. A third measure was obtained if the difference between the first two measures was more than 1.0 mm or either of the two measures was out of reference ranges. For each anatomic site, skinfold thickness was calculated as the average value of the two closest measures. TST, a proxy for central fat mass, was calculated by taking the average of subscapular and suprailiac skinfold thickness (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCovariates\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaternal and infant factors previously determined to be associated with sex steroid concentrations and/or birth outcomes were selected a priori as covariates (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). Maternal factors included age, race/ethnicity, education, parity, gestational age at the time of blood sample collection, early-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), smoking, and pregnancy complications (i.e., gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, and gestational diabetes). Infant factors included gestational age at birth and sex. Detail categories of covariates are described in the supplementary materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were calculated for all variables. Sex steroid hormones were log-transformed. Group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) was used to identify growth trajectories for weight-for-age (WFA) percentile and TST measured from birth to 12 months of age (birth, 1, 6, 12 months) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). Individuals with 2 or more measures at the study visits were included in the identification of growth trajectories. Trajectories were selected based on Bayesian information criterion (BIC). To identify potential sensitive windows when prenatal sex steroid hormones may impact fetal/infant growth, path analysis was conducted to simultaneously assess individual sex steroids at all trimesters and their independent associations with birth and infant growth outcomes using structural equation modeling adjusting for covariates (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Bias-corrected bootstrap methods were used to estimate the confidence interval for the direct effect of individual sex steroids in each trimester in the path analysis. Additionally, due to prior evidence indicating sex differences in fetal growth, we examined the modification effects of infant sex by including interactions between infant sex and individual sex steroid concentrations in each trimester using linear regression models for birth outcomes and multinomial logistic regression models for infant growth trajectories. To understand the effect of birth outcomes on the relationship between prenatal sex steroids and postnatal growth, we fitted the multinomial logistic regression models with and without birth size as a covariate. All analyses were conducted using STATA 18.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX, USA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCharacteristics of the Study Cohort\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of the mothers were Caucasian (62.7%), overweight/obesity in early pregnancy (63.6%), and had education beyond high school (67.5%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Maternal serum estrogen levels (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), but not testosterone levels (TT: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.48; fT: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.09), increased during pregnancy. Four growth trajectories were identified for WFA percentiles: (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) low stable WFA percentiles (W1: 26.7%); (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) declining WFA percentiles in early infancy (W2: 22.7%); (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) accelerating WFA percentiles (W3: 22.4%); and (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) high stable WFA percentiles (W4: 28.2%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). Four growth trajectories were also identified for TST: (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) low stable TST (T1: 38.9%); (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) moderate stable TST (T2: 44.9%); (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) accelerating TST through 6 months followed by decelerating TST (T3: 11.3%); and (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) high TST that steadily increased through 12 months of age (T4: 4.9%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). The correlation between WFA and TST trajectories was relatively weak (Spearman\u0026rsquo;s ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.29, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of UPSIDE mother-infant dyads in this study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll Participants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;252)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMothers\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.3\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/b\u003e\u0026thinsp;4.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRace/Ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite, Non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158 (62.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack, Non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 (21.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (8.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (7.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNulliparous\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh school or less education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (32.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmoking during pregnancy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (6.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGestational hypertension or preeclampsia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (11.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGestational diabetes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (5.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly-pregnancy BMI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal/underweight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117 (46.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverweight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62 (24.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObesity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 (29.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE1 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1152.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;900.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE2 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1853.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1017.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE3 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e291.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;260.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTT (ng/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;44.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efT (ng/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE1 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4255.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2987.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE2 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6539.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3021.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE3 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3247.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1337.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTT (ng/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;53.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efT (ng/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE1 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6664.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4492.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE2 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11868.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4756.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE3 (pg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7026.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3147.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTT (ng/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;55.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efT (ng/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInfants\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGestational age (weeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirthweight (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3422\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;472\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWFA percentile at birth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;26.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWFA percentile at 1 month (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;199)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWFA percentile at 6 months (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;193)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWFA percentile at 12 months (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;168)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTST (mm) at birth (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;234)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTST (mm) at 1 month (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;202)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTST (mm) at 6 months (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;189)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTST (mm) at 12 months (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;161)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote. \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eContinuous variables are summarized using mean and standard deviation; Categorical variables are summarized using count and percentage. E1, estrone; E2, estradiol; E3, estiol; TT, total testosterone; fT, free testosterone; WFA, weight for age; TST, truncal skinfold thickness.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociations of Prenatal Sex Steroid Hormones with Birth Size\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eBirthweight z-scores\u003c/span\u003e. Direct associations between individual sex steroid hormones in each trimester and birth outcomes were estimated using path analysis (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). E3 levels in the 3rd trimester were directly associated with higher birthweight z-scores in the full cohort (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.53, 95% CI: 0.23, 0.78) and in both sexes. Sex differences were evident in the associations between other sex steroid hormones and birthweight (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In female infants, higher E1 concentrations in the 1st trimester were associated with greater birthweight z-scores (E1: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.37, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.73) whereas associations in males were non-significant. In male infants, fT levels in the 2nd trimester were positively associated with birthweight z-scores (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.32, 95% CI: 0.005, 0.64), whereas the association was reversed in the 3rd trimester (β= -0.31, 95% CI: -0.61, -0.02). Associations between TT and birthweight z-scores were similar, but weaker and non-significant (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and birthweight and central adiposity in total samples and by infant sex.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirthweight\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(z scores)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTruncal skinfold thickness (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirthweight\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(z scores)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTruncal skinfold thickness (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirthweight\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(z scores)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTruncal skinfold thickness (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΒ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstrone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03, 0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10, 0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.39, 0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.39*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.99, 0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.37\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.02, 0.73\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.94*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.34, 1.54\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.52, 0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.78, 0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.44, 0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.65, 0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.60, 0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.29, 0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.43, 0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.62, 0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.65, 0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.62, 0.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.40, 0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.97, 0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstradiol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.28, 0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.46, 0.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.27*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.73, 0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.80*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-1.57, -0.04\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09, 0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.79*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.07, 1.51\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.72, 0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.63, 1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.65, 0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.74, 1.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.89, 0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.09, 1.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17, 0.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.08, 0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.39, 0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.73, 1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09, 1.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.40, 0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstriol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11, 0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.22\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.40, -0.03\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.20, 0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.47, 0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06, 0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.44, 0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.49, 0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16, 0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.73, 0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.69, 0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.42, 0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.70\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.09, 1.32\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.53\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.23, 0.78\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.63, 0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.48\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.14, 0.82\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.55, 0.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.63\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.20, 1.05\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.99, 0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17, 0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.29, 0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.40, 0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.76, 0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.13, 0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.34, 0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.37, 0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.80, 0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.21, 0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.01, 0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.74, 0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.14, 0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.34, 0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.47\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.03, 0.86\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.57, 0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.61\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.02, 1.21\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.31, 0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.39, 1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFree testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.19, 0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.27, 0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.25, 0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.48, 0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.26, 0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.30, 0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16, 0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.72, 0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.32*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005, 0.64\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.60, 0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.20*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.55, 0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.75\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-1.39, -0.10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.30, 0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.45\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.09, 0.87\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.31*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.61, -0.02\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.23, 0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11, 0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.67\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.13, 1.20\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003eNote. The sample size for birthweight was 252 and the sample size for truncal skinfold thickness was 234. Direct associations of individual sex steroid hormones at each trimester were estimated using path analysis in the total samples and linear regression models for sex differences. Sex steroid hormones were log transformed. Model was adjusted for gestational age of blood draw, maternal age, race/ethnicity, parity, early-pregnancy BMI, gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, education, smoking during pregnancy, infant sex and gestational age. * indicates interaction with infant sex significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTST at birth\u003c/span\u003e. TST was considered a proxy for central adiposity. The patterns of associations for TST at birth were relatively different from those for birthweight. E3 in the 1st trimester was inversely associated with TST (mm) at birth (β= -0.22, 95% CI: -0.40, -0.03), a trend that was consistent in male and female infants. Again, sex differences were evident in the associations between other estrogens and TST at birth (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In the 1st trimester, higher E1 and E2 levels were associated with greater TST in female infants (E1: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.94, 95% CI: 0.34, 1.54; E2: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79, 95% CI: 0.07, 1.51), whereas in male infants, 1st trimester E2 was associated with lower TST (β= -0.80, 95% CI: -1.57, -0.04). In the 2nd trimester, E3 was positively associated with TST in female (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70, 95% CI: 0.09, 1.32), but not male, infants. Additionally, in the full cohort TT and fT in the 2nd trimester showed a trend towards inverse associations with TST at birth (TT: β= -0.36, 95% CI: -0.80, 0.04; fT: β= -0.34, 95% CI: -0.72, 0.03), but these associations were reversed in the 3rd trimester (TT: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.86; fT: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.45, 95% CI: 0.09, 0.87). Associations between testosterone and TST at birth tended to be similar among male and female infants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociations of Prenatal Sex Steroid Hormones with Infant Growth Trajectories\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eInfant WFA trajectories\u003c/span\u003e. Using the low stable WFA trajectory (W1) as the referent, 3rd trimester E3 was associated with higher probability (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.10, 95% CI: 0.18, 3.27) of membership in the declining WFA trajectory (W2, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This association was stronger in male infants (Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1). Numerous sex differences were evident in the associations between other sex steroid hormones and WFA trajectories (Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1). In male infants, 1st trimester E1 and E2 were associated with lower probability of the declining WFA trajectory (W2: E1: β= -2.18, 95% CI: -3.85, -0.50; E2: β= -2.57, 95% CI: -4.78, -0.36) and the high stable WFA trajectory (W4: E1: β= -1.50, 95% CI: -2.99, -0.01; E2: β= -2.30, 95% CI: -4.32, -0.29). These associations tended to be reversed and non-significant in female infants. Similarly, the associations of testosterone with WFA trajectories were in opposite directions in male and female infants. In male infants, 2nd trimester TT and fT were associated with higher probability of the declining WFA and high stable WFA trajectories (W2 and W4), while 3rd trimester TT and fT were associated with lower probability of the accelerating WFA and high stable WFA trajectories (W3 and W4). These associations were again reversed in female infants. Finally, 1st trimester TT was associated with higher probability of the high stable WFA trajectory (W4) in female infants (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.17, 95% CI: 0.26, 4.09).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe direct association of sex steroid hormone at each trimester and weight-for-age and central adiposity growth patterns during infancy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight-for-age percentile trajectories\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;218) β, 95% CI\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTruncal skinfold thickness trajectories\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;215) β, 95% CI\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeclining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccelerating\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccelerating-decelerating\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstrone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.43 (-1.87, 0.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67 (-1.04, 1.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.44 (-1.75, 0.87)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05 (-1.09, 0.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52 (-1.20, 6.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70 (-1.14, 2.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.73 (-2.47, 1.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10 (-0.86, 2.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96 (-0.30, 2.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.58 (-6.71, 1.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.13 (-1.77, 1.30)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55 (-0.94, 2.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.74 (-2.25, 1.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.16 (-2.40, 0.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.19 (-4.42, 5.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstradiol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.48 (-2.33, 1.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.32 (-2.12, 1.42)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.83 (-2.51, 1.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13 (-1.28, 1.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15 (-2.68, 5.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59 (-2.30, 3.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.61 (-3.21, 2.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38 (-1.36, 4.51)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35 (-0.47, 3.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.83 (-6.23, 5.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31 (-1.23, 3.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94 (-0.97, 3.62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04 (-2.71, 2.24)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.90 (-2.80, 0.80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86 (-3.01, 4.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstriol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12 (-0.58, 0.60)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12 (-0.70, 0.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03 (-0.59, 0.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.13 (-0.55, 0.28)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.66 (-1.75, 0.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35 (-1.29, 2.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.35 (-1.93, 1.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39 (-1.18, 2.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.67 (0.33, 2.82)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40 (-1.87, 2.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.10 (0.18, 3.27)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82 (-0.84, 2.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09 (-0.74, 2.40)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.41 (-1.50, 0.66)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.35 (-2.48, 3.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03 (-1.59, 1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09 (-1.99, 1.44)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44 (-1.20, 1.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.79 (-1.85, 0.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.90 (-3.94, 4.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56 (-0.95, 2.73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40 (-1.27, 2.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04 (-1.49, 1.83)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13 (-1.27, 1.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15 (-3.42, 4.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.93 (-2.08, 0.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.26 (-1.62, 1.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.78 (-1.97, 0.66)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57 (-0.43, 1.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28 (-2.80, 2.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFree testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.25 (-1.47, 0.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.08 (-1.45, 1.30)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01 (-1.29, 1.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.46 (-1.35, 0.37)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07 (-3.42, 2.38)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34 (-0.78, 1.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35 (-1.02, 1.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11 (-0.94, 1.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.20 (-1.07, 0.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02 (-2.31, 3.52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.42 (-1.50, 0.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.21 (-1.21, 1.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.24 (-1.30, 0.87)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31 (-0.47, 1.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.47(-2.59, 2.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eNote. Path analysis was used to estimate direct association. Sex steroid hormones were log transformed. Model was adjusted for gestational age of blood draw, maternal age, race/ethnicity, parity, early-pregnancy BMI, gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, education, smoking during pregnancy, infant sex and gestational age. \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval. The associations between sex steroid hormones and T4 for truncal skinfold thickness were not estimated due to limited sample size.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eInfant TST trajectories\u003c/span\u003e. Few associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and infant TST trajectories were observed. Using the low stable TST trajectory (T1) as the referent, 2nd trimester E3 was associated with higher probability of the moderate stable TST trajectory (T2) (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.67, 95% CI: 0.33, 2.82) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This association was consistent in both male and female infants (Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1). Sex differences were not evident in the associations between sex steroid hormones and TST trajectories (Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1). Of note, the comparisons of sex steroid hormones between the high accelerating TST trajectory (T4) and the low stable TST trajectory (T1) were not estimated due to limited number of infants with the high accelerating TST trajectory (T4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociations of Prenatal Sex Steroid Hormones with Infant Growth Trajectories Adjusting for Birth Size\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and postnatal growth beyond birthweight and adiposity at birth, we refitted models with additional adjustment for birth anthropometrical measures. Birthweight was associated with the WFA trajectories (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and TST at birth was also associated with the TST trajectories (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Overall, when including birthweight, models had the same directions of associations between sex steroid hormones and WFA trajectories, however the magnitude of associations tended to be enhanced in male infants and attenuated magnitude in female infants compared to models without adjustment of birthweight (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Particularly, in male infants, the associations of 1st trimester TT and fT with lower probability of the declining WFA trajectory (W2; TT: β= -3.64, 95% CI: -6.70, -0.58; fT: β= -2.56, 95% CI: -4.96, -0.16) and the high stable WFA trajectory (W4: TT: β= -3.53, 95% CI: -6.63, -0.43; fT: β= -2.47, 95% CI: -4.85, -0.10) were strengthened. Also, 2nd trimester TT was associated with increased probability of the accelerating WFA trajectory (W3; β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.89, 95% CI: 0.03, 5.76). In female infants the associations of TT and fT with the high stable WFA trajectory (W4) were attenuated when birthweight was included in the model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe direct association of sex steroid hormone at each trimester and weight-for-age and central adiposity growth patterns by infant sex adjusting for birth outcomes. \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight-for-age percentile trajectories\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;218) β, 95% CI\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTruncal skinfold thickness trajectories\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;215) β, 95% CI\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeclining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccelerating\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccelerating-decelerating\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMale\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstrone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.00* (-6.82, -1.17)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26 (-1.39, 1.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.87 (-6.59, -1.16)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01 (-1.16, 1.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70 (-1.70, 3.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79 (-1.82, 5.40)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.92 (-3.05, 1.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87 (-1.70, 5.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70 (-0.81, 2.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.53 (-5.94, 0.89)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.20 (-2.42, 4.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05 (-1.02, 3.11)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09 (-3.71, 3.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.32 (-2.80, 0.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.32 (-0.51, 5.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstradiol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.23* (-6.35, -0.10)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.28 (-2.24, 1.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-4.36* (-7.62, -1.11)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20 (-1.33, 1.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.27 (-1.72, 4.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43 (-4.39, 5.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.97 (-5.32, 1.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42 (-3.52, 6.36)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13 (-1.12, 3.38)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.64 (-8.40, 1.13)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.03 (-0.40, 8.45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.72 (-0.36, 5.80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98 (-3.57, 5.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.25 (-3.31, 0.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44 (-1.97, 6.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstriol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.45 (-1.44, 0.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17 (-0.85, 0.51)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.88* (-1.89, 0.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17 (-0.65, 0.30)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.29 (-1.31, 0.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58 (-2.63, 3.78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.18 (-3.36, 0.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.23 (-1.03, 5.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42 (-0.15, 2.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.21 (-4.10, 1.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.93* (0.99, 6.88)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03 (-0.72, 2.78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22 (-1.47, 3.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.53 (-1.87, 0.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.32 (-4.11, 1.47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.64* (-6.70, -0.58)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.51 (-2.68, 1.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.53* (-6.63, -0.43)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.65 (-2.01, 0.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.38 (-2.89, 2.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.48* (0.55, 8.41)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.89 (0.03, 5.76)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.72* (-0.22, 7.66)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55 (-1.05, 2.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.76* (-5.49, 1.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.80 (-5.80, 0.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.69* (-4.69, -0.69)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.67* (-6.66, -0.69)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06 (-1.35, 1.24)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50 (-2.08, 3.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFree testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.56 (-4.96, -0.16)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16 (-1.41, 1.73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.47 (-4.85, -0.10)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.51 (-1.57, 0.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06 (-1.83, 1.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68 (-0.96, 4.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62 (-0.45, 3.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.86* (-0.82, 4.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06 (-1.11, 1.24)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.71 (-3.13, 1.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.21 (-3.35, 0.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-1.72* (-3.32, -0.12)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-2.79* (-5.02, -0.56)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19 (-0.87, 1.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.34 (-2.81, 2.13)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFemale\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstrone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93* (-1.34, 3.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24 (-0.74, 3.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.75 (-3.26, 1.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04 (-1.31, 1.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55 (-0.64, 5.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77 (-1.58, 3.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.003 (-2.12, 2.11)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.53 (-0.11, 5.16)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03 (-0.59, 2.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.12 (-7.61, 1.36)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.84 (-4.46, 0.78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.73 (-2.95, 1.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.15 (-5.12, 0.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.80 (-2.39, 0.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.67 (-0.58, 7.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstradiol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75* (-0.86, 4.37)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.01 (-3.38, 1.36)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.23* (-3.00, 2.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85 (-0.67, 2.36)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54 (-1.72, 4.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.22 (-4.79, 2.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33 (-1.75, 4.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79 (-2.19, 5.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17 (-1.14, 3.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.18 (-7.05, 2.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.39 (-3.95, 3.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.92 (-1.25, 5.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.15 (-6.05, 1.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.67 (-3.91, 0.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46 (-2.64, 5.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstriol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70 (-0.17, 1.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03 (-0.76, 0.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77* (-0.18, 1.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12 (-0.39, 0.62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.50 (-1.45, 0.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64 (-0.33, 3.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47 (-1.10, 2.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55 (-0.61, 3.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22 (-0.20, 2.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.29 (-1.61, 4.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11* (-2.53, 2.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49 (-1.57, 2.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.89 (-3.53, 1.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.40 (-1.94, 1.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58 (-2.32, 3.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50* (-1.60, 2.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.74 (-2.63, 1.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53* (-1.12, 4.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.10 (-2.48, 0.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-3.76 (-6.91, -0.61)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.80* (-4.45, 0.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.96 (-3.59, 1.66)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.11* (-6.53, 0.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62 (-1.15, 2.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.88* (0.54, 9.23)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12 (-1.87, 2.11)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09* (-0.97, 3.16)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54* (-1.03, 4.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05 (-1.43, 1.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.47 (-3.46, 2.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFree testosterone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.64 (-2.34, 1.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.15 (-2.76, 0.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05 (-1.99, 1.88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.52 (-1.69, 0.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.91 (-3.51, 1.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.29 (-3.27, 0.68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.34 (-2.08, 1.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.08* (-4.48, 0.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11 (-1.45, 1.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.26 (-0.79, 5.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrimester 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22 (-1.51, 1.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70* (-0.98, 2.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39* (-0.63, 3.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.42 (-1.51, 0.67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.27 (-3.40, 0.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003eNote. Path analysis was used to estimate direct association. Sex steroid hormones were log transformed. Model was adjusted for gestational age of blood draw, maternal age, race/ethnicity, parity, early-pregnancy BMI, gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, education, smoking during pregnancy, infant sex and gestational age. \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003ebias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval. The associations between sex steroid hormones and T4 for truncal skinfold thickness were not estimated due to limited sample size. * indicates interaction with infant sex significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. The comparisons of sex steroid hormones between TST T4 and T1 patterns were not estimated due to limited number of infants with T4 pattern. \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen including TST at birth, the associations of 2nd trimester E3 with the moderate stable TST trajectory (T2) were attenuated in both male and female infants. But, in female infants, 1st trimester TT was associated with lower probability of the accelerating and decelerating TST trajectory (T3; β= -3.76, 95% CI: -6.91, -0.61), while the relationship was reversed in the 2nd trimester (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.88, 95% CI: 0.54, 9.23).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo date, this study is the most comprehensive evaluation of the associations between prenatal maternal sex steroid hormones and fetal/infant growth with 4 major sex steroid hormones measured in all trimesters and 4 timepoints of infant anthropometric assessments. Our findings reveal the complex interplay between prenatal sex steroid hormones, birth size, and postnatal growth, with implications for understanding the developmental origins of childhood obesity. Notably, the associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and both birth size and postnatal growth were found to vary by the specific individual sex steroids and the timing of pregnancy. Furthermore, the study uncovered significant sex differences in these associations, suggesting potential underlying mechanisms that may differ between male and female infants. Importantly, the observed associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and postnatal weight and adiposity growth were beyond birth size, underscoring the unique role of prenatal sex steroids in shaping later childhood growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifically for birth size, our finding of the positive association between 3rd trimester E3 and birthweight aligned with prior findings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). However, limited research has explored the associations of other sex steroid hormones with birthweight, as well as their interactions with infant sex. To our knowledge, the associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and neonatal adiposity have not been investigated, although neonatal adiposity has been linked to later childhood obesity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This study found that 1st trimester E1 and E2 were associated with increased birthweight and neonatal TST in female infants after adjustment of early-pregnancy BMI. Two prior studies assessing 1st trimester E2 reported inconsistent results, with one only assessing female infants and showing a similar but non-significant trend of birthweight (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e), and the other finding no associations with birthweight without assessing sex differences (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, early-pregnancy E1/E2 is potentially associated with fetal growth in female infants, which warrants further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, we observed that fT, the bioactive form of TT, in the 2nd trimester were positively associated with birthweight in male infants, while the associations were reversed in the 3rd trimester. TT showed similar trends as fT. The association of 3rd trimester, but not 2nd trimester, testosterone with birthweight was consistent with previous findings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e). But a prior study found higher 2nd trimester TT was associated with lower birthweights in infants of both sexes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Contrary to the associations with birthweight, 3rd trimester TT and fT were positively associated with neonatal TST in both sexes in this study. These findings underscored the need for further investigation into the specific relationships between prenatal sex steroid hormones and birth size, while considering sex-specific associations and the timing of hormone exposure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor weight growth trajectories during infancy, unlike the limited previous research, which predominantly focused on 3rd trimester sex steroid hormones (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e), this study assessed multiple sex steroid hormones across pregnancy. Additionally, the associations with infant adiposity growth trajectories were assessed in this study, as infant adiposity has been associated with childhood adiposity and cardiovascular risks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, a negative association between 3rd trimester E3 and the declining WFA trajectory observed in this study contrasted with a prior study that found a correlation between E3 and children\u0026rsquo;s weight at two years of age (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). This difference in findings might be attributed to the prior study\u0026rsquo;s focus on weight rather than weight trajectories and its lack of adjustment for birthweight. Additionally, this study found that associations between 1st trimester E1 and E2 and WFA growth trajectories were stronger in male infants. Also, dynamic associations were observed between E1 in the 2nd and 3rd trimesters with postnatal TST changes in infants of both sexes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith regards to testosterone, sex differences were evident in the associations between TT/fT and postnatal growth independent of birth size. Particularly, 1st and 3rd trimester TT/fT tended to be associated with a lower probability of the declining (W2), accelerating (W3), and high stable (W4) WFA trajectories compared to the low stable WFA trajectory (W1) in male infants, while the associations were reversed in relation to 2nd trimester TT/fT. Two prior studies primarily focused on 3rd trimester TT and androgen activity, with one study in a small sample (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;49) reporting a positive association with rapid weight gain (birth to 6 months) in male infants (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e), and the other identifying an association with a higher probability of an accelerated catch-up growth pattern compared to a consistent high weight pattern in male children (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). We observed a similar trend of 3rd trimester TT with a high probability of accelerating WFA trajectory (W3) compared to high stable WFA trajectory (W4) in male infants (not shown). Interestingly, the associations between prenatal testosterone and postnatal TST trajectories were more noticeable in female infants. Overall, these findings emphasized the importance of considering longitudinal growth patterns, sex-specific differences, and controlling for birth size when assessing the impact of prenatal hormone exposure on postnatal growth with potential implications for understanding the developmental origins of childhood obesity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study underscored the multifaceted mechanisms potentially involved in the role of prenatal hormone exposure in fetal and postnatal growth. During early pregnancy, E1 and E2, the primary estrogens (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e), stimulate angiogenesis, vascularization, blood flow in myometrial and placental arteries, and facilitating nutrient transportation from the placenta to the growing fetus through regulating uteroplacental expression of glucose transporters.(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). During mid-late pregnancy, E3 is mainly synthesized by the placenta from dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate produced by fetal adrenal glands after 10 weeks of gestation and becomes the principle estrogen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, E3 is an indicator of the function of placental sulfatases and fetal adrenal glands, which has been postulated to reflect fetal well-being (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). E3 has also been proposed to regulate uteroplacental vascularization and blood flow in late pregnancy, but its full physiological function remains to be elucidated (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding postnatal growth, estrogens have been found to interact with several epigenetic enzymes and regulate epigenetic modifications (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). Particularly, prenatal E3 exposure affects epigenetic modification in brain, muscle, and adipose tissues that may be involved in postnatal adiposity and growth (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe observed sex-specific difference in the associations between prenatal testosterone exposure and fetal and postnatal growth and adiposity. The role of 2nd trimester testosterone appeared to differ from that of testosterone in the 1st and/or 3rd trimesters. These variations in infant sex and timing of pregnancy may be attributed to the peak fetal testosterone production in late 1st and early 2nd trimesters in male fetuses (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e). Testosterone of fetal origin may promote musculoskeletal development in male fetuses during this stage (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). However, testosterone of maternal origin downregulated placental amino acid transport activity in a rat model (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Also, maternal testosterone reduced uterine artery blood flow and affected placental vasculature particularly in male rat fetuses (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e). This evidence could explain how high maternal testosterone levels were associated with lower birthweight, particularly in male fetuses. Furthermore, testosterone has been implicated in promoting visceral preadipocyte proliferation and adiposity in human (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e), with sex-specific responses likely influenced by sex dimorphism in adipose tissue biology, such as differential expression of sex steroid receptors in adipose tissue, the number of adipocyte precursor cells, and differential programming by sex chromosome (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, testosterone interacts with epigenetic enzymes and can regulate epigenetic modifications (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e), potentially influencing postnatal growth and adiposity. Finally, postnatal endogenous testosterone production in male infants before 6 months of age may contribute to sex differences in postnatal growth (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e). The association between prenatal maternal and postnatal infant testosterone levels remains unclear and warrants further investigation. If maternal hormones play a role in programming the developing infant hormone axis during pregnancy, it may offer another mechanism for understanding associations between prenatal maternal sex steroids and postnatal infant size.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe strengths of this study include: (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) the prospective repeated measures of the major estrogens and testosterone across all three trimesters; (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) sensitive LC-MS/MS and equilibrium dialysis method were used to quantify estrogens and testosterone, particularly the low concentrations of E3 in early pregnancy and testosterone across pregnancy; (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) by using path analysis models and including interactions with infant sex, we were able to estimate direct associations of sex steroids in three trimesters simultaneously, giving insight into sensitive periods of hormone exposure and sex-specific responses; (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) birth size was adjusted in the models of postnatal growth, underscoring the role of prenatal sex steroid hormones in postnatal growth beyond birth size. Several caveats are important to consider when interpreting the findings of this study. We focused on estrogens and testosterone and did not assess additional prenatal hormones, such as dihydrotestosterone, and progesterone, that may mediate the role of estrogens and testosterone in fetal and postnatal growth (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). Also, the concentrations of fT were low, making them susceptible to methodological issues. Therefore, the results of fT should be interpreted alongside those of TT. Additionally, we used a relatively crude measure of adiposity, and more advanced tools, such as dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, magnetic resonance imaging, or air displacement plethysmography may provide more accurate measures.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePrenatal sex steroids were associated with fetal and postnatal growth at different stages of pregnancy. Sex differences were evident in these relationships and require further investigation. Furthermore, the associations between prenatal sex steroids and postnatal growth might be beyond birth anthropometry. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between prenatal sex steroid hormones and fetal and postnatal growth, emphasizing the need for further research to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and potential long-term implications for childhood obesity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding Statement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Funding for the UPSIDE-ECHO study is provided by Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD083369), NIH Office of the Director grants (UG3OD023349; UH3OD023349), National Institute of Nursing Research (R01NR01760203, K23NR019014, K01NR020504) and the Mae Stone Goode Foundation (no grant number). Additional support is provided by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES005022), and the Wynne Center for Family Research (no grant number).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDisclosure Statement\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe authors declared no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e We thank the participants and staff who contributed to the UPSIDE study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNational Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017\u0026ndash;March 2020 Prepandemic Data Files Development of Files and Prevalence Estimates for Selected Health Outcomes, (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMitchell EA, Stewart AW, Braithwaite I, Hancox RJ, Murphy R, Wall C, Beasley R. Birth weight and subsequent body mass index in children: an international cross-sectional study. 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Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2024;109(2):125\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKuijper EA, Ket JC, Caanen MR, Lambalk CB. Reproductive hormone concentrations in pregnancy and neonates: a systematic review. Reprod Biomed Online. 2013;27(1):33\u0026ndash;63.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYue CY, Zhang CY, Ying CM. Serum markers in quadruple screening associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes: A case-control study in China. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;511:278\u0026ndash;81.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFalah N, Torday J, Quinney SK, Haas DM. Estriol review: Clinical applications and potential biomedical importance. Clin Res Trials. 2015;1(2):29\u0026ndash;33.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBest JD, Carey N. The Epigenetics of Normal Pregnancy. Obstet Med. 2013;6(1):3\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTal R, Taylor HS. Endocrinology of pregnancy. Feingold KR AB, Blackman MR, et al.,, editor. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2021.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHandelsman DJ. Androgen physiology, pharmacology, use and misuse. Feingold KR AB, Blackman MR, et al.,, editor. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2020.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGopalakrishnan K, Mishra JS, Chinnathambi V, Vincent KL, Patrikeev I, Motamedi M, et al. Elevated Testosterone Reduces Uterine Blood Flow, Spiral Artery Elongation, and Placental Oxygenation in Pregnant Rats. Hypertension. 2016;67(3):630\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKim C, Harrall KK, Glueck DH, Dabelea D. Sex steroids and adiposity in a prospective observational cohort of youth. Obesity Science \u0026amp; Practice. 2021;7(4):432\u0026ndash;40.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuo X, Puttabyatappa M, Domino SE, Padmanabhan V. Developmental programming: Prenatal testosterone-induced changes in epigenetic modulators and gene expression in metabolic tissues of female sheep. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 2020;514:110913.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDavis SM, Kaar JL, Ringham BM, Hockett CW, Glueck DH, Dabelea D. Sex differences in infant body composition emerge in the first 5 months of life. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2019;32(11):1235\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-obesity","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijo","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Obesity](http://www.nature.com/ijo/)","snPcode":"41366","submissionUrl":"https://mts-ijo.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"International Journal of Obesity","twitterHandle":"@intjobesity","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"testosterone, estrogen, weight trajectory, adiposity trajectory, infants","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4178000/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4178000/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective\u003c/strong\u003e: Intrauterine factors can impact fetal and child growth and may underlie the developmental origins of childhood obesity. Sex steroid hormone exposure during pregnancy is a plausible target because of the impact on placental vascularization, nutrient transportation, bone growth, adipogenesis, and epigenetic modifications. In this study we assessed maternal sex steroid hormones in each trimester in relation to birthweight, neonatal adiposity, and infant growth trajectories, and evaluate sensitive windows of development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: Participants from a prospective pregnancy cohort who delivered at term were included in the analysis (n=252). Estrone, estradiol, and estriol, as well as total and free testosterone throughout gestation were assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Path analyses were used to assess the direct associations of sex steroid hormones in each trimester with birth outcomes and infant growth trajectories (birth to 12 months) adjusting for covariates and considering moderation by sex.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e: The associations between prenatal sex steroid hormones and fetal/infant growth varied by sex and hormone assessment timing. First trimester estrone were associated with higher birthweight z-scores (β=0.37, 95%CI: 0.02, 0.73) and truncal skinfold thickness (TST) at birth (β=0.94, 95%CI: 0.34, 1.54) in female infants. Third trimester total testosterone was associated with higher TST at birth (β=0.61, 95%CI: 0.02, 1.21) in male infants. First trimester estrone/estradiol and first and third trimesters testosterone were associated with lower probabilities of high stable weight trajectory compared to low stable weight trajectory (Estrone: β=-3.87, 95%CI: -6.59, -1.16; First trimester testosterone: β=-3.53, 95%CI: -6.63, -0.43; Third trimester testosterone: β=-3.67, 95%CI: -6.66, -0.69) during infancy in male infants. \u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e: We observed associations between prenatal sex steroid hormone exposure and birthweight, neonatal adiposity and infant growth that were sex and gestational timing dependent. Our findings suggest further investigation on additional mechanisms linking prenatal \u0026nbsp;sex steroid exposure and fetal/postnatal growth is needed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The role of prenatal maternal sex steroid hormones in weight and adiposity at birth and growth trajectories during infancy","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-10 16:21:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4178000/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"revise","date":"2024-05-16T09:37:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2024-05-13T21:02:53+00:00","index":4,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2024-05-05T23:43:46+00:00","index":3,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2024-04-29T12:26:31+00:00","index":4,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2024-04-23T11:57:17+00:00","index":3,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2024-04-23T11:33:19+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2024-04-17T13:33:23+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-04-07T07:56:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-03-28T13:05:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Obesity","date":"2024-03-27T18:55:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-03-27T18:55:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-obesity","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijo","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Obesity](http://www.nature.com/ijo/)","snPcode":"41366","submissionUrl":"https://mts-ijo.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"International Journal of Obesity","twitterHandle":"@intjobesity","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"908ae7f7-12cf-40c0-bbaa-1b465afd2fec","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 10th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":30361180,"name":"Health sciences/Endocrinology/Endocrine system and metabolic diseases/Obesity"},{"id":30361181,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Paediatrics"},{"id":30361182,"name":"Health sciences/Risk factors"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-18T07:12:41+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4178000","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-025-01743-3","journal":{"identity":"international-journal-of-obesity","isVorOnly":false,"title":"International Journal of Obesity"},"publishedOn":"2025-03-17 04:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 17th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-10 16:21:11","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41366-025-01743-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-025-01743-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4178000","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4178000","identity":"rs-4178000","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}