Satellite Driven Insights of Long-Term Stubble Burning in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India

Satellite Driven Insights of Long-Term Stubble Burning in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Satellite Driven Insights of Long-Term Stubble Burning in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India Nidhi Kundu, Ramesh Singh Hooda, Sandeep Kumar This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7235870/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Agriculture is vital to India's economy, especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). The rise in mechanized harvesting has increased stubble accumulation, leading many farmers to burn stubble for quick, cost-effective field clearance. This practice is common in India due to inadequate residue management. Despite regulations and awareness efforts, stubble burning persists, highlighting the need for better monitoring and mitigation. Using data from NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites, this research estimates burnt areas in the IGP from 2001 to 2020, focusing on Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The methodology includes mapping spatial and temporal patterns to identify hotspots and seasonal variations and providing monthly quantification of cropland burning to pinpoint peak fire activity. The study reveals that stubble burning, closely tied to the Rabi and Kharif crop cycles, peaks during harvest seasons, with April, May, October, and November showing the highest incidences, particularly in Punjab and Haryana. While there was a notable peak from 2013 to 2015, a decline in recent years suggests the influence of increased environmental awareness and regulatory measures. These findings highlight the urgent need for continued efforts to address the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning. Stubble Burning Indo-Gangetic Plains Satellite Data Temporal Analysis Spatial Patterns Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Agriculture remains pivotal to India's economy, supporting 50% of the livelihoods and employment, despite its declining share in the Gross Domestic Product (Khan et al., 2020 ). The North-western states, particularly Punjab, and Haryana have seen significant growth in the cultivation of crops like paddy and wheat since the Green Revolution, contributing substantially to national food grain production, with Punjab and Haryana often referred to as India's food bowl (Sindhu, 2014). The Indo-Gangetic Plains, home to 40% of India's population, play a crucial role, covering 20% of the country's area and contributing 42% to total food grain production (Tripathi et al., 2005 ). The region's rice-wheat cropping system, spanning 13.5 million hectares, ensures food security and sustains rural livelihoods (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009 ). After crop harvesting, it was common practice to leave stubbles in the fields for four to six weeks, allowing them to decompose and enrich the soil with nutrients for the next crop (Porichha et al., 2021 ). In recent years, however, farmers have increasingly adopted mechanized harvesting due to various reasons, including labour shortages and rising labour costs (Sarkar, 2020 ). Study by several researchers (Lohan et al., 2018 ; Singh et al., 2021 ; Singh et al., 2023 ) reveal that in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, more than 75% of paddy is now harvested using combine harvesters. The shift towards mechanized agriculture, driven by the need to boost crop productivity and meet the demands of a rapidly growing population, has intensified the problem. The adoption of combine harvesters, which leave behind large amounts of crop residue, has led to increased stubble burning as farmers seek to clear fields efficiently (Singh et al., 2023 ). Agricultural stubble burning, the practice of setting fire to crop residues after harvest, is a widespread and environmentally damaging issue globally (Porichha et al., 2021 ). This practice is prevalent in both developing and developed, but the motivations and impacts vary significantly (Deshpande et al., 2023 ; Jiang et al., 2012 ). In developing nations, limited mechanization, and a lack of awareness regarding sustainable practices contribute to higher rates of stubble burning, with crop residues often serving as crucial fuel sources for cooking and heating (Deshpande et al., 2023 ; Crutzen and Andreae, 2016 ; Verma et al., 2024 ). Conversely, developed countries employ more advanced agricultural techniques, resulting in lower rates of residue burning (Jiang et al., 2012 ; Matsumura et al., 2005 ). Globally, open burning of crop residues accounts for a substantial portion of vegetation burned annually, highlighting its profound environmental implications (Singh et al., 2021 ). In India, stubble burning is deeply rooted in tradition, particularly in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh, where significant amounts of rice straw are burned in situ (Gupta et al., 2004 ; Kundu et al., 2024 ). Crop residues, which could otherwise be used for animal fodder or fuel, are often burned due to the absence of effective residue management infrastructure in this region (Deshpande et al., 2023 ; Khanali et al., 2022 ; Kaur et al., 2023 ; Kundu et al., 2024 ). Stubble burning, the practice of setting fire to agricultural residues left after crop harvest, is a prevalent yet environmentally damaging agricultural method employed across the globe (Demirdogen, 2024 ; Chanana et al., 2023 ). This practice is particularly prevalent in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of India (Singh et al., 2023 ; Kundu et al., 2024 ), a region known for its intensive agricultural activities (Singh et al., 2021 ). In these areas, stubble burning is used to quickly clear fields, prepare them for the next planting season, and reduce labour costs (Abdurrahman et al., 2020 ; Singh et al., 2021 ; Kundu et al., 2024 ). However, this method has far-reaching negative impacts on both environmental quality and public health (Porichha et al., 2021 ; Singh et al., 2021 ; Singh et al., 2023 ). Agricultural Burnt in India saw a notable rise, increasing from 3.0 million hectares in 2011 to 4.50 million hectares in 2020, marking a 49% increase. Initially dominated by the Kharif and Rabi cropping seasons, which accounted for 94% of agriculture burnt area in 2011, their share decreased to 86% by 2020 due to increased burning in other periods (Fig. 1 ). Stubble burning during paddy harvesting in Northern India significantly impacts both the environment and public health (Kundu et al., 2024 ). This practice releases pollutants including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter into the atmosphere (Kaur and Singh 2023 ; Kumawat et al., 2021 ; Abdurrahman et al., 2020 ; Singh et al., 2018 ; Singh et al., 2021 ). These emissions degrade air quality drastically, leading to the formation of smog that reduces visibility and poses hazards for road safety (Kundu et al., 2024 ). Health-wise, the smoke contains harmful substances that exacerbate respiratory issues and can lead to serious conditions such as asthma and cardiovascular diseases, particularly affecting vulnerable groups like children and the elderly (Saini et al., 2023 ; Kumawat et al., 2021 ). Moreover, stubble burning adversely affects soil health by depleting essential nutrients and disrupting microbial populations (Arunrat et al., 2023 ). This dual impact on air quality and agricultural sustainability underscores the urgent need for alternative practices to mitigate these detrimental effects on both ecosystems and human well-being (Kumar et al., 2019 ). Environmentally, stubble burning contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, soil degradation, and nutrient loss, affecting soil health and microbial diversity. Effective mitigation strategies are urgently needed to address these profound health and environmental impacts (Chachei, 2024 ; Singh, 2018 ; Singh et al., 2021 ; Verma et al., 2024 ). Given the significant environmental and health impacts of stubble burning, there is a pressing need for effective monitoring and management strategies (Kundu et al., 2024 ). Satellite-based remote sensing has emerged as a valuable tool for assessing and managing agricultural fires (Fu et al., 2022 ; Hall et al., 2021 ; Kundu et al., 2024 ; Pouliot et al., 2017 ; Singh et al., 2021 ; Shaik et al., 2023 ; Yin et al., 2021 ). The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), onboard NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites, offers high-resolution data that can be used to estimate burnt areas and monitor fire activity with precision (Kundu et al., 2024 ; Shaik et al., 2023 ). MODIS data provides crucial insights into the extent and intensity of stubble burning, enabling more informed decision-making for environmental management and policy development (Kundu et al., 2024 ). The current study aims to leverage MODIS datasets to estimate the burnt area due to stubble burning in the IGP. By utilizing remote sensing techniques, this research provides a comprehensive assessment of stubble burning over a large IGP region. Through detailed analysis of MODIS data, this study seeks to enhance understanding of stubble burning dynamics and support the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices in the region. The outcomes of this research will also contribute to the development of effective strategies to mitigate adverse environmental and health impacts arise due to stubble burning in this region. 2. Martials and Methodology 2.1 Study Area The Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) serves as a critical study area for examining stubble burning, encompassing the states of Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 2 ). The total area of the Indo-Gangetic Plains is approximately 700,000 km 2 (270,000 square miles). These plains stretch across several states in northern India, including parts of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal (Chavan et al., 2023 ). The region is characterized by its fertile alluvial soil deposited by the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra rivers, making it one of the most agriculturally productive areas in the country. All the IGP region of India including major states of India viz. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal have been taken for the current analysis except Jharkhand state. The unavailability of crop statistics in Jharkhand was the main region for leaving the state from the analysis. The detailed descriptions of these areas are provided below: Punjab, another integral part of the IGP, spans 50,362 km² and is renowned as the "Granary of India." It is bordered by Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan within India, and shares its name with the Punjab province of Pakistan. The state's landscape varies from fertile alluvial plains of the Indus River system in the east to undulating terrains of the Shivalik Hills in the north. Agriculture, particularly wheat, rice, and maize cultivation, dominates Punjab's economy. Haryana, situated in the northern part of the IGP, covers an area of 44,212 km². It is characterized by its flat terrain and fertile Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains (Mor et al., 2022 ). The state is bordered by the Siwalik Hills in the north and the Aravalli Range in the south. Major rivers like the Yamuna define its eastern boundary, while the Ghaggar River marks its western edge. Haryana is predominantly agricultural, with 88% of its land under cultivation, focusing on crops such as wheat, paddy, maize, and gram. Uttar Pradesh, covering 240,928 km², lies predominantly in the eastern part of the IGP. It is one of India's most populous states, with a diverse geographical landscape divided into the fertile Ganga Plain in the north and the Vindhyan Hills and Plateau in the south. The state is irrigated by major rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghra, and Ramganga, supporting extensive agriculture. Uttar Pradesh faces challenges such as high population density and varying socio-economic indicators. Bihar, situated in the eastern part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, covers an area of approximately 94,163 km². The state is characterized by its fertile alluvial soil, primarily deposited by the Ganges River and its tributaries. Bihar's flat terrain and rich soil make it an agricultural powerhouse, with a significant portion of its land dedicated to farming. Major crops include rice, wheat, maize, and pulses. The Ganges River plays a crucial role in irrigation, supporting the extensive agricultural activities in the state. Despite its agricultural richness, Bihar faces challenges such as frequent flooding, which affects crop productivity and rural livelihoods. West Bengal, located in the easternmost part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, spans an area of about 88,752 km². The state is marked by a diverse topography that includes the fertile plains of the Ganges delta. This region is highly productive, with rice being the dominant crop, along with jute, tea, potatoes, and various fruits and vegetables. The state's agriculture benefits from the annual monsoon rains, although excessive rainfall and flooding can pose significant challenges. Major rivers like the Ganges, Hooghly, and their tributaries provide essential irrigation, supporting West Bengal's agrarian economy. The state is densely populated, with agriculture being the primary occupation for a large portion of the population. The Indo-Gangetic Plains are characterized by their fertile alluvial soils, extensive agricultural activities, and dense populations. Understanding the agricultural practices and challenges in these regions is crucial for addressing environmental and economic issues, ensuring sustainable agricultural development, and improving rural livelihoods. 2.2 Methodology 2.2.1 Data Set and Analysis To estimate burnt areas in Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal (areas belong to IGP region) from 2001 to 2020, MODIS satellite data were utilized alongside agricultural statistics. MODIS's high temporal resolution was leveraged for detecting fire events, integrating these observations with agricultural data to provide accurate and contextually relevant insights. The MODIS MOD14A1 (Thermal Anomalies/Fire Product) was employed for daily fire detection at a 1 km resolution. MOD14A1 was pivotal for identifying fire events. The analysis involved two primary methods. The first method examined the spatial and temporal distribution of burnt areas over the 20-year period. This included mapping fire events, analysing spatial patterns to identify hotspots, and aggregating data annually to observe trends and seasonal variations. The second method quantified cropland burning monthly by aggregating MOD14A1 data into monthly fire frequencies. This approach enabled the identification of agricultural fires, provided insights into seasonal patterns, identified burnt area hotspots, and highlighted changes in burning practices. To enhance accuracy, fire estimates were integrated with annual agricultural statistics, including cropland area and crop types. This integration facilitated a detailed analysis of how agricultural practices influence burning trends. Daily burnt area band from MODIS burnt area product was converted to a binary layer and then added to analysis monthly and annual pattern of burning following below mentioned formula: $$\:{BA}_{sf}=\sum\:_{i=1}^{i=n}BBB$$ Where i is the analysis period, BA sf is Burnt area spatial frequency, and BBB is Binary burnt band taken from orbital measurement of MODIS. 2.2.2 Analysis of Cropland Burning Two analytical approaches were employed to quantify the burnt area in IGP region (Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal). The first approach analysed the spatial and temporal distribution of agricultural land fires over the 20-year period. This long-term analysis revealed patterns and trends in fire occurrences, seasonal variations and identified hotspots. By examining data across two decades, this approach captured the broader dynamics of agricultural fire, including frequency, intensity, and geographic spread. The second approach involved a detailed monthly quantification of cropland burning. This method provided a granular perspective, focusing on specific months of high agricultural burning activity. By breaking down data month-by-month, this analysis pinpointed peak periods of fire activity and assessed variations in burning intensity within each agricultural season. This approach was particularly useful for understanding the temporal dynamics of stubble burning and its correlation with agricultural practices, crop cycles, and climatic conditions. Combining these methods offered a comprehensive assessment of agricultural residue burning in IGP region over a long period of time. The long-term spatial and temporal analysis provided a macro-level understanding of trends and patterns, while the monthly quantification delivered micro-level insights into periods of high fire activity. Together, these methods established a robust framework for evaluating burnt areas and informing targeted strategies to mitigate the environmental and health impacts of agricultural residue burning these highly polluted regions of the world (Singh et al., 2021 ). 3. Results and Discussions 3.1 Results Stubble burning is a prevalent issue across the IGP region, heavily influenced by the timing and intensity of Rabi and Kharif crop sowing/transplanting and harvesting activities. The issue of stubble/crop residue burning starts at the conclusion of Kharif and Rabi crops, and in some instance during the harvesting of some annual crops (Kundu et al., 2024 ). This trend reaches its peak at the time of harvesting of each session, which stands out as the months with the highest incidence of stubble burning during the agricultural cycle (Singh et al., 2021 ). These factors vary across the northern region due to diverse practices in stubble/crop residue utilization and harvesting techniques. Harvesting of crops such as paddy, wheat, sugarcane, maize, and pulses is staggered according to each state's agricultural calendar, thereby affecting the timing and scale of burning. Typically, month of April, May, September, October and November witness the highest incidence of stubble /crop residue burning in the IGP. The harvesting of Rabi crop begins in the month of March that starts time burning and similarly, for at the harvesting (October and November) of Kharif crops. 3.1.1 Month-wise Stubble burning scenarios The area statistics reported here is basically the total burnt area in a month across whole study period i.e. from 2000 to 2020. Hence, it is possible that the total burnt area in a month in higher than the total geographical area of the state. This strategy has been adopted to understand the burning hotspot distribution and impact of regions specific stubble burning management practices. In January, Uttar Pradesh witnessed the highest burnt area, particularly notable in Pilibhit and Bijnor districts, totalling 282.81 km 2 and 55.58 km 2 (with 40.61 km 2 in Bijnor Block alone). Kapurthala in Punjab recorded 22.77 km2 of burnt area. Minor instances of stubble burning were also observed in some districts of Bihar, Haryana, and West Bengal (Fig. 3 ). February saw the majority of burning in West Bengal, followed by Uttar Pradesh. Notably, West Bengal reported 1996.87 km 2 of burnt area. Jhargram and Medinipur in West Midnapore district recorded significant levels, totalling 670.62 km 2 , 466.55 km 2 , 314.59 km 2 , 302.77 km 2 and 132.42 km 2 . Similar occurrences were noted in Lakhimpur Kheri district with 195.81 km 2 of burnt area. Additionally, some areas in Haryana, Punjab, and Bihar also reported minor stubble burning in a few districts (Fig. 3 ). In March, Uttar Pradesh experienced the largest area of stubble burning, totaling 2824.58 km 2 . Lakhimpur district, within Uttar Pradesh’s Lakhimpur Kheri region covering 448.24 km 2 , reported the highest concentration. Puranpur (Pilibhit district), Pawayan (Shahjahanpur district), Dudhi (Sonbhadra district), and Karwi (Chitrakoot district) also recorded substantial amounts, totalling 438.64 km 2 , 298.34 km 2 , 186.91 km 2 , and 165.38 km 2 respectively. Across Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal combined, substantial stubble burning covered 1532.62 km 2 . In West Bengal, Jhargram in West Midnapore district accounted for the largest area with 342.32 km 2 . Other significant areas included Bankura (Bankura district), Medinipur (West Midnapore district), and Bishnupur (Bankura district), totaling 340.03 km 2 , 331.46 km 2 , and 182.59 km 2 respectively. Apart from Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, stubble burning was also noted in various parts of Haryana, Bihar, and Punjab with minor area coverage (Fig. 3 ). In April, Haryana reported the highest incidence of stubble burning across the region, covering an extensive area of 50881.11 km 2 . The largest concentration was observed in Karnal Block of Karnal District, amounting to 6100.91 km 2 . Additionally, significant levels were reported in Asandh (Karnal district), Panipat (Panipat district), Safidon (Jind district), Kaithal (Kaithal district), Gohana (Sonipat district), Ratia, Fatehabad, Tohana (Fatehabad district), and Sirsa (Sirsa district), totaling 4554.11 km 2 , 3912.91 km2, 3711.09 km2, 3476.75 km 2 , 3024.62 km 2 , 2994.2 km 2 , 2834.76 km 2 , 2416.86 km 2 , and 2360.55 km 2 respectively. Substantial stubble burning was also observed in Uttar Pradesh, totalling 4903.24 km 2 in Domriaganj block of Siddharth Nagar district and 1749.59 km 2 in Bansi Block. In Bihar, the highest levels were recorded in Sasaram (Rohtas district) with 5260.75 km 2 . Additionally, stubble burning was noted in Bettiah (Pashchim Champaran district) and Bhabua (Bhabua district), covering 1512.38 km 2 and 1234.42 km 2 respectively (Fig. 3 ). In May, this phenomenon was predominantly visible in Moga block of Moga district, Punjab, covering 8055.10 km 2 . Significant amounts of stubble burning were also evident in other districts: Firozpur block in Firozpur district, Mansa in Mansa district, Muktsar in Muktsar district, Patti and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district, Sunam in Sangrur district, Faridkot in Faridkot district, and Batala block in Gurdaspur district, spanning 6718.28 km 2 , 5691.35 km2, 5640.62 km 2 , 4736.33 km 2 , 4454.97 km 2 , 4394.23 km 2 , 4097.81 km 2 , and 4012.79 km 2 respectively. In Haryana, the highest occurrences were observed in Panipat district (Panipat), Sonipat district (Gohana), and Jind district (Safidon Block), covering 3840.66 km 2 , 3758.98 km 2 , and 3673.68 km 2 respectively. This activity was also noticeable in other parts of Haryana. Additionally, substantial areas were affected in Domriaganj and Bansi blocks of Siddharth Nagar district, Uttar Pradesh, totalling 2755.37 km 2 and 1437.83 km 2 respectively (Fig. 3 ). In June, the highest amount of stubble burning was observed in Punjab and Haryana, totalling 279.43 km 2 and 115.21 km 2 respectively. In Punjab, Nakodar in Jalandhar district, Sultanpur Lodhi in Kapurthala district, Ajnala in Amritsar district, and Balachaur in Nawan Shehar district recorded the highest extents at 51.98 km 2 , 44.94 km 2 , 39.96 km 2 , and 37.09 km 2 respectively. In Haryana, Karnal in Karnal district, Jagadhri in Yamunanagar district, and Panipat in Panipat district had the highest amounts at 18.63 km 2 , 16.56 km 2 , and 14.97 km 2 respectively. Additionally, stubble burning to a lesser extent was observed in Bihar during this time (Fig. 3 ). Kharif crop cultivation commences across India, filling fields before July with various crops. Consequently, stubble burning is nearly absent in July, except for a small observation in Kasganj, Etah district, Uttar Pradesh, totalling 0.442 km 2 . Punjab reported a total stubble burning area of 23.56 km 2 , with the highest concentration in Baba Bakala, Amritsar district, covering 20.36 km 2 . Additionally, smaller areas of 1 km 2 or less were noted in blocks across Kapurthala, Jalandhar, and Amritsar districts. Stubble burning was also observed in several parts of Haryana, including Palwal district (5.94 km 2 ), Jhajjar district (4.36 km 2 ), and Rohtak district (2.40 km2). Uttar Pradesh also reported minor instances (Fig. 3 ). In August 23.56 km 2 was reported as affect by stubble burning in Baba Bakala in Amritsar district of Punjab. Some smaller areas < 1 km 2 has been reported in the districts of Kapurthala, Jalandhar, and Amritsar. In addition to Punjab, stubble burning has been observed in several areas of Haryana, including Palwal in Palwal district, Jhajjar in Jhajjar district, and Rohtak in Rohtak district, in relatively large area (5.94, 4.36, and 2.40 km 2 ). Smaller areas were also reported in the Uttar Pradesh, this stubble burning has been seen to a small extent (Fig. 3 ). In September, Punjab witnessed the highest incidence of stubble burning, covering 33539.33 km 2 . Within Punjab, Firozpur district reported the highest extent at 5222.78 km 2 , followed by Faridkot, Baba Bakala, Tarn Taran in Amritsar district, Moga in Moga district, and Zira in Firozpur district, with 3991.44 km 2 , 3737.59 km 2 , 2107.93 km 2 , 2759.79 km 2 , and 2043.92 km 2 respectively (Fig. 3 ). Alongside Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh also experienced significant stubble burning, totalling 914.42 km 2 and 901.14 km 2 respectively. Karnal district in Haryana had the highest amount at 530.26 km 2 , while Hamirpur district in Uttar Pradesh recorded 222.34 km 2 . Bihar and West Bengal also observed this phenomenon to a lesser extent (Fig. 3 ). In October, Punjab reported the highest incidence of stubble burning, totalling 208245.74 km 2 . The Moga block in Moga district recorded the highest amount within Punjab at 12242.94 km 2 . Significant levels were also observed in Ludhiana (10861.84 km 2 ), Jagraon (10604.07 km 2 ), Maler Kotla (9719.35 km 2 ), Sunam (9715.33 km 2 ), and Barnala (9577.53 km 2 ) in Sangrur district, as well as in Fatehgarh Sahib, Patiala, Firozpur, and other districts across the state. Following Punjab, Uttar Pradesh reported the next highest amount of stubble burning in October, totaling 10208.27 km 2 . Pawayan in Shahjahanpur district had the highest extent within Uttar Pradesh at 2240.18 km 2 , significantly more than other blocks in the state. Other notable areas in Uttar Pradesh included Bilaspur (1254.97 km 2 ) in Rampur district, Pilibhit (1156.94 km 2 ), and Puranpur (1073.76 km 2 ) in Pilibhit district. Across Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana combined, stubble burning was observed extensively, totalling 10134.06 km 2 . In Haryana, Karnal district reported the highest extent at 1655.31 km 2 . Other significant areas in Haryana included Sirsa (1064.18 km 2 ) in Sirsa district, Gulha (930.46 km 2 ) in Kaithal district, Palwal (862.45 km 2 ) in Palwal district, Ambala (857.16 km 2 ) in Ambala district, among others (Fig. 3 ). During November, stubble burning increased significantly due to ongoing harvesting activities and preparation for rabi crop cultivation, particularly in Punjab, covering 214345.51 km 2 . Moga district in Punjab registered the highest extent of stubble burning, reaching 200077.75 km 2 . Significant levels were also observed in Sangrur district, including Barnala (14792.11 km 2 ), Sunam (13714.39 km 2 ), Maler Kotla (11912.55 km 2 ), Mansa district (14424.78 km 2 ), Muktsar district (14227.16 km 2 ), Fazilka (10723.09 km 2 ), Firozpur (9387.87 km 2 ), and numerous other districts. Alongside Punjab, stubble burning was also notable in Haryana, totaling 20637.52 km 2 . Sirsa district in Haryana reported the highest area at 4227.25 km 2 . Other significant areas included Panipat (2223.36 km 2 ), Safidon (1959.08 km 2 ) in Jind district, and Asandh (1861.86 km 2 ) in Karnal district, surpassing other regions in the state. Furthermore, this phenomenon extended to several areas of Uttar Pradesh, amounting to 8966.32 km 2 , with Maharajganj district recording 1542.79 km 2 . Additionally, stubble burning was observed to a lesser extent in West Bengal and Bihar during this period (Fig. 3 ). In December, the highest amount of stubble burning was observed in Bihar, totalling 1078.35 km 2 . The largest extent was recorded in Sasaram, Rohtas district, Bihar, covering 586.81 km 2 . Significant amounts were also noted in Bhabua, Buxar district (260.32 km 2 ), and Bhabua district (186.40 km 2 ) of Bihar. Additionally, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana experienced notable stubble burning, covering 464.64 km 2 , 178.33 km 2 , and 94.30 km 2 respectively. In Uttar Pradesh, significant areas included Maharajganj district with 154.2 km 2 . West Bengal reported the smallest amount at 18.40 km 2 (Fig. 3 ). Spatially the burnt areas were found to be distributed in Haryana and Punjab during March and April, and October and November (Fig. 3 ). April and November months showed almost uniform distribution of crop land burning across all the IGP regions where the Punjab and Haryana can be detected as hotspots of the crop land burning. These two months are post-harvest time for Rabi and Kharif season in these regions. Hotspots over Punjab and Haryana are probably due to intense rice-wheat cropping system over the region. 3.2 Discussion The rice-wheat cropping system is crucial for global food security, supplying staple grains to about 8% of the world's population (Timsina and Connor, 2001 ). In South Asia, these systems cover approximately 0.135 million km 2 , with a significant concentration in India and the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) (Timsina and Connor, 2001 ; Singh et al., 2021 ; Kundu et al., 2024 ). The IGP is a critical agricultural region for India, contributing about 41% of the country's annual food production, predominantly in grains. Of all the area within the IGP, around 16% is dedicated to the rice-wheat rotation system (Khedwal et al., 2023 ). The rice-wheat system, which covers roughly 0.092 million km 2 , is essential to India's national food security (Jat et al., 2020 ). In the IGP, wheat is cultivated from November to March during the cool, dry season, while rice is grown from June to October in the warm, humid season (Kumar et al., 2022 ). This system accounts for 23% of India's rice area and 40% of its wheat area, with rice and wheat together contributing 85% of the nation's cereal production (Timsina and Connor, 2001 ). Since, the rice-wheat system dominate the region and most of the crop land burning is aligned with the harvesting period of rice and wheat it can be depicted that the stubble of rice and wheat is the main cause of crop land burning in IGP region. Historically, agricultural practices in this region relied heavily on manual labour for harvesting and ploughing. With the advent of farm mechanization, labour shortages have led to the widespread practice of stubble burning. Combine harvesters, while efficient, leave stubble in the fields, which farmers often find challenging to manage (Ramm et al., 2023 ). Rice straw, high in lignocellulose but low in minerals and proteins, is unsuitable for fodder in many regions. Combined with the short time frame for clearing fields for the next crop, limited alternative uses, storage challenges, and regulatory changes reducing the use of rice straw in industries like brick kilns, stubble burning has become the most expedient option for farmers (Beacham et al., 2023 ; Singh et al., 2021 ). Given that, this stubble cannot easily be tilled back into the soil, burning becomes the quickest method to clear fields; with an estimated 50–70% of rice straw burned each year (Sharma et al., 2020 ; Singh et al., 2021 ). A study utilizing 20 years of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data (2000–2020) revealed the spatial and temporal patterns of agricultural residue burning in the IGP. Stubble burning is widespread, coinciding with regional harvest periods. In India, wheat stubble burning typically occurs from mid-April to mid-May, predominantly in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. Rice residue burning takes place from October to December in the IGP (Montes et al., 2022 ; Singh et al., 2021 ). The study observed a consistent seasonal pattern of agricultural burning, with peak fires from March to May and a secondary peak from October to November (Singh et al., 2021 ). These variations align with regional crop rotation practices (Brye et al., 2006 ; McCarty et al., 2007 ; Korontzi et al., 2008 ; Kundu et al., 2024 ). Various studies confirm this pattern, highlighting increased stubble burning in March-April and late October to mid-November (Cordeiro et al., 2023 ; Montes et al., 2022 ; Kumar et al., 2021 ; Jain et al., 2021 ; Singh et al., 2021 ; Singh et al., 2023 ; Singh & Panigrahy, 2011 ). The harvesting of Rabi crops occurs in late March or April, while Kharif crops are harvested from late October through November. MODIS active fire records indicate that March, April, May, and November accounted for the highest percentage of burnt areas over the 20-year period (Fig. 3 ). Crop waste burning typically begins about a month after harvesting starts and continues until the season ends, reflecting MODIS-based assessments of cropland fire cycles (Verma et al., 2019 ). The assessment of stubble burning in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh highlights a persistent and complex issue in North India's agricultural landscape. Punjab, being the most affected, owes its high incidence of stubble burning to extensive paddy cultivation (Singh, 2018 ). The state's agricultural cycle, marked by a narrow window between rice harvest and wheat sowing, pressures farmers to burn stubble for quick field preparation (Kumar et al., 2015 ; Singh et al., 2018 ). This practice is most prevalent in districts like Sangrur, Bathinda, and Ludhiana, where the density of paddy cultivation leads to significant stubble generation (Sangeet and Kumar, 2021 ). Multiple researchers have identified Punjab as the state most severely impacted by stubble burning (Kaur and Singh, 2023 ; Singh et al., 2023 ; Porichha et al., 2021 ; Chawala and Sandhu, 2020 ). In contrast, districts like Gurdaspur, Pathankot, Rupnagar, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, and Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar are less affected. In Haryana, districts such as Ambala, Fatehabad, and Hisar also face significant challenges with stubble burning. The situation in Haryana mirrors that of Punjab, with the state's agricultural practices and the short time between crop cycles being key factors (Parihar et al., 2023 ). Meanwhile, Uttar Pradesh, although also affected, experiences stubble burning on a relatively smaller scale compared to Punjab and Haryana. The most affected districts in Uttar Pradesh include Ballia, Barabanki, Deoria, and Jhansi. The lower incidence in Uttar Pradesh is attributed to its diverse cropping patterns and lesser reliance on paddy cultivation (Kundu et al., 2024 ). Despite government efforts to promote alternative technologies like the Happy Seeder, adoption remains limited due to factors such as cost, availability, and farmer awareness (Villalba et al., 2024 ; Parihar et al., 2023 ). Kumar et al ( 2015 ) observed that approximately 90% of farmers are aware of the health impacts of stubble burning, yet they continue to practice it. This behaviour may stem from a shortage of labour, a lack of government incentives, or a lack of awareness about more cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternatives. To address the issue of stubble burning and its environmental impact, alternative uses for stubble need to be promoted (Das et al., 2024 ). Stubble, the residue left after harvesting crops like paddy and wheat, has significant potential as a valuable resource. Instead of burning, which exacerbates air pollution, stubble can be utilized in various sustainable and economically beneficial ways. For example, it can be converted into bioethanol (Fang et al., 2024 ), biogas (Satpathy and Pradhan, 2022), or used as feedstock in biomass power plants (Kaur and Singh, 2023 ). Stubble can also be composted (Kaur and Singh, 2023 ) or used in vermicomposting (Kumar et al., 2022 ) to create organic fertilizers, enriching soil health and reducing the need for chemical inputs in agriculture. Additionally, it serves as an excellent substrate for mushroom cultivation, particularly for certain mushroom varieties, providing an additional income stream for farmers (De La Cruz-Marcos et al., 2023 ). In agriculture, stubble can be used as mulch to conserve soil moisture (Walia et al., 2024 ), contributing to more sustainable farming practices. The production of biochar through the pyrolysis of stubble not only enhances soil fertility but also helps sequester carbon, mitigating climate change (Kumar et al., 2023 ). Industrial applications also offer promising alternatives, with stubble being processed into pulp for paper and packaging materials (Kumar et al., 2023 ), providing an eco-friendly alternative to wood-based pulp (Jayanti et al., 2023 ). 4. Conclusions The analysis of areas affected by stubble burning throughout the year reveals significant regional variations. States such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, and West Bengal each experience distinct peaks in stubble burning, reflecting their unique agricultural practices. Trends from 2001 to 2020 in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh reveal fluctuating patterns, with notable increases in certain years pointing to broader environmental and agricultural challenges. Agriculture remains central to India's economy; however, stubble burning, particularly in these regions, presents severe environmental and public health issues. The shift towards mechanized harvesting, driven by labor shortages, has exacerbated the problem. Farmers increasingly resort to burning as a quick and cost-effective way to clear fields, compounded by the time-consuming and expensive nature of alternative methods. Addressing these challenges requires effective monitoring and management strategies. Advanced remote sensing techniques, such as MODIS satellite data, provide a promising approach for accurately estimating areas affected by stubble burning and monitoring fire activity. These data-driven insights can support targeted interventions and policy development aimed at mitigating the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning. Analysis showed peak season of crop land burning is aligned with harvesting time of Rabi and Kharif i.e. April to May and October to November respectively. Crop land burning were found to be prevalent across the region during April and November indicating that the whole area is affected by crop land burning and pollutions in IGP region during this time period is mainly contributed to the crop land burning. Spatial distribution showed hotspots over Punjab and Haryana during April and May (Rabi) and October and November (Kharif). Despite efforts to reduce stubble burning, challenges such as limited awareness of alternative practices and the high cost of new technologies persist. However, stubble holds substantial potential as a resource. It can be converted into bioethanol, biogas, or used as feedstock in biomass power plants. Additionally, it can be composted to enhance soil health, utilized in mushroom cultivation, or processed into biochar and paper products. Exploring these alternatives and increasing awareness and adoption of sustainable practices can help address the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning while optimizing the use of agricultural residues. The goal is to promote sustainable agricultural practices that ensure food security while protecting environmental and public health for future generations. Declarations The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work. The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. Acknowledgements NASA is acknowledged for data availability. Competing Interests: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Ethics approval: Not Applicable Consent: Not Applicable Data Material and/or Code availability: Data can be made available on request to the corresponding author for the research purpose. 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In Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management (pp. 49–56). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8425-1_7 Yin, S., Guo, M., Wang, X., Yamamoto, H., & Ou, W. (2021). Spatiotemporal variation and distribution characteristics of crop residue burning in China from 2001 to 2018. Environmental Pollution, 268, 115849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115849 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7235870","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":497395570,"identity":"9e553015-2c6d-4ace-a331-b6b990483960","order_by":0,"name":"Nidhi Kundu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCAzwMDIwNDDJszMwHDD4ABdjYidTCw8/OllA4A6SFmVgtkv08Bp95QCKEtPCdP3vw49cdNjwGh9kSN9v82ibPx8zA+OFjDm4tkjfykqVlz6QBtTAfNs7tu23YxszALDlzG24tBjd4DKQl2w6DbEkzzu25zQjUwsbMi0/L+TPGvyXb/gO18Jj/tuy5bU9Yy4EcM8mPbQd4JJt5DIwZftxOJKgF6Jc0a8a2ZB5+ZrYEw96G28ltzIzNeP0CDLHDN3+22cmx8R8+YPDjz23b+e3NBz98xKMFBJh5YCzGNjDZgF89SMkPOPMPQcWjYBSMglEwAgEArEdS5Gsvdv0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Haryana Space Applications Centre, CCS HAU Campus","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nidhi","middleName":"","lastName":"Kundu","suffix":""},{"id":497395571,"identity":"c4459539-6f54-465b-92a4-8c64b9af2ac0","order_by":1,"name":"Ramesh Singh Hooda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Haryana Space Applications Centre, CCS HAU Campus","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ramesh","middleName":"Singh","lastName":"Hooda","suffix":""},{"id":497395572,"identity":"59d7d50f-c445-4a61-8713-3e419bd3a195","order_by":2,"name":"Sandeep Kumar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"OM Sterling Global University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sandeep","middleName":"","lastName":"Kumar","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-28 16:23:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7235870/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7235870/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91215609,"identity":"3b04d332-14d7-495f-9dad-5ea91b5b6555","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 19:29:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1214554,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAgricultural burned area (ABA) (ha) estimated for burning seasons (a) Summer, (b) Autumn, (c) Winter, (d) Rabi, and (e) Kharif showing a decadal trend for the top contributing states. (f) Top contributors are depicting % of ABA out of the total area under cultivation. A common legend is used for all plots showing the top states per season. Source: Deshpande et al., (2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7235870/v1/436a24921c627b70a558b281.png"},{"id":91215608,"identity":"7eebfacf-f322-476e-be98-bd07475c321b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 19:29:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":160758,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7235870/v1/16ea411e093183769a3f246f.png"},{"id":91215610,"identity":"7fa18770-0f3c-4f8a-b899-5762182005ee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 19:29:35","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1128910,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly area affected by stubble burning in the IGP (1- Jan; 2-Feb; 3-Mar; 4-Apr; 5-May; 6-Jun; 7-Jul; 8-Aug; 9-Sep; 10-Oct; 11- Nov; 12-Dec)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7235870/v1/ca75631a44d6ae4b0e6b242a.png"},{"id":93517619,"identity":"d2cac97d-6dcf-4e35-b5a4-a48a61ea42a7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-14 17:01:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2864655,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7235870/v1/67f119bb-b469-4e63-b840-edb2e73bcb0c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Satellite Driven Insights of Long-Term Stubble Burning in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgriculture remains pivotal to India's economy, supporting 50% of the livelihoods and employment, despite its declining share in the Gross Domestic Product (Khan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The North-western states, particularly Punjab, and Haryana have seen significant growth in the cultivation of crops like paddy and wheat since the Green Revolution, contributing substantially to national food grain production, with Punjab and Haryana often referred to as India's food bowl (Sindhu, 2014). The Indo-Gangetic Plains, home to 40% of India's population, play a crucial role, covering 20% of the country's area and contributing 42% to total food grain production (Tripathi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The region's rice-wheat cropping system, spanning 13.5\u0026nbsp;million hectares, ensures food security and sustains rural livelihoods (Mahajan and Gupta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter crop harvesting, it was common practice to leave stubbles in the fields for four to six weeks, allowing them to decompose and enrich the soil with nutrients for the next crop (Porichha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In recent years, however, farmers have increasingly adopted mechanized harvesting due to various reasons, including labour shortages and rising labour costs (Sarkar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Study by several researchers (Lohan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) reveal that in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, more than 75% of paddy is now harvested using combine harvesters. The shift towards mechanized agriculture, driven by the need to boost crop productivity and meet the demands of a rapidly growing population, has intensified the problem. The adoption of combine harvesters, which leave behind large amounts of crop residue, has led to increased stubble burning as farmers seek to clear fields efficiently (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgricultural stubble burning, the practice of setting fire to crop residues after harvest, is a widespread and environmentally damaging issue globally (Porichha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This practice is prevalent in both developing and developed, but the motivations and impacts vary significantly (Deshpande et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Jiang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In developing nations, limited mechanization, and a lack of awareness regarding sustainable practices contribute to higher rates of stubble burning, with crop residues often serving as crucial fuel sources for cooking and heating (Deshpande et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Crutzen and Andreae, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Verma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, developed countries employ more advanced agricultural techniques, resulting in lower rates of residue burning (Jiang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Matsumura et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, open burning of crop residues accounts for a substantial portion of vegetation burned annually, highlighting its profound environmental implications (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In India, stubble burning is deeply rooted in tradition, particularly in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh, where significant amounts of rice straw are burned in situ (Gupta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Crop residues, which could otherwise be used for animal fodder or fuel, are often burned due to the absence of effective residue management infrastructure in this region (Deshpande et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Khanali et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kaur et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStubble burning, the practice of setting fire to agricultural residues left after crop harvest, is a prevalent yet environmentally damaging agricultural method employed across the globe (Demirdogen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Chanana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This practice is particularly prevalent in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of India (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), a region known for its intensive agricultural activities (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In these areas, stubble burning is used to quickly clear fields, prepare them for the next planting season, and reduce labour costs (Abdurrahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, this method has far-reaching negative impacts on both environmental quality and public health (Porichha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgricultural Burnt in India saw a notable rise, increasing from 3.0\u0026nbsp;million hectares in 2011 to 4.50\u0026nbsp;million hectares in 2020, marking a 49% increase. Initially dominated by the Kharif and Rabi cropping seasons, which accounted for 94% of agriculture burnt area in 2011, their share decreased to 86% by 2020 due to increased burning in other periods (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Stubble burning during paddy harvesting in Northern India significantly impacts both the environment and public health (Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This practice releases pollutants including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter into the atmosphere (Kaur and Singh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kumawat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Abdurrahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These emissions degrade air quality drastically, leading to the formation of smog that reduces visibility and poses hazards for road safety (Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Health-wise, the smoke contains harmful substances that exacerbate respiratory issues and can lead to serious conditions such as asthma and cardiovascular diseases, particularly affecting vulnerable groups like children and the elderly (Saini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kumawat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, stubble burning adversely affects soil health by depleting essential nutrients and disrupting microbial populations (Arunrat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This dual impact on air quality and agricultural sustainability underscores the urgent need for alternative practices to mitigate these detrimental effects on both ecosystems and human well-being (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Environmentally, stubble burning contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, soil degradation, and nutrient loss, affecting soil health and microbial diversity. Effective mitigation strategies are urgently needed to address these profound health and environmental impacts (Chachei, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Verma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the significant environmental and health impacts of stubble burning, there is a pressing need for effective monitoring and management strategies (Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Satellite-based remote sensing has emerged as a valuable tool for assessing and managing agricultural fires (Fu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Hall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Pouliot et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Shaik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Yin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), onboard NASA\u0026rsquo;s Terra and Aqua satellites, offers high-resolution data that can be used to estimate burnt areas and monitor fire activity with precision (Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Shaik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). MODIS data provides crucial insights into the extent and intensity of stubble burning, enabling more informed decision-making for environmental management and policy development (Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study aims to leverage MODIS datasets to estimate the burnt area due to stubble burning in the IGP. By utilizing remote sensing techniques, this research provides a comprehensive assessment of stubble burning over a large IGP region. Through detailed analysis of MODIS data, this study seeks to enhance understanding of stubble burning dynamics and support the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices in the region. The outcomes of this research will also contribute to the development of effective strategies to mitigate adverse environmental and health impacts arise due to stubble burning in this region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Martials and Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) serves as a critical study area for examining stubble burning, encompassing the states of Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The total area of the Indo-Gangetic Plains is approximately 700,000 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (270,000 square miles). These plains stretch across several states in northern India, including parts of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal (Chavan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The region is characterized by its fertile alluvial soil deposited by the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra rivers, making it one of the most agriculturally productive areas in the country. All the IGP region of India including major states of India viz. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal have been taken for the current analysis except Jharkhand state. The unavailability of crop statistics in Jharkhand was the main region for leaving the state from the analysis. The detailed descriptions of these areas are provided below:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePunjab, another integral part of the IGP, spans 50,362 km\u0026sup2; and is renowned as the \"Granary of India.\" It is bordered by Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan within India, and shares its name with the Punjab province of Pakistan. The state's landscape varies from fertile alluvial plains of the Indus River system in the east to undulating terrains of the Shivalik Hills in the north. Agriculture, particularly wheat, rice, and maize cultivation, dominates Punjab's economy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHaryana, situated in the northern part of the IGP, covers an area of 44,212 km\u0026sup2;. It is characterized by its flat terrain and fertile Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains (Mor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The state is bordered by the Siwalik Hills in the north and the Aravalli Range in the south. Major rivers like the Yamuna define its eastern boundary, while the Ghaggar River marks its western edge. Haryana is predominantly agricultural, with 88% of its land under cultivation, focusing on crops such as wheat, paddy, maize, and gram.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUttar Pradesh, covering 240,928 km\u0026sup2;, lies predominantly in the eastern part of the IGP. It is one of India's most populous states, with a diverse geographical landscape divided into the fertile Ganga Plain in the north and the Vindhyan Hills and Plateau in the south. The state is irrigated by major rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghra, and Ramganga, supporting extensive agriculture. Uttar Pradesh faces challenges such as high population density and varying socio-economic indicators.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBihar, situated in the eastern part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, covers an area of approximately 94,163 km\u0026sup2;. The state is characterized by its fertile alluvial soil, primarily deposited by the Ganges River and its tributaries. Bihar's flat terrain and rich soil make it an agricultural powerhouse, with a significant portion of its land dedicated to farming. Major crops include rice, wheat, maize, and pulses. The Ganges River plays a crucial role in irrigation, supporting the extensive agricultural activities in the state. Despite its agricultural richness, Bihar faces challenges such as frequent flooding, which affects crop productivity and rural livelihoods. West Bengal, located in the easternmost part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, spans an area of about 88,752 km\u0026sup2;. The state is marked by a diverse topography that includes the fertile plains of the Ganges delta. This region is highly productive, with rice being the dominant crop, along with jute, tea, potatoes, and various fruits and vegetables. The state's agriculture benefits from the annual monsoon rains, although excessive rainfall and flooding can pose significant challenges. Major rivers like the Ganges, Hooghly, and their tributaries provide essential irrigation, supporting West Bengal's agrarian economy. The state is densely populated, with agriculture being the primary occupation for a large portion of the population. The Indo-Gangetic Plains are characterized by their fertile alluvial soils, extensive agricultural activities, and dense populations. Understanding the agricultural practices and challenges in these regions is crucial for addressing environmental and economic issues, ensuring sustainable agricultural development, and improving rural livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Methodology\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Data Set and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo estimate burnt areas in Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal (areas belong to IGP region) from 2001 to 2020, MODIS satellite data were utilized alongside agricultural statistics. MODIS's high temporal resolution was leveraged for detecting fire events, integrating these observations with agricultural data to provide accurate and contextually relevant insights. The MODIS MOD14A1 (Thermal Anomalies/Fire Product) was employed for daily fire detection at a 1 km resolution. MOD14A1 was pivotal for identifying fire events.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis involved two primary methods. The first method examined the spatial and temporal distribution of burnt areas over the 20-year period. This included mapping fire events, analysing spatial patterns to identify hotspots, and aggregating data annually to observe trends and seasonal variations. The second method quantified cropland burning monthly by aggregating MOD14A1 data into monthly fire frequencies. This approach enabled the identification of agricultural fires, provided insights into seasonal patterns, identified burnt area hotspots, and highlighted changes in burning practices. To enhance accuracy, fire estimates were integrated with annual agricultural statistics, including cropland area and crop types. This integration facilitated a detailed analysis of how agricultural practices influence burning trends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaily burnt area band from MODIS burnt area product was converted to a binary layer and then added to analysis monthly and annual pattern of burning following below mentioned formula:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{BA}_{sf}=\\sum\\:_{i=1}^{i=n}BBB$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere i is the analysis period, BA\u003csub\u003esf\u003c/sub\u003e is Burnt area spatial frequency, and BBB is Binary burnt band taken from orbital measurement of MODIS.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Analysis of Cropland Burning\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo analytical approaches were employed to quantify the burnt area in IGP region (Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal). The first approach analysed the spatial and temporal distribution of agricultural land fires over the 20-year period. This long-term analysis revealed patterns and trends in fire occurrences, seasonal variations and identified hotspots. By examining data across two decades, this approach captured the broader dynamics of agricultural fire, including frequency, intensity, and geographic spread. The second approach involved a detailed monthly quantification of cropland burning. This method provided a granular perspective, focusing on specific months of high agricultural burning activity. By breaking down data month-by-month, this analysis pinpointed peak periods of fire activity and assessed variations in burning intensity within each agricultural season. This approach was particularly useful for understanding the temporal dynamics of stubble burning and its correlation with agricultural practices, crop cycles, and climatic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombining these methods offered a comprehensive assessment of agricultural residue burning in IGP region over a long period of time. The long-term spatial and temporal analysis provided a macro-level understanding of trends and patterns, while the monthly quantification delivered micro-level insights into periods of high fire activity. Together, these methods established a robust framework for evaluating burnt areas and informing targeted strategies to mitigate the environmental and health impacts of agricultural residue burning these highly polluted regions of the world (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Results\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStubble burning is a prevalent issue across the IGP region, heavily influenced by the timing and intensity of Rabi and Kharif crop sowing/transplanting and harvesting activities. The issue of stubble/crop residue burning starts at the conclusion of Kharif and Rabi crops, and in some instance during the harvesting of some annual crops (Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This trend reaches its peak at the time of harvesting of each session, which stands out as the months with the highest incidence of stubble burning during the agricultural cycle (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These factors vary across the northern region due to diverse practices in stubble/crop residue utilization and harvesting techniques. Harvesting of crops such as paddy, wheat, sugarcane, maize, and pulses is staggered according to each state's agricultural calendar, thereby affecting the timing and scale of burning. Typically, month of April, May, September, October and November witness the highest incidence of stubble /crop residue burning in the IGP. The harvesting of Rabi crop begins in the month of March that starts time burning and similarly, for at the harvesting (October and November) of Kharif crops.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Month-wise Stubble burning scenarios\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe area statistics reported here is basically the total burnt area in a month across whole study period i.e. from 2000 to 2020. Hence, it is possible that the total burnt area in a month in higher than the total geographical area of the state. This strategy has been adopted to understand the burning hotspot distribution and impact of regions specific stubble burning management practices. In January, Uttar Pradesh witnessed the highest burnt area, particularly notable in Pilibhit and Bijnor districts, totalling 282.81 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 55.58 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (with 40.61 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in Bijnor Block alone). Kapurthala in Punjab recorded 22.77 km2 of burnt area. Minor instances of stubble burning were also observed in some districts of Bihar, Haryana, and West Bengal (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFebruary saw the majority of burning in West Bengal, followed by Uttar Pradesh. Notably, West Bengal reported 1996.87 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e of burnt area. Jhargram and Medinipur in West Midnapore district recorded significant levels, totalling 670.62 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 466.55 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 314.59 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 302.77 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 132.42 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Similar occurrences were noted in Lakhimpur Kheri district with 195.81 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eof burnt area. Additionally, some areas in Haryana, Punjab, and Bihar also reported minor stubble burning in a few districts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn March, Uttar Pradesh experienced the largest area of stubble burning, totaling 2824.58 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Lakhimpur district, within Uttar Pradesh\u0026rsquo;s Lakhimpur Kheri region covering 448.24 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, reported the highest concentration. Puranpur (Pilibhit district), Pawayan (Shahjahanpur district), Dudhi (Sonbhadra district), and Karwi (Chitrakoot district) also recorded substantial amounts, totalling 438.64 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 298.34 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 186.91 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 165.38 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. Across Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal combined, substantial stubble burning covered 1532.62 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. In West Bengal, Jhargram in West Midnapore district accounted for the largest area with 342.32 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Other significant areas included Bankura (Bankura district), Medinipur (West Midnapore district), and Bishnupur (Bankura district), totaling 340.03 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 331.46 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 182.59 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. Apart from Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, stubble burning was also noted in various parts of Haryana, Bihar, and Punjab with minor area coverage (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn April, Haryana reported the highest incidence of stubble burning across the region, covering an extensive area of 50881.11 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The largest concentration was observed in Karnal Block of Karnal District, amounting to 6100.91 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, significant levels were reported in Asandh (Karnal district), Panipat (Panipat district), Safidon (Jind district), Kaithal (Kaithal district), Gohana (Sonipat district), Ratia, Fatehabad, Tohana (Fatehabad district), and Sirsa (Sirsa district), totaling 4554.11 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 3912.91 km2, 3711.09 km2, 3476.75 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 3024.62 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 2994.2 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 2834.76 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 2416.86 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 2360.55 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. Substantial stubble burning was also observed in Uttar Pradesh, totalling 4903.24 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in Domriaganj block of Siddharth Nagar district and 1749.59 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in Bansi Block. In Bihar, the highest levels were recorded in Sasaram (Rohtas district) with 5260.75 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, stubble burning was noted in Bettiah (Pashchim Champaran district) and Bhabua (Bhabua district), covering 1512.38 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 1234.42 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn May, this phenomenon was predominantly visible in Moga block of Moga district, Punjab, covering 8055.10 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Significant amounts of stubble burning were also evident in other districts: Firozpur block in Firozpur district, Mansa in Mansa district, Muktsar in Muktsar district, Patti and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district, Sunam in Sangrur district, Faridkot in Faridkot district, and Batala block in Gurdaspur district, spanning 6718.28 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 5691.35 km2, 5640.62 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 4736.33 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 4454.97 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 4394.23 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 4097.81 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 4012.79 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. In Haryana, the highest occurrences were observed in Panipat district (Panipat), Sonipat district (Gohana), and Jind district (Safidon Block), covering 3840.66 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 3758.98 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 3673.68 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. This activity was also noticeable in other parts of Haryana. Additionally, substantial areas were affected in Domriaganj and Bansi blocks of Siddharth Nagar district, Uttar Pradesh, totalling 2755.37 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 1437.83 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn June, the highest amount of stubble burning was observed in Punjab and Haryana, totalling 279.43 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 115.21 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. In Punjab, Nakodar in Jalandhar district, Sultanpur Lodhi in Kapurthala district, Ajnala in Amritsar district, and Balachaur in Nawan Shehar district recorded the highest extents at 51.98 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 44.94 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 39.96 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 37.09 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. In Haryana, Karnal in Karnal district, Jagadhri in Yamunanagar district, and Panipat in Panipat district had the highest amounts at 18.63 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 16.56 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 14.97 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. Additionally, stubble burning to a lesser extent was observed in Bihar during this time (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKharif crop cultivation commences across India, filling fields before July with various crops. Consequently, stubble burning is nearly absent in July, except for a small observation in Kasganj, Etah district, Uttar Pradesh, totalling 0.442 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Punjab reported a total stubble burning area of 23.56 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, with the highest concentration in Baba Bakala, Amritsar district, covering 20.36 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, smaller areas of 1 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e or less were noted in blocks across Kapurthala, Jalandhar, and Amritsar districts. Stubble burning was also observed in several parts of Haryana, including Palwal district (5.94 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Jhajjar district (4.36 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), and Rohtak district (2.40 km2). Uttar Pradesh also reported minor instances (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn August 23.56 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e was reported as affect by stubble burning in Baba Bakala in Amritsar district of Punjab. Some smaller areas\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e has been reported in the districts of Kapurthala, Jalandhar, and Amritsar. In addition to Punjab, stubble burning has been observed in several areas of Haryana, including Palwal in Palwal district, Jhajjar in Jhajjar district, and Rohtak in Rohtak district, in relatively large area (5.94, 4.36, and 2.40 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e). Smaller areas were also reported in the Uttar Pradesh, this stubble burning has been seen to a small extent (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn September, Punjab witnessed the highest incidence of stubble burning, covering 33539.33 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Within Punjab, Firozpur district reported the highest extent at 5222.78 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, followed by Faridkot, Baba Bakala, Tarn Taran in Amritsar district, Moga in Moga district, and Zira in Firozpur district, with 3991.44 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 3737.59 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 2107.93 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 2759.79 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 2043.92 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlongside Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh also experienced significant stubble burning, totalling 914.42 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 901.14 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. Karnal district in Haryana had the highest amount at 530.26 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, while Hamirpur district in Uttar Pradesh recorded 222.34 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Bihar and West Bengal also observed this phenomenon to a lesser extent (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn October, Punjab reported the highest incidence of stubble burning, totalling 208245.74 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The Moga block in Moga district recorded the highest amount within Punjab at 12242.94 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Significant levels were also observed in Ludhiana (10861.84 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Jagraon (10604.07 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Maler Kotla (9719.35 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Sunam (9715.33 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), and Barnala (9577.53 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Sangrur district, as well as in Fatehgarh Sahib, Patiala, Firozpur, and other districts across the state. Following Punjab, Uttar Pradesh reported the next highest amount of stubble burning in October, totaling 10208.27 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Pawayan in Shahjahanpur district had the highest extent within Uttar Pradesh at 2240.18 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, significantly more than other blocks in the state. Other notable areas in Uttar Pradesh included Bilaspur (1254.97 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Rampur district, Pilibhit (1156.94 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), and Puranpur (1073.76 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Pilibhit district. Across Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana combined, stubble burning was observed extensively, totalling 10134.06 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. In Haryana, Karnal district reported the highest extent at 1655.31 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Other significant areas in Haryana included Sirsa (1064.18 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Sirsa district, Gulha (930.46 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Kaithal district, Palwal (862.45 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Palwal district, Ambala (857.16 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Ambala district, among others (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring November, stubble burning increased significantly due to ongoing harvesting activities and preparation for rabi crop cultivation, particularly in Punjab, covering 214345.51 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Moga district in Punjab registered the highest extent of stubble burning, reaching 200077.75 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Significant levels were also observed in Sangrur district, including Barnala (14792.11 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Sunam (13714.39 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Maler Kotla (11912.55 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Mansa district (14424.78 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Muktsar district (14227.16 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Fazilka (10723.09 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Firozpur (9387.87 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), and numerous other districts. Alongside Punjab, stubble burning was also notable in Haryana, totaling 20637.52 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Sirsa district in Haryana reported the highest area at 4227.25 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Other significant areas included Panipat (2223.36 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), Safidon (1959.08 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Jind district, and Asandh (1861.86 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) in Karnal district, surpassing other regions in the state. Furthermore, this phenomenon extended to several areas of Uttar Pradesh, amounting to 8966.32 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, with Maharajganj district recording 1542.79 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, stubble burning was observed to a lesser extent in West Bengal and Bihar during this period (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn December, the highest amount of stubble burning was observed in Bihar, totalling 1078.35 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The largest extent was recorded in Sasaram, Rohtas district, Bihar, covering 586.81 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Significant amounts were also noted in Bhabua, Buxar district (260.32 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), and Bhabua district (186.40 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) of Bihar. Additionally, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana experienced notable stubble burning, covering 464.64 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, 178.33 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, and 94.30 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. In Uttar Pradesh, significant areas included Maharajganj district with 154.2 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. West Bengal reported the smallest amount at 18.40 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Spatially the burnt areas were found to be distributed in Haryana and Punjab during March and April, and October and November (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). April and November months showed almost uniform distribution of crop land burning across all the IGP regions where the Punjab and Haryana can be detected as hotspots of the crop land burning. These two months are post-harvest time for Rabi and Kharif season in these regions. Hotspots over Punjab and Haryana are probably due to intense rice-wheat cropping system over the region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Discussion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rice-wheat cropping system is crucial for global food security, supplying staple grains to about 8% of the world's population (Timsina and Connor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). In South Asia, these systems cover approximately 0.135\u0026nbsp;million km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, with a significant concentration in India and the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) (Timsina and Connor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The IGP is a critical agricultural region for India, contributing about 41% of the country's annual food production, predominantly in grains. Of all the area within the IGP, around 16% is dedicated to the rice-wheat rotation system (Khedwal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The rice-wheat system, which covers roughly 0.092\u0026nbsp;million km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, is essential to India's national food security (Jat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In the IGP, wheat is cultivated from November to March during the cool, dry season, while rice is grown from June to October in the warm, humid season (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This system accounts for 23% of India's rice area and 40% of its wheat area, with rice and wheat together contributing 85% of the nation's cereal production (Timsina and Connor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Since, the rice-wheat system dominate the region and most of the crop land burning is aligned with the harvesting period of rice and wheat it can be depicted that the stubble of rice and wheat is the main cause of crop land burning in IGP region. Historically, agricultural practices in this region relied heavily on manual labour for harvesting and ploughing. With the advent of farm mechanization, labour shortages have led to the widespread practice of stubble burning. Combine harvesters, while efficient, leave stubble in the fields, which farmers often find challenging to manage (Ramm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice straw, high in lignocellulose but low in minerals and proteins, is unsuitable for fodder in many regions. Combined with the short time frame for clearing fields for the next crop, limited alternative uses, storage challenges, and regulatory changes reducing the use of rice straw in industries like brick kilns, stubble burning has become the most expedient option for farmers (Beacham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Given that, this stubble cannot easily be tilled back into the soil, burning becomes the quickest method to clear fields; with an estimated 50\u0026ndash;70% of rice straw burned each year (Sharma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA study utilizing 20 years of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data (2000\u0026ndash;2020) revealed the spatial and temporal patterns of agricultural residue burning in the IGP. Stubble burning is widespread, coinciding with regional harvest periods. In India, wheat stubble burning typically occurs from mid-April to mid-May, predominantly in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. Rice residue burning takes place from October to December in the IGP (Montes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The study observed a consistent seasonal pattern of agricultural burning, with peak fires from March to May and a secondary peak from October to November (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These variations align with regional crop rotation practices (Brye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; McCarty et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Korontzi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Various studies confirm this pattern, highlighting increased stubble burning in March-April and late October to mid-November (Cordeiro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Montes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Jain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Singh \u0026amp; Panigrahy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The harvesting of Rabi crops occurs in late March or April, while Kharif crops are harvested from late October through November. MODIS active fire records indicate that March, April, May, and November accounted for the highest percentage of burnt areas over the 20-year period (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Crop waste burning typically begins about a month after harvesting starts and continues until the season ends, reflecting MODIS-based assessments of cropland fire cycles (Verma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe assessment of stubble burning in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh highlights a persistent and complex issue in North India's agricultural landscape. Punjab, being the most affected, owes its high incidence of stubble burning to extensive paddy cultivation (Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The state's agricultural cycle, marked by a narrow window between rice harvest and wheat sowing, pressures farmers to burn stubble for quick field preparation (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This practice is most prevalent in districts like Sangrur, Bathinda, and Ludhiana, where the density of paddy cultivation leads to significant stubble generation (Sangeet and Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Multiple researchers have identified Punjab as the state most severely impacted by stubble burning (Kaur and Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Porichha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Chawala and Sandhu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, districts like Gurdaspur, Pathankot, Rupnagar, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, and Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar are less affected.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Haryana, districts such as Ambala, Fatehabad, and Hisar also face significant challenges with stubble burning. The situation in Haryana mirrors that of Punjab, with the state's agricultural practices and the short time between crop cycles being key factors (Parihar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, Uttar Pradesh, although also affected, experiences stubble burning on a relatively smaller scale compared to Punjab and Haryana. The most affected districts in Uttar Pradesh include Ballia, Barabanki, Deoria, and Jhansi. The lower incidence in Uttar Pradesh is attributed to its diverse cropping patterns and lesser reliance on paddy cultivation (Kundu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite government efforts to promote alternative technologies like the Happy Seeder, adoption remains limited due to factors such as cost, availability, and farmer awareness (Villalba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Parihar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Kumar et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) observed that approximately 90% of farmers are aware of the health impacts of stubble burning, yet they continue to practice it. This behaviour may stem from a shortage of labour, a lack of government incentives, or a lack of awareness about more cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternatives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address the issue of stubble burning and its environmental impact, alternative uses for stubble need to be promoted (Das et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Stubble, the residue left after harvesting crops like paddy and wheat, has significant potential as a valuable resource. Instead of burning, which exacerbates air pollution, stubble can be utilized in various sustainable and economically beneficial ways. For example, it can be converted into bioethanol (Fang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), biogas (Satpathy and Pradhan, 2022), or used as feedstock in biomass power plants (Kaur and Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Stubble can also be composted (Kaur and Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) or used in vermicomposting (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) to create organic fertilizers, enriching soil health and reducing the need for chemical inputs in agriculture. Additionally, it serves as an excellent substrate for mushroom cultivation, particularly for certain mushroom varieties, providing an additional income stream for farmers (De La Cruz-Marcos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In agriculture, stubble can be used as mulch to conserve soil moisture (Walia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), contributing to more sustainable farming practices. The production of biochar through the pyrolysis of stubble not only enhances soil fertility but also helps sequester carbon, mitigating climate change (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Industrial applications also offer promising alternatives, with stubble being processed into pulp for paper and packaging materials (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), providing an eco-friendly alternative to wood-based pulp (Jayanti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of areas affected by stubble burning throughout the year reveals significant regional variations. States such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, and West Bengal each experience distinct peaks in stubble burning, reflecting their unique agricultural practices. Trends from 2001 to 2020 in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh reveal fluctuating patterns, with notable increases in certain years pointing to broader environmental and agricultural challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgriculture remains central to India's economy; however, stubble burning, particularly in these regions, presents severe environmental and public health issues. The shift towards mechanized harvesting, driven by labor shortages, has exacerbated the problem. Farmers increasingly resort to burning as a quick and cost-effective way to clear fields, compounded by the time-consuming and expensive nature of alternative methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAddressing these challenges requires effective monitoring and management strategies. Advanced remote sensing techniques, such as MODIS satellite data, provide a promising approach for accurately estimating areas affected by stubble burning and monitoring fire activity. These data-driven insights can support targeted interventions and policy development aimed at mitigating the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalysis showed peak season of crop land burning is aligned with harvesting time of Rabi and Kharif i.e. April to May and October to November respectively. Crop land burning were found to be prevalent across the region during April and November indicating that the whole area is affected by crop land burning and pollutions in IGP region during this time period is mainly contributed to the crop land burning. Spatial distribution showed hotspots over Punjab and Haryana during April and May (Rabi) and October and November (Kharif).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite efforts to reduce stubble burning, challenges such as limited awareness of alternative practices and the high cost of new technologies persist. However, stubble holds substantial potential as a resource. It can be converted into bioethanol, biogas, or used as feedstock in biomass power plants. Additionally, it can be composted to enhance soil health, utilized in mushroom cultivation, or processed into biochar and paper products. Exploring these alternatives and increasing awareness and adoption of sustainable practices can help address the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning while optimizing the use of agricultural residues. The goal is to promote sustainable agricultural practices that ensure food security while protecting environmental and public health for future generations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work. The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNASA is acknowledged for data availability.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Not Applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eData Material and/or Code availability:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData can be made available on request to the corresponding author for the research purpose.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contribution statements:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed extensively to the work presented in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClinical Trai Number:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;Clinical trial number: not applicable.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClinical Trai Registration Detail:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Not applicable\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Not Applicable\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdurrahman, M. 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Environmental Pollution, 268, 115849. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115849\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115849\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Stubble Burning, Indo-Gangetic Plains, Satellite Data, Temporal Analysis, Spatial Patterns","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7235870/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7235870/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAgriculture is vital to India's economy, especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). The rise in mechanized harvesting has increased stubble accumulation, leading many farmers to burn stubble for quick, cost-effective field clearance. This practice is common in India due to inadequate residue management. Despite regulations and awareness efforts, stubble burning persists, highlighting the need for better monitoring and mitigation. Using data from NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites, this research estimates burnt areas in the IGP from 2001 to 2020, focusing on Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The methodology includes mapping spatial and temporal patterns to identify hotspots and seasonal variations and providing monthly quantification of cropland burning to pinpoint peak fire activity. The study reveals that stubble burning, closely tied to the Rabi and Kharif crop cycles, peaks during harvest seasons, with April, May, October, and November showing the highest incidences, particularly in Punjab and Haryana. While there was a notable peak from 2013 to 2015, a decline in recent years suggests the influence of increased environmental awareness and regulatory measures. These findings highlight the urgent need for continued efforts to address the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Satellite Driven Insights of Long-Term Stubble Burning in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-12 19:29:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7235870/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fea3b4fa-2722-4361-9e23-0b7a363227b9","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-14T16:53:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-12 19:29:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7235870","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7235870","identity":"rs-7235870","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}