Differences in Parental Perceptions of Father Support for Breastfeeding and Associated Factors

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Limited evidence suggests that there are differences between maternal and paternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Moreover, the factors contributing to these differences have not yet been fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to compare paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding and to investigate potential factors associated with differences in parental perceptions. Methods This was a cross-sectional study. Between October 2021 and April 2022, 432 couples were recruited from three tertiary hospitals in Shanghai, China. Each couple received two sets of questionnaires, one for the father and one for the mother. The questionnaire included basic sociodemographics, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale, Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form, and the Breastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire. Results In total, 354 matched questionnaires were collected. The scores of the fathers’ perception of their breastfeeding support were significantly higher than those made by mothers ( p < 0.001). The mean difference score for the overall father support (paternal perception minus maternal perception) was 17.88. In adjusted analysis, the differences in parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding were larger among fathers who were younger ( β = 0.155 at age 30–33, 0.247 at age 23–39, vs age ≥ 34), had better breastfeeding knowledge ( β = 0.140) and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy ( β = 0.375) and mothers who were un-employed ( β = 0.117) and had lower breastfeeding self-efficacy ( β = -0.540). Conclusion The fathers perceived higher levels of father support for breastfeeding than the mothers. Maternal and paternal characteristics as well as parental breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy were potential predictors for the gap in perception. Further interventions should focus on enhancing fathers’ breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy to improve their support for breastfeeding. Breastfeeding Father support Parental perception Breastfeeding self-efficacy Family system theory Figures Figure 1 Background Breastfeeding widely recognized as the optimal feeding approach for infants, offering unparalleled nutritional and immunological benefits. The World Health Organization recommends exclusively breastfed for the first six months of life, followed by continued breastfeeding with complementary food until aged two or older [1]. This recommendation is grounded in substantial evidence that increasing breastfeeding rates, particularly exclusive breastfeeding, significantly enhance maternal and child health outcomes [2]. However, despite these well-documented benefits, global exclusive breastfeeding rates at six months remain disappointingly low at approximately 40%, with China lagging further behind at 29.2% [3,4]. This discrepancy underscores the urgent need to identify and address the multifaceted barriers to breastfeeding. Breastfeeding is a multifaceted practice influenced by a complex interplay of biological, social, and cultural factors across various levels, including the individual, family, health facility and environment [5]. Among these factors, father support for breastfeeding has emerged as a critical, modifiable influence [6]. Defined as the diverse strategies employed by fathers to support their partners in breastfeeding, father support for breastfeeding encompasses five main attributes: fathers’ knowledge of breastfeeding, positive attitude toward breastfeeding, involvement in the decision-making process, practical support, and emotional support [7,8]. The general consensus is that fathers wield significant influence over mothers’ breastfeeding decisions, with their support being a key determinant of successful breastfeeding [9–11]. Despite the acknowledged importance of father support, most studies have assessed this construct solely from the paternal perspective [12,13]. For instance, a cross-sectional study in Türkiye (n = 114) reported moderate levels of father support during the first six months postpartum [14]. Similarly, a cross-sectional study in Singapore (n = 151) documented moderate levels of father support for breastfeeding at two weeks postpartum [15]. However, according to the family systems theory, the relationship between the father and mother is dynamic and reciprocal, with each partner influencing the other [16]. Mothers’ perceptions of father support for breastfeeding can shape their breastfeeding behaviors and beliefs, particularly when they perceive themselves supported by their spouses [17]. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that paternal and maternal perceptions of father support are likely to have interaction and association. Until now, only one study has compared the parental perceptions and reported significant discrepancies between mothers’ and fathers’ views [18]. This gap in the literature highlights the need for further investigation into the differences and associations between parental perceptions and their relationship with father support for breastfeeding. This study aimed to address this gap by simultaneously collecting and comparing paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding in a matched dataset, thereby identifying potential differences. Additionally, we investigated the potential factors associated with these differences. By elucidating the underlying mechanisms, our findings will enhance the understanding of father support for breastfeeding from the parental interaction perspective, which will contribute to the development of effective assessments and interventions to improve father support and thereby enhancing breastfeeding outcomes. Methods Study Design This cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted between October 2021 and April 2022 in three tertiary hospitals in Shanghai. Setting This study was conducted in Shanghai, a high-income city in China. Data were collected from three tertiary hospitals: two general hospitals and one maternity hospital, which provided antepartum, intrapartum, and postpartum care to women. A total of 432 couples were invited to participate in the survey when they attended the 42-day postpartum follow-up at obstetric clinics. According to the national breastfeeding survey in 2019, 73.2% of infants were breastfed within 24 hours after birth while the exclusive breastfeeding rate at 6 months was 29.2% [4]. According to local legislation, employed women are entitled to at least a 4-month paid maternity leave and employed men are entitled to at least a 10-day paid paternity leave. Participants The participants were recruited through convenience sampling. The inclusion criteria were as follows: 1) the couple had a full-term baby (≥ 37 gestational weeks); 2) the mother was aged 21 years or older, and the father was aged 23 years or older (according to the legal age of marriage in China); 3) the mother breastfed her baby after delivery; and 4) the couple was able to read and comprehend the local language (Chinese). The exclusion criterion was either a mother or father separated from the family or the baby for more than one week. According to Kendall’s sample size estimation method, the sample size should be 5–10 times the maximum number of items. In this survey, the maximum number of items in the questionnaire was 33, which subsequently required a sample size of 165–330. Considering the existence of invalid questionnaires, the sample size was expanded by 20% and the sample size was therefore estimated to be 198–396. 432 eligible couples were approached during the study period. After excluding those who did not submit a questionnaire and those with invalid answers, 374 questionnaires from fathers and 365 questionnaires from mothers were collected, yielding 354 matched questionnaires (Fig. 1 ). Ultimately, 354 pairs of parents participated in the study, with a 18.1% dropout rate. Data collection Two research assistants recruited potential participants from the obstetric outpatient clinics. Mothers undergoing 42-day postpartum checkups and their accompanying spouses received a leaflet with two QR codes (linked to the maternal and paternal questionnaires) and a serial number if they agreed to participate in the study. All surveyed couples on the scene provided written informed consent. The mother and their spouse independently accessed the questionnaires via their cell phones by scanning the QR codes. They were asked to enter their serial numbers, enabling data matching for each couple. Mothers were asked to take the leaflet back home if their spouses did not accompany them to the clinic and a digital informed consent was required for their spouses. Participants were required to complete the questionnaire within one week if they failed to finish it on site. Measurements General Information Questionnaire. Both mothers and fathers were invited to complete a questionnaire. The maternal questionnaire consisted of basic demographics, delivery, and feeding practices, the maternal version of the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale (PBIS), and the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (BSES-SF). The paternal questionnaire consisted of basic demographics, the paternal version of the PBIS, FBSES-SF, and the Breastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire. Basic demographics included age, education level, employment and occupation, household income, and maternal/paternal leave. To minimize selection bias, participants were recruited strictly according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Recall bias was controlled by presenting the scales in a standardized format and plain language, and by conducting strict quality control during data collection and screening. Non-response bias was managed by inviting two research assistants working in the recruitment process and providing compensation for each participant. Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale (PBIS). The PBIS was developed by Rempel (2017), assesses five aspects of father support for breastfeeding: breastfeeding savvy, helping, appreciation, presence, and responsiveness [19]. The Chinese version of PBIS was translated and verified by Xuejun Wang, with Cronbach’s α coefficients of 0.95 and 0.94 for mothers and fathers, respectively, both exceeding the acceptable value of 0.70 [20]. The scale comprises 33 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 5 = very often), with total scores ranging from 33 to 165 points. In this study, the questionnaire was used to gather paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Couples who continued breastfeeding were asked to report their perceptions from delivery utill the day of investigation, while whose who had stopped breastfeeding were asked to report their perception during the breastfeeding period. Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (BSES-SF). The BSES-SF is a revised short form of the original BSES [21], developed by Dennis et al. to evaluate a mother’s confidence in her ability to breastfeed her newborn [22]. It includes 14 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (not sure at all) to 5 (always or completely sure). Dennis et al. also evaluated paternal confidence in supporting breastfeeding using the BSES-SF and assessed the psychometric properties of the scale in fathers in 2018 [23]. At 6 weeks postpartum, the Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.92 for the paternal version and 0.94 for the maternal version. In this study, the Cronbach’s coefficients was 0.94 for both paternal and maternal versions. Breastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire. The Breastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire was adapted and modified from the original instrument developed by Zhaomin [24]. It includes 17 questions with responses coded as “Yes,” “No” and “Uncertain.” Each correct answer is scored one point, while incorrect or uncertain answers are scored zero points. Previous studies reported a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.92 [25] while in this study, it was 0.78. Statistical analyses Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants were described using frequency and percentage distributions. A difference score was calculated for each couple by subtracting the maternal PBIS assessment from the paternal PBIS assessment, which served as an indicator of the degree of agreement or disagreement between parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were calculated for the difference scores at the total-, subscale- and item- score levels. Paired t-tests were conducted to compare the PBIS scores assessed by the fathers and mothers. The correlations between paternal and maternal perceptions of father support (at the total- and subscale- score levels) were analyzed with Pearson correlation coefficients. To identify factors associated with the differences in parental perceptions, univariate and multivariate analysis were performed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), independent T tests, and multiple linear regression models. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS Statistics version 26, and statistical significance set at p < 0.05 (two-tailed). Results Sociodemographic Characteristics of The Participants Table 1 demonstrated the sociodemographic characteristics of the 354 matched couples. Over 60% of fathers and approximately half of the mothers were aged over 30 years. More than 60% of both fathers and mothers held vocational/bachelor’s degrees and the majority were employed. Half of the fathers (52.0%) had 10 days of paternity leave, while less than half of the mothers (44.6%) had 158 days of maternity leave. The majority of births (59.8%) were vaginal deliveries, and more than half of the mothers (53.4%) were practicing mixed feeding at the time of data collection. Table 1 Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Couples (N = 354) Father’s Sociodemographic Variables n (%) Mother’s Sociodemographic Variables n (%) Age (year) Age(year) 23–29 130 (36.7) 21–29 177 (50.0) 30–33 139 (39.3) 30–33 116 (32.8) ≥ 34 85 (24.0) ≥ 34 61 (17.2) Education Education High school or lower 20 (5.6) ≤High school/High school 18 (5.1) Vocational/Bachelor's degree 222 (62.7) Vocational/Bachelor’s degree 226 (63.8) Postgraduate degree 83 (23.4) Postgraduate degree 91 (25.7) Doctoral degree 29 (8.2) Doctoral degree 19 (5.4) Employment Employment Employed 343 (96.9) Employed 285 (80.5) Unemployed 11 (3.1) Unemployed 69 (19.5) Paternity leave (day) a Maternity leave (day) b ≤ 10 184 (52.0) 10 159 (44.9) ≥ 158 158 (44.6) Household income (RMB/year) Type of delivery ≤ 150,000 83 (23.4) Vaginal delivery 205 (59.8) 150,000-300,000 129 (36.4) Forceps-assisted delivery/Cesarean section 149 (40.3) 300,001–1,000,000 121 (34.2) Feeding method ≥ 1,000,001 21 (5.9) Exclusive breastfeeding 108 (30.5) Mixed feeding 189 (53.4) Artificial feeding 57 (16.1) a n = 343 as 11 unemployed and part-time working fathers were excluded. b n = 285 as 69 unemployed and part-time working mothers were excluded. Differences and Correlations of Parental Perceptions of Father Support for Breastfeeding The mean difference scores for the overall PBIS were 17.88 (SD = 25.29) (Table 2 , Suppl Fig. 2). Compared with mothers, fathers reported higher perceptions of father support for breastfeeding at the total, subscale and item levels (Table 2 ). Paternal perceptions were positively correlated to maternal perceptions at the total, subscale and item score levels ( r = 0.27–0.37, p < 0.01) (Table 3 ). Table 2 Comparison of Parental Perception of Father Support for Breastfeeding (N = 354) Range PBIS assessment, mean (SD) Difference scores a , mean (SD) Effect size t b p value Father Mother PBIS (overall) 33–165 137.83 (18.79) 119.95 (24.57) 17.88 (25.29) 0.71 13.30 <.001 Savvy 9–45 35.05 (5.39) 31.68 (7.17) 3.37 (7.38) 0.461 8.59 <.001 Helping 7–35 30.11 (4.24) 27.28 (5.84) 2.83 (5.81) 0.49 9.15 <.001 Appreciation 6–30 26.00 (4.32) 23.38 (5.14) 2.63 (5.65) 0.47 8.76 <.001 Presence 6–30 25.50 (3.80) 22.20 (5.11) 3.30 (5.23) 0.64 11.85 <.001 Responsiveness 5–25 21.18 (3.31) 19.36 (4.04) 1.82 (4.47) 0.41 7.65 <.001 Abbreviations: PBIS, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale. a Difference scores are the scores of paternal perceptions minus those of maternal perceptions. b Paired T test. Table 3 Correlations of Parental Perception of Father Support for Breastfeeding (N = 354) Mothers a PBIS (overall) Savvy Helping Appreciation Presence Responsiveness Fathers a PBIS (overall) 0.34 0.31 0.30 0.33 0.33 0.31 Savvy 0.33 0.34 0.27 0.31 0.29 0.27 Helping 0.35 0.31 0.37 0.29 0.35 0.28 Appreciation 0.27 0.24 0.20 0.30 0.24 0.27 Presence 0.32 0.29 0.28 0.29 0.34 0.28 Responsiveness 0.26 0.21 0.19 0.29 0.24 0.27 Abbreviations: PBIS, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale. All correlation coefficients in the table reached statistical significance with P -values < 0.001. a Pearson correlation. Factors Associated with Difference in Parental Perception of Father Support for Breastfeeding Univariate and multivariate analysis identified both paternal and maternal characteristics as factors associated with difference in parental perceptions (Tables 4 and 5 ). In adjusted analysis, differences in parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding were larger among fathers who were younger ( β = 0.16 at age 30–33, 0.247 at age 23–39, vs age ≥ 34), had better breastfeeding knowledge ( β = 0.14) and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy ( β = 0.38). Differences were also larger among mothers who were unemployed ( β = 0.12) and had lower breastfeeding self-efficacy ( β = -0.54) (Table 5 ). Table 4 Associations Between Sociodemographic Characteristics of Fathers and Mothers, Other Variables and Difference Scores (N = 354) Father’s Sociodemographic Variables Mean (SD) Mother’s Sociodemographic Variables Mean (SD) Age (year) Age(year) 23–29 24.58 (25.38) 23–29 21.75 (27.07) 30–33 17.20 (25.35) 30–33 14.09 (21.60) ≥ 34 8.73 (22.10) ≥ 34 13.87 (25.12) F a 10.74 F a -4.22 p <0.001 p 0.02 Education Education High school or lower 21.15 (30.01) ≤High school/High school 39.39 (29.05) Vocational/Bachelor's degree 18.38 (25.72) Vocational/Bachelor’s degree 19.32 (26.35) Postgraduate degree 16.06 (23.05) Postgraduate degree 10.62 (19.96) Doctoral degree 16.97 (25.61) Doctoral degree 15.11 (17.64) F a 0.30 F a 7.56 p 0.83 p <0.001 Employment Employment Employed 18.05 (25.14) Employed 14.33 (22.53) Unemployed 12.45 (30.50) Unemployed 32.52 (30.49) t b -0.72 t b -5.59 p 0.55 p <0.001 Paternity leave (day) Maternity leave (day) ≤ 10 13.59 (23.57) 10 23.21 (25.98) ≥ 158 13.44 (22.16) t b -3.60 t b 1.15 p 0.50 p 0.54 Household income (RMB/year) Type of delivery ≤ 150,000 29.81 (28.04) Vaginal delivery 15.44 (25.35) 150,000-300,000 9.73 (23.96) Forceps-assisted delivery/Cesarean section 21.23 (24.91) 300,001–1,000,000 10.45 (21.77) t b -2.14 ≥ 1,000,001 6.19 (16.93) p 0.78 F a 13.64 Feeding method p <0.001 Exclusive breastfeeding 12.19 (23.29) Breastfeeding knowledge Mixed feeding 21.49 (25.75) r c 0.16 Artificial feeding 16.68 (25.74) p <0.001 F a 4.83 FBSES-SF p 0.01 r c 0.23 BSES-SF p <0.001 r c -0.43 p <0.001 Abbreviations: FBSES-SF, Father Support Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form; BSES-SF, Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form. a One Way-ANOVA. b Independent 2 samples T test. c Pearson correlation. Table 5 Multiple Linear Regression Analysis of the Factors Associated with Difference Scores (N = 354). Difference scores PBIS (overall) Savvy Helping Appreciation Presence Responsiveness B (95%CI) B (95%CI) B (95%CI) B (95%CI) B (95%CI) B (95%CI) Constant 19.96 (-1.11-40.01) 0.62 (-5.73-6.97) 5.28 (0.05–10.52) 4.01 (-1.13-9.14) 5.73 (1.26–10.19) 2.27 (-1.77-6.31) Father Age 30–33 8.03 (2.20-13.86) b 2.24 (0.49-4.00) a 1.02 (-0.43-2.47) 2.22 (0.80–3.64) b 1.69 (0.46–2.93) b 1.09 (-0.03-2.20) 23–29 12.92 (6.17–19.67) c 3.07 (1.03–5.10) b 2.32 (0.64-4.00) b 3.14 (1.49–4.79) c 2.39 (0.76–3.82) b 2.29 (0.10–3.59) b Household income -0.65 (-3.72-2.42) -0.18 (-0.10-0.75) -0.10 (-0.87-0.66) -0.14 (-0.89-0.61) -0.17 (-0.82-0.48) -0.00 (-0.59-0.59) Breastfeeding knowledge 1.27 (0.50–2.04) b 0.35 (0.12–0.58) b 0.27 (0.08–0.46) b 0.20 (0.01–0.39) a 0.25 (0.09–0.42) b 0.22 (0.07–0.37) b FBSES-SF 1.00 (0.77–1.24) c 0.31 (0.24–0.38) c 0.17 (0.11–0.23) c 0.19 (0.13–0.25) c 0.18 (0.13–0.23) c 0.14 (0.09–0.18) c Mother Age 30–33 0.79(-5.50-7.08) 0.66 (-1.24-2.55) -0.17 (-1.73-1.34) 0.52 (-1.01-2.06) -0.38 (-1.71-0.96) 0.34 (-1.87-1.55) 23–29 -1.85 (-8.70-5.00) -0.00 (-2.07-2.06) -0.10 (-1.81-1.60) -0.59 (-2.26-1.08) -0.53 (-1.78-0.93) -0.27 (-1.59-1.04) Education -3.78 (-7.66-0.09) -0.66 (-1.83-0.51) -1.37 (-2.33 to -0.40) b -0.63 (-1.57-0.32) -0.51 (-1.34-0.31) -0.71 (-1.46-0.03) BSES-SF -1.23 (-1.44 to -1.03) c -0.37 (-0.43 to -0.31) c -0.23 (-0.28 to -0.18) c -0.23 (-0.28 to -0.18) c -0.25 (-0.30 to -0.21) c -0.19 (-0.23 to -0.15) c Employment Unemployed 7.45 (-13.07 to -1.82) a 1.18 (-2.88-0.51) 1.62 (-3.01 to -0.22) a 1.95 (-3.33 to -0.58) b 1.87 (-3.06 to -0.68) b 1.01 (-2.09-0.07) Feeding method Mixed feeding 0.44 (-4.62-5.49) -0.12 (-1.65-1.40) 0.54 (-0.72-1.80) -0.26 (-1.49-0.98) -0.18 (-1.25-0.90) 0.48 (-0.49-1.45) Artificial feeding 1.06 (-5.45-7.57) 0.77 (-1.19-2.73) 0.27 (-1.35-1.89) -0.44 (-2.03-1.15) 0.65 (0.73–2.03) -0.15 (-1.40-1.10) Abbreviations: PBIS, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale; B, unstandardized coefficients. PBIS (overall): Multiple regression model statistics: R 2 = 0.44; Adjusted R 2 = 0.42. The age reference group for fathers and mothers was ≥ 34 years, the mothers’ employment reference group was the employed group, and the feeding method reference group was the exclusive breastfeeding group. a p <.05. b p <.01. c p <.001. Discussion This study is the first to compare parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding within the first 42 days postpartum delivery between Chinese spouses, and to elucidate potential mechanisms of the parental perception gap. Our findings reveal significant differences between paternal and maternal perceptions, which was associated with parental characteristics and their breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy. The present study measured both paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding, an area with limited empirical evidence. In this study, the paternal perception at 42 days postpartum was similar to that in the Ethiopian late pregnancy population but higher than thta at 2 weeks postpartum in Singapore [15,18]. Conversely, the maternal perception at 42 days postpartum was significantly lower than Ethiopian mothers’ perceptions during late pregnancy [18]. Moreover, paternal perceptions in this study were consistently higher than maternal perceptions, a finding that mirrors the results reported by Gebremariam et al., who compared perceptions among 128 late-pregnancy couples in Ethiopia [18]. To date, both qualitative and quantitative studies have explored fathers’ support for breastfeeding, employing various scales such as the Coparenting Relationship Scale and Postpartum Partner Support Scale to quantify this support [26,27]. The present study selected the PBIS to assess father support, aligning with the established framework of father support and allowing for assessment for both paternal and maternal perceptions [19]. Despite the utility of the PBIS, insufficient evidence is available regarding fathers’ support assessment using the PBIS, and the findings vary widely across different perinatal stages. Further studies are needed to enrich the evidence base for breastfeeding assessments throughout the perinatal period. According to Rempel et al. there are five aspects of father support for breastfeeding [28]. In our study, “Presence” and “Appreciation”, which focus on emotional support, demonstrated larger differences between paternal and maternal perceptions to the other three aspects. Postpartum mothers, especially in the first six weeks, are in great need of spousal companionship and motivation [29]. However, in China, grandparents or babysitters often serve as the primary caregivers for mothers and infants, while fathers usually lack the awareness of how to support their partners [30]. Additionally, most fathers return to work after a short 10-day paternity leave (the legal paternity leave in Shanghai), further limiting their involvement in parenting and breastfeeding support [31]. Consequently, despite fathers’ self-perceived good care, limited time and role in parenting resulted in poor maternal perceptions of father support, particularly regarding “Presence”. It has also been reported that paternal emotional support often does not align with mothers’ needs due to a lack of communication between spouses [32]. This situation may be exacerbated in China, where traditional Eastern cultural vales often place the primary responsible for breastfeeding on mothers, thereby limiting fathers’ involvement in terms of “Appreciation” [33]. Fathers are commonly viewed as the primary breadwinners and are often too busy working to provide adequate support and help with breastfeeding. Some studies have reported that joint interventions targeting both fathers and mothers can increase father support for breastfeeding and promote co-parenting [34]. Our findings suggest that future interventions should emphasize improving parental communication and increasing fathers’ awareness and understanding of mothers’ needs to minimize the gap in perceptions of father support. To narrow the gap in perception between fathers and mothers, interventions should focused on couples with older fathers and unemployed mothers. Interventions target both fathers and mothers simultaneously are needed to enhance spousal communication and collaboration in breastfeeding. In particular, offline interventions during fathers’ paternity leave combined with online interventions throughout the breastfeeding period are preferred to meet the needs of couples for breastfeeding support and parental development. Regular self-assessment of parental breastfeeding self-efficacy can be used as a predictor and tool to detect potential differences in parental perceptions, thereby improving the efficiency of father support. In this study, we collected paternal and maternal characteristics to test their potential association with differences in parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Younger age, better breastfeeding knowledge and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy were predictive of better paternal perceptions of father support. Similarly, employment, and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy were predictive of better maternal perceptions. These findings were consistent with those from similar studies [17, 35]. Given that larger differences in parental perceptions can reduce the efficiency of father support, parental characteristics and factors can be used as predictors of potential gap in perceptions. For example, parental breastfeeding self-efficacy was found influential for both fathers and mothers in perceiving father support. Therefore, regular self-assessment of parental breastfeeding self-efficacy is recommended to monitor changes in parental perceptions. Limited variables were analyzed for the association with paternal perceptions of father support in breastfeeding in the current study, which restricts our understanding of the potential mechanism underlying paternal perception gaps. Further studies are needed to explore additional associated and predictive factors of paternal perceptions. Strengths and limitations To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study conducted in China to investigate the differences between fathers’ and mothers’ perceptions of father support for breastfeeding and its associated factors. Previous studies have focused on paternal perception of father support for breastfeeding, while scarcely evaluating mothers’ perceptions. The current study reveals a large gap in father support perception between spouses, which could have implications for future research regarding effective methods to assess father support for breastfeeding. These results also raise concerns about implementing potential strategies to narrow the gap and improve the effectiveness of father support of breastfeeding outcomes. This study has several limitations. First, father support for breastfeeding varies at different stages of breastfeeding. However, our study adopted a cross-sectional design focusing on fathers and mothers in puerperium, which limits its representativeness and significance. We are also conducting a cohort study that assesses father support for breastfeeding from both fathers’ and mothers’ perspectives at different stages from birth till six months after delivery. This could help in revealing the differences in father support for breastfeeding at different stages. Second, 354 couples were surveyed in the present study. The inclusion of a larger number of participants could have resulted in more representative findings. Third, the exploration of associated factors was restricted by the limited information collected in the questionnaire; the cross-sectional design precluded the establishment of causal links. Further in-depth studies are required to better understand the factors associated with differences in perceptions between spouses. Conclusion In this study, we observed that mothers and fathers had different perceptions of father support. Fathers perceived better father support than mothers. Maternal and paternal characteristics as well as parental breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy, were potential predictors for the gap in perception. To narrow the gap in perception between fathers and mothers, more attention should be focused on couples with older fathers and unemployed mothers. Interventions target both fathers and mothers simultaneously are needed to promote spousal communication and collaboration in breastfeeding. Specifically, offline interventions during fathers’ paternity leave combined with online interventions throughout the breastfeeding process are preferred to meet the needs of couples for breastfeeding support and parental development. Regular self-assessment of parental breastfeeding self-efficacy can be used as a predictor and parental and tool to detect differences in parental perceptions. Declarations Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations: ethical approval was granted from the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Public Health and Nursing, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (approval number: SJUPN-202138). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. Clinical trial number: not applicable. Consent to Participate declaration: every human participant consented to participate in this study. Funding Declaration: this study was supported by the Innovation research team of high-level local universities in Shanghai (Grant No. SHSMU-ZDCX20212801). Author Contribution W.C. drafted the article and performed the initial analysis. L.R. reviewed drafts of articles and made substantial contributions to draft. J.Z. and J.H. performed preliminary analysis for the project. C.W. and S.L. conceived the original project, scientific design, analysis plan, and reviewed multiple drafts of the article. All authors contributed to and approved the final article and submission. Acknowledgement The author would like to express gratitude to all the postpartum women and their spouses participating in our research. References World Health Organization. United Nations Children’s Fund: Infant and young child feeding counselling: an integrated course: trainer’s guide. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. Frank NM, Lynch KF, Uusitalo U, Yang, J, Lönnrot, M, Virtanen, SM, et al. The relationship between breastfeeding and reported respiratory and gastrointestinal infection rates in young children. BMC Pediatr. 2019;19(1):339. Hamner HC, Chiang KV, Li R. Returning to Work and Breastfeeding Duration at 12 Months, WIC Infant and Toddler Feeding Practices Study-2. Breastfeed Med. 2021;16(12):956 − 64. China Development Research Foundation. Survey Report on Factors Affecting Breastfeeding in China. 2019. [Cited 2024 Nov. 22] Available from https://www.cdrf.org.cn/jjhdt/4853.htm Li J, Nguyen TT, Wang X, Mathisen R, Fang J. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors at the individual, family, health facility and environmental levels in China. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):e13002. Agrawal J, Chakole S, Sachdev C. The Role of Fathers in Promoting Exclusive Breastfeeding. Cureus. 2022;14(10):e30363. Rempel LA, Rempel JK. The breastfeeding team: the role of involved fathers in the breastfeeding family. J Hum Lact. 2011;27(2):115 − 21. Sherriff N, Hall V, Panton C. Engaging and supporting fathers to promote breast feeding: a concept analysis. Midwifery. 2014;30(6):667 − 77. Feldman JS, Natale BN, Shaw DS, Nordahl KB, Janson H, Nærde A. Duration of Breastfeeding and Supportive Paternal Caregiving in Early Childhood and the Potential Mediating Function of Maternal Caregiving. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2023;44(4):e309-e314. White BK, Giglia RC, Burns SK, Scott JA. Investigating Maternal Perspectives of Breastfeeding Support Targeted Towards Fathers in the Milk Man Mobile App Intervention. Matern Child Health J. 2023;27(5):954–964. Budiati T, Adjie S, Gunawijaya J, Setyowati S. Fathers’ role in sustainability of exclusive breastfeeding practice in post-cesarean-section mothers. J Public Health Res. 2021;11(2):2744. Ruan JM, Wu LJ. Postpartum depression and partner support during the period of lactation: Correlation research and its influencing factors. World J Psychiatry. 2024;14(1):119–127. Sezer HK, Ceran MA, Demirsoz M, Kucukoglu S. Development and psychometric evaluation of the paternal support scale of breastfeeding. J Pediatr Nurs. 2024;75:149–157. Erdoğan E, Özerdoğan N. Evaluation of the effect of the father’s support on the mother’s breastfeeding motivation. J Eval Clin Pract. Published online October 13, 2024. Leng RNW, Shorey S, Yin SLK, Chan CPP, He HG. Fathers’ Involvement in Their Wives’/Partners’ Breastfeeding: A Descriptive Correlational Study. J Hum Lact. 2019;35(4):801–812. Calatrava M, Martins MV, Schweer-Collins M, Duch-Ceballos C, Rodríguez-González M. Differentiation of self: A scoping review of Bowen Family Systems Theory’s core construct. Clin Psychol Rev. 2022;91:102101. Durmazoğlu G, Çiçek Ö, Okumuş H. The effect of spousal support perceived by mothers on breastfeeding in the postpartum period. Turk Arch Pediatr. 2021;56(1):57–61. Gebremariam KT, Zelenko O, Mulugeta A, Gallegos D. A cross-sectional comparison of breastfeeding knowledge, attitudes, and perceived partners’ support among expectant couples in Mekelle, Ethiopia. Int Breastfeed J. 2021;16(1):3. Gayesa RT, Xie YJ, Ngai FW. Measuring the role of fathers on breastfeeding success: Psychometric properties of Ethiopia’s Afaan Oromo version of the partner breastfeeding influence scale. J Pediatr Nurs. 2025;80:e264-e271. Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Research on the Current Status and Influencing Factors of Spousal Support for Breastfeeding. Huazhong University of Science and Technology; 2021. Dennis CL, Faux S. Development and psychometric testing of the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale. Res Nurs Health. 1999;22(5):399–409. Dennis CL. The breastfeeding self-efficacy scale: psychometric assessment of the short form. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2003;32(6):734–744. Dennis CL, Brennenstuhl S, Abbass-Dick J. Measuring paternal breastfeeding self-efficacy: A psychometric evaluation of the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form among fathers. Midwifery. 2018;64:17–22. Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College. Factors associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy among Beijing new mothers. Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College; 2008 Xiaofang W, Qiang H, Yang Q, Ying L, Cai L. The effect of workplace social capital on breastfeeding behavior of working women - mediating role based on family support. Chinese Journal of Health Statistics. 2021, 38(02): 273-5. Abbass-Dick J, Sun W, Newport A, Xie F, Godfrey D, Goodman WM. The comparison of access to an eHealth resource to current practice on mother and co-parent teamwork and breastfeeding rates: A randomized controlled trial. Midwifery. 2020;90:102812. Eslahi Z, Alimoradi Z, Bahrami N, Lin CY, Griffiths MD, Pakpour AH. Psychometric properties of Postpartum Partner Support Scale-Persian version. Nurs Open. 2021;8(4):1688–1695. Rempel LA, Rempel JK, Moore KCJ. Relationships between types of father breastfeeding support and breastfeeding outcomes. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13(3):e12337. Mercan Y, Tari Selcuk K. Association between postpartum depression level, social support level and breastfeeding attitude and breastfeeding self-efficacy in early postpartum women. PLoS One. 2021;16(4):e0249538. Sun T, Duan C, Wang Y, Li Q. The status quo and influencing factors of breastfeeding social support in China based on LASSO regression model. Peer J. 2025;13:e18779. Nie J, Zhang L, Song S, Hartnett, AJ, Liu, Z, Wang, N, et al. Exclusive breastfeeding in rural Western China: does father’s co-residence matter? BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1981. Rohmah N, Laksono AD. Relationship between family support, personal communication, shared decision making, and breastfeeding in low birth weight babies. Health Care Women Int. 2025;46(1):45–57. Edelblute HB, Altman CE. The Interaction and Impact of Social Support and Father Absence on Breastfeeding. Breastfeed Med. 2021;16(8):629–634. Zhao ZH, Huang YY, Qiao J, Huang, WP, Redding, SR, Wang, R, et al. Co-Parenting Impact on Breastfeeding: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Breastfeed Med. 2023;18(6):431–448. Draman N, Mohamad N, Yusoff HM, Muhamad R. The decision of breastfeeding practices among parents attending primary health care facilities in suburban Malaysia. J Taibah Univ Med Sci. 2017;12(5):412–417. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Suppltable1.docx SupplFigure2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6897663","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Case Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":476244188,"identity":"3ba5a591-a964-48b9-892a-c208b9437496","order_by":0,"name":"Wanwan Cai","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of CM","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wanwan","middleName":"","lastName":"Cai","suffix":""},{"id":476244189,"identity":"3265a517-6085-4d39-831a-be4bec2015fa","order_by":1,"name":"Lin Rao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Peace Maternity and Child Health 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15:19:32","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":210335,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplFigure2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6897663/v1/e8d2bae27ecb12a676a1229e.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Differences in Parental Perceptions of Father Support for Breastfeeding and Associated Factors","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eBreastfeeding widely recognized as the optimal feeding approach for infants, offering unparalleled nutritional and immunological benefits. The World Health Organization recommends exclusively breastfed for the first six months of life, followed by continued breastfeeding with complementary food until aged two or older [1]. This recommendation is grounded in substantial evidence that increasing breastfeeding rates, particularly exclusive breastfeeding, significantly enhance maternal and child health outcomes [2]. However, despite these well-documented benefits, global exclusive breastfeeding rates at six months remain disappointingly low at approximately 40%, with China lagging further behind at 29.2% [3,4]. This discrepancy underscores the urgent need to identify and address the multifaceted barriers to breastfeeding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreastfeeding is a multifaceted practice influenced by a complex interplay of biological, social, and cultural factors across various levels, including the individual, family, health facility and environment [5]. Among these factors, father support for breastfeeding has emerged as a critical, modifiable influence [6]. Defined as the diverse strategies employed by fathers to support their partners in breastfeeding, father support for breastfeeding encompasses five main attributes: fathers\u0026rsquo; knowledge of breastfeeding, positive attitude toward breastfeeding, involvement in the decision-making process, practical support, and emotional support [7,8]. The general consensus is that fathers wield significant influence over mothers\u0026rsquo; breastfeeding decisions, with their support being a key determinant of successful breastfeeding [9\u0026ndash;11].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the acknowledged importance of father support, most studies have assessed this construct solely from the paternal perspective [12,13]. For instance, a cross-sectional study in T\u0026uuml;rkiye (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;114) reported moderate levels of father support during the first six months postpartum [14]. Similarly, a cross-sectional study in Singapore (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;151) documented moderate levels of father support for breastfeeding at two weeks postpartum [15]. However, according to the family systems theory, the relationship between the father and mother is dynamic and reciprocal, with each partner influencing the other [16]. Mothers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of father support for breastfeeding can shape their breastfeeding behaviors and beliefs, particularly when they perceive themselves supported by their spouses [17]. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that paternal and maternal perceptions of father support are likely to have interaction and association. Until now, only one study has compared the parental perceptions and reported significant discrepancies between mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; views [18]. This gap in the literature highlights the need for further investigation into the differences and associations between parental perceptions and their relationship with father support for breastfeeding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to address this gap by simultaneously collecting and comparing paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding in a matched dataset, thereby identifying potential differences. Additionally, we investigated the potential factors associated with these differences. By elucidating the underlying mechanisms, our findings will enhance the understanding of father support for breastfeeding from the parental interaction perspective, which will contribute to the development of effective assessments and interventions to improve father support and thereby enhancing breastfeeding outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted between October 2021 and April 2022 in three tertiary hospitals in Shanghai.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSetting\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in Shanghai, a high-income city in China. Data were collected from three tertiary hospitals: two general hospitals and one maternity hospital, which provided antepartum, intrapartum, and postpartum care to women. A total of 432 couples were invited to participate in the survey when they attended the 42-day postpartum follow-up at obstetric clinics. According to the national breastfeeding survey in 2019, 73.2% of infants were breastfed within 24 hours after birth while the exclusive breastfeeding rate at 6 months was 29.2% [4]. According to local legislation, employed women are entitled to at least a 4-month paid maternity leave and employed men are entitled to at least a 10-day paid paternity leave.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participants were recruited through convenience sampling. The inclusion criteria were as follows: 1) the couple had a full-term baby (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;37 gestational weeks); 2) the mother was aged 21 years or older, and the father was aged 23 years or older (according to the legal age of marriage in China); 3) the mother breastfed her baby after delivery; and 4) the couple was able to read and comprehend the local language (Chinese). The exclusion criterion was either a mother or father separated from the family or the baby for more than one week. According to Kendall\u0026rsquo;s sample size estimation method, the sample size should be 5\u0026ndash;10 times the maximum number of items. In this survey, the maximum number of items in the questionnaire was 33, which subsequently required a sample size of 165\u0026ndash;330. Considering the existence of invalid questionnaires, the sample size was expanded by 20% and the sample size was therefore estimated to be 198\u0026ndash;396. 432 eligible couples were approached during the study period. After excluding those who did not submit a questionnaire and those with invalid answers, 374 questionnaires from fathers and 365 questionnaires from mothers were collected, yielding 354 matched questionnaires (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Ultimately, 354 pairs of parents participated in the study, with a 18.1% dropout rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo research assistants recruited potential participants from the obstetric outpatient clinics. Mothers undergoing 42-day postpartum checkups and their accompanying spouses received a leaflet with two QR codes (linked to the maternal and paternal questionnaires) and a serial number if they agreed to participate in the study. All surveyed couples on the scene provided written informed consent. The mother and their spouse independently accessed the questionnaires via their cell phones by scanning the QR codes. They were asked to enter their serial numbers, enabling data matching for each couple. Mothers were asked to take the leaflet back home if their spouses did not accompany them to the clinic and a digital informed consent was required for their spouses. Participants were required to complete the questionnaire within one week if they failed to finish it on site.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eGeneral Information Questionnaire.\u003c/b\u003e Both mothers and fathers were invited to complete a questionnaire. The maternal questionnaire consisted of basic demographics, delivery, and feeding practices, the maternal version of the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale (PBIS), and the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (BSES-SF). The paternal questionnaire consisted of basic demographics, the paternal version of the PBIS, FBSES-SF, and the Breastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire. Basic demographics included age, education level, employment and occupation, household income, and maternal/paternal leave. To minimize selection bias, participants were recruited strictly according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Recall bias was controlled by presenting the scales in a standardized format and plain language, and by conducting strict quality control during data collection and screening. Non-response bias was managed by inviting two research assistants working in the recruitment process and providing compensation for each participant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePartner Breastfeeding Influence Scale (PBIS).\u003c/b\u003e The PBIS was developed by Rempel (2017), assesses five aspects of father support for breastfeeding: breastfeeding savvy, helping, appreciation, presence, and responsiveness [19]. The Chinese version of PBIS was translated and verified by Xuejun Wang, with Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficients of 0.95 and 0.94 for mothers and fathers, respectively, both exceeding the acceptable value of 0.70 [20]. The scale comprises 33 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very often), with total scores ranging from 33 to 165 points. In this study, the questionnaire was used to gather paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Couples who continued breastfeeding were asked to report their perceptions from delivery utill the day of investigation, while whose who had stopped breastfeeding were asked to report their perception during the breastfeeding period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eBreastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (BSES-SF).\u003c/b\u003e The BSES-SF is a revised short form of the original BSES [21], developed by Dennis et al. to evaluate a mother\u0026rsquo;s confidence in her ability to breastfeed her newborn [22]. It includes 14 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (not sure at all) to 5 (always or completely sure). Dennis et al. also evaluated paternal confidence in supporting breastfeeding using the BSES-SF and assessed the psychometric properties of the scale in fathers in 2018 [23]. At 6 weeks postpartum, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha value was 0.92 for the paternal version and 0.94 for the maternal version. In this study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s coefficients was 0.94 for both paternal and maternal versions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eBreastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire.\u003c/b\u003e The Breastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire was adapted and modified from the original instrument developed by Zhaomin [24]. It includes 17 questions with responses coded as \u0026ldquo;Yes,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;No\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Uncertain.\u0026rdquo; Each correct answer is scored one point, while incorrect or uncertain answers are scored zero points. Previous studies reported a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha value of 0.92 [25] while in this study, it was 0.78.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of the participants were described using frequency and percentage distributions. A difference score was calculated for each couple by subtracting the maternal PBIS assessment from the paternal PBIS assessment, which served as an indicator of the degree of agreement or disagreement between parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were calculated for the difference scores at the total-, subscale- and item- score levels. Paired t-tests were conducted to compare the PBIS scores assessed by the fathers and mothers. The correlations between paternal and maternal perceptions of father support (at the total- and subscale- score levels) were analyzed with Pearson correlation coefficients. To identify factors associated with the differences in parental perceptions, univariate and multivariate analysis were performed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), independent T tests, and multiple linear regression models. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS Statistics version 26, and statistical significance set at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 (two-tailed).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSociodemographic Characteristics of The Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e demonstrated the sociodemographic characteristics of the 354 matched couples. Over 60% of fathers and approximately half of the mothers were aged over 30 years. More than 60% of both fathers and mothers held vocational/bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degrees and the majority were employed. Half of the fathers (52.0%) had 10 days of paternity leave, while less than half of the mothers (44.6%) had 158 days of maternity leave. The majority of births (59.8%) were vaginal deliveries, and more than half of the mothers (53.4%) were practicing mixed feeding at the time of data collection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic Characteristics of the Couples (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;354)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather\u0026rsquo;s Sociodemographic Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s Sociodemographic Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge (year)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge(year)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (36.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177 (50.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139 (39.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116 (32.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (24.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61 (17.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh school or lower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (5.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;High school/High school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 (5.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVocational/Bachelor's degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e222 (62.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVocational/Bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e226 (63.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePostgraduate degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (23.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePostgraduate degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91 (25.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctoral degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29 (8.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctoral degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (5.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e343 (96.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e285 (80.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (3.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (19.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePaternity leave (day)\u003c/b\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaternity leave (day)\u003c/b\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e184 (52.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127 (35.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159 (44.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158 (44.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold income (RMB/year)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eType of delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;150,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (23.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVaginal delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e205 (59.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150,000-300,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129 (36.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForceps-assisted delivery/Cesarean section\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149 (40.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300,001\u0026ndash;1,000,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121 (34.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFeeding method\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1,000,001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (5.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExclusive breastfeeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108 (30.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed feeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189 (53.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArtificial feeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57 (16.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;343 as 11 unemployed and part-time working fathers were excluded.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;285 as 69 unemployed and part-time working mothers were excluded.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDifferences and Correlations of Parental Perceptions of Father Support for Breastfeeding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean difference scores for the overall PBIS were 17.88 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25.29) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Suppl Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Compared with mothers, fathers reported higher perceptions of father support for breastfeeding at the total, subscale and item levels (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Paternal perceptions were positively correlated to maternal perceptions at the total, subscale and item score levels (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.27\u0026ndash;0.37, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of Parental Perception of Father Support for Breastfeeding (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;354)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBIS assessment, mean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifference scores \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBIS (overall)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u0026ndash;165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e137.83 (18.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119.95 (24.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.88 (25.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSavvy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.05 (5.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.68 (7.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37 (7.38)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.461\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHelping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.11 (4.24)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.28 (5.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.83 (5.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppreciation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.00 (4.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.38 (5.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63 (5.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.50 (3.80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.20 (5.11)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.30 (5.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponsiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.18 (3.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.36 (4.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.82 (4.47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eAbbreviations: PBIS, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e Difference scores are the scores of paternal perceptions minus those of maternal perceptions.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e Paired T test.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelations of Parental Perception of Father Support for Breastfeeding (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;354)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMothers \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBIS (overall)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSavvy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHelping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppreciation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponsiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFathers \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBIS (overall)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSavvy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHelping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppreciation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponsiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eAbbreviations: PBIS, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eAll correlation coefficients in the table reached statistical significance with \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e Pearson correlation.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFactors Associated with Difference in Parental Perception of Father Support for Breastfeeding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnivariate and multivariate analysis identified both paternal and maternal characteristics as factors associated with difference in parental perceptions (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). In adjusted analysis, differences in parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding were larger among fathers who were younger (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16 at age 30\u0026ndash;33, 0.247 at age 23\u0026ndash;39, vs age\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;34), had better breastfeeding knowledge (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.14) and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.38). Differences were also larger among mothers who were unemployed (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.12) and had lower breastfeeding self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.54) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociations Between Sociodemographic Characteristics of Fathers and Mothers, Other Variables and Difference Scores (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;354)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather\u0026rsquo;s Sociodemographic Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMother\u0026rsquo;s Sociodemographic Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge (year)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge(year)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.58 (25.38)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.75 (27.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.20 (25.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.09 (21.60)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.73 (22.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.87 (25.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh school or lower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.15 (30.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;High school/High school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.39 (29.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVocational/Bachelor's degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.38 (25.72)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVocational/Bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.32 (26.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePostgraduate degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.06 (23.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePostgraduate degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.62 (19.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctoral degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.97 (25.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctoral degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11 (17.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.05 (25.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.33 (22.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.45 (30.50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.52 (30.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePaternity leave (day)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaternity leave (day)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.59 (23.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.59 (23.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.21 (25.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.44 (22.16)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold income (RMB/year)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eType of delivery\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;150,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.81 (28.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVaginal delivery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.44 (25.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150,000-300,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.73 (23.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForceps-assisted delivery/Cesarean section\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.23 (24.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300,001\u0026ndash;1,000,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.45 (21.77)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1,000,001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.19 (16.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFeeding method\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExclusive breastfeeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.19 (23.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBreastfeeding knowledge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed feeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.49 (25.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArtificial feeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.68 (25.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFBSES-SF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBSES-SF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eAbbreviations: FBSES-SF, Father Support Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form; BSES-SF, Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e One Way-ANOVA.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e Independent 2 samples T test.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e Pearson correlation.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple Linear Regression Analysis of the Factors Associated with Difference Scores (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;354).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"18\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"15\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifference scores\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBIS (overall)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSavvy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHelping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppreciation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponsiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConstant\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.96 (-1.11-40.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62 (-5.73-6.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.28 (0.05\u0026ndash;10.52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.01 (-1.13-9.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.73 (1.26\u0026ndash;10.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.27 (-1.77-6.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFather\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"15\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.03 (2.20-13.86) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.24 (0.49-4.00) \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02 (-0.43-2.47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.22 (0.80\u0026ndash;3.64) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.69 (0.46\u0026ndash;2.93) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09 (-0.03-2.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.92 (6.17\u0026ndash;19.67) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07 (1.03\u0026ndash;5.10) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.32 (0.64-4.00) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.14 (1.49\u0026ndash;4.79) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.39 (0.76\u0026ndash;3.82) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.29 (0.10\u0026ndash;3.59) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold income\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.65 (-3.72-2.42)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.18 (-0.10-0.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10 (-0.87-0.66)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.14 (-0.89-0.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17 (-0.82-0.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.00 (-0.59-0.59)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBreastfeeding knowledge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.27 (0.50\u0026ndash;2.04) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35 (0.12\u0026ndash;0.58) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27 (0.08\u0026ndash;0.46) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20 (0.01\u0026ndash;0.39) \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25 (0.09\u0026ndash;0.42) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22 (0.07\u0026ndash;0.37) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFBSES-SF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (0.77\u0026ndash;1.24) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31 (0.24\u0026ndash;0.38) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17 (0.11\u0026ndash;0.23) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19 (0.13\u0026ndash;0.25) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18 (0.13\u0026ndash;0.23) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14 (0.09\u0026ndash;0.18) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMother\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"15\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79(-5.50-7.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66 (-1.24-2.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17 (-1.73-1.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52 (-1.01-2.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.38 (-1.71-0.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34 (-1.87-1.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.85 (-8.70-5.00)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.00 (-2.07-2.06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10 (-1.81-1.60)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.59 (-2.26-1.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.53 (-1.78-0.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.27 (-1.59-1.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.78 (-7.66-0.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.66 (-1.83-0.51)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.37 (-2.33 to -0.40) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.63 (-1.57-0.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.51 (-1.34-0.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.71 (-1.46-0.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBSES-SF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.23 (-1.44 to -1.03) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.37 (-0.43 to -0.31) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.23 (-0.28 to -0.18) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.23 (-0.28 to -0.18) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.25 (-0.30 to -0.21) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.19 (-0.23 to -0.15) \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"15\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.45 (-13.07 to -1.82) \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.18 (-2.88-0.51)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62 (-3.01 to -0.22) \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95 (-3.33 to -0.58) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87 (-3.06 to -0.68) \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01 (-2.09-0.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFeeding method\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed feeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44 (-4.62-5.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12 (-1.65-1.40)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54 (-0.72-1.80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.26 (-1.49-0.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.18 (-1.25-0.90)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48 (-0.49-1.45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArtificial feeding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06 (-5.45-7.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77 (-1.19-2.73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27 (-1.35-1.89)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.44 (-2.03-1.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65 (0.73\u0026ndash;2.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.15 (-1.40-1.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"18\"\u003eAbbreviations: PBIS, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale; B, unstandardized coefficients.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"18\"\u003ePBIS (overall): Multiple regression model statistics: R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.44; Adjusted R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.42.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"18\"\u003eThe age reference group for fathers and mothers was \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;34 years, the mothers\u0026rsquo; employment reference group was the employed group, and the feeding method reference group was the exclusive breastfeeding group.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"18\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"18\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.01.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"18\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study is the first to compare parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding within the first 42 days postpartum delivery between Chinese spouses, and to elucidate potential mechanisms of the parental perception gap. Our findings reveal significant differences between paternal and maternal perceptions, which was associated with parental characteristics and their breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study measured both paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding, an area with limited empirical evidence. In this study, the paternal perception at 42 days postpartum was similar to that in the Ethiopian late pregnancy population but higher than thta at 2 weeks postpartum in Singapore [15,18]. Conversely, the maternal perception at 42 days postpartum was significantly lower than Ethiopian mothers\u0026rsquo; perceptions during late pregnancy [18]. Moreover, paternal perceptions in this study were consistently higher than maternal perceptions, a finding that mirrors the results reported by Gebremariam et al., who compared perceptions among 128 late-pregnancy couples in Ethiopia [18].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo date, both qualitative and quantitative studies have explored fathers\u0026rsquo; support for breastfeeding, employing various scales such as the Coparenting Relationship Scale and Postpartum Partner Support Scale to quantify this support [26,27]. The present study selected the PBIS to assess father support, aligning with the established framework of father support and allowing for assessment for both paternal and maternal perceptions [19]. Despite the utility of the PBIS, insufficient evidence is available regarding fathers\u0026rsquo; support assessment using the PBIS, and the findings vary widely across different perinatal stages. Further studies are needed to enrich the evidence base for breastfeeding assessments throughout the perinatal period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Rempel et al. there are five aspects of father support for breastfeeding [28]. In our study, \u0026ldquo;Presence\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Appreciation\u0026rdquo;, which focus on emotional support, demonstrated larger differences between paternal and maternal perceptions to the other three aspects. Postpartum mothers, especially in the first six weeks, are in great need of spousal companionship and motivation [29]. However, in China, grandparents or babysitters often serve as the primary caregivers for mothers and infants, while fathers usually lack the awareness of how to support their partners [30]. Additionally, most fathers return to work after a short 10-day paternity leave (the legal paternity leave in Shanghai), further limiting their involvement in parenting and breastfeeding support [31]. Consequently, despite fathers\u0026rsquo; self-perceived good care, limited time and role in parenting resulted in poor maternal perceptions of father support, particularly regarding \u0026ldquo;Presence\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt has also been reported that paternal emotional support often does not align with mothers\u0026rsquo; needs due to a lack of communication between spouses [32]. This situation may be exacerbated in China, where traditional Eastern cultural vales often place the primary responsible for breastfeeding on mothers, thereby limiting fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in terms of \u0026ldquo;Appreciation\u0026rdquo; [33]. Fathers are commonly viewed as the primary breadwinners and are often too busy working to provide adequate support and help with breastfeeding. Some studies have reported that joint interventions targeting both fathers and mothers can increase father support for breastfeeding and promote co-parenting [34]. Our findings suggest that future interventions should emphasize improving parental communication and increasing fathers\u0026rsquo; awareness and understanding of mothers\u0026rsquo; needs to minimize the gap in perceptions of father support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo narrow the gap in perception between fathers and mothers, interventions should focused on couples with older fathers and unemployed mothers. Interventions target both fathers and mothers simultaneously are needed to enhance spousal communication and collaboration in breastfeeding. In particular, offline interventions during fathers\u0026rsquo; paternity leave combined with online interventions throughout the breastfeeding period are preferred to meet the needs of couples for breastfeeding support and parental development. Regular self-assessment of parental breastfeeding self-efficacy can be used as a predictor and tool to detect potential differences in parental perceptions, thereby improving the efficiency of father support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, we collected paternal and maternal characteristics to test their potential association with differences in parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Younger age, better breastfeeding knowledge and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy were predictive of better paternal perceptions of father support. Similarly, employment, and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy were predictive of better maternal perceptions. These findings were consistent with those from similar studies [17, 35]. Given that larger differences in parental perceptions can reduce the efficiency of father support, parental characteristics and factors can be used as predictors of potential gap in perceptions. For example, parental breastfeeding self-efficacy was found influential for both fathers and mothers in perceiving father support. Therefore, regular self-assessment of parental breastfeeding self-efficacy is recommended to monitor changes in parental perceptions. Limited variables were analyzed for the association with paternal perceptions of father support in breastfeeding in the current study, which restricts our understanding of the potential mechanism underlying paternal perception gaps. Further studies are needed to explore additional associated and predictive factors of paternal perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStrengths and limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo the best of our knowledge, this is the first study conducted in China to investigate the differences between fathers\u0026rsquo; and mothers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of father support for breastfeeding and its associated factors. Previous studies have focused on paternal perception of father support for breastfeeding, while scarcely evaluating mothers\u0026rsquo; perceptions. The current study reveals a large gap in father support perception between spouses, which could have implications for future research regarding effective methods to assess father support for breastfeeding. These results also raise concerns about implementing potential strategies to narrow the gap and improve the effectiveness of father support of breastfeeding outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations. First, father support for breastfeeding varies at different stages of breastfeeding. However, our study adopted a cross-sectional design focusing on fathers and mothers in puerperium, which limits its representativeness and significance. We are also conducting a cohort study that assesses father support for breastfeeding from both fathers\u0026rsquo; and mothers\u0026rsquo; perspectives at different stages from birth till six months after delivery. This could help in revealing the differences in father support for breastfeeding at different stages. Second, 354 couples were surveyed in the present study. The inclusion of a larger number of participants could have resulted in more representative findings. Third, the exploration of associated factors was restricted by the limited information collected in the questionnaire; the cross-sectional design precluded the establishment of causal links. Further in-depth studies are required to better understand the factors associated with differences in perceptions between spouses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we observed that mothers and fathers had different perceptions of father support. Fathers perceived better father support than mothers. Maternal and paternal characteristics as well as parental breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy, were potential predictors for the gap in perception. To narrow the gap in perception between fathers and mothers, more attention should be focused on couples with older fathers and unemployed mothers. Interventions target both fathers and mothers simultaneously are needed to promote spousal communication and collaboration in breastfeeding. Specifically, offline interventions during fathers\u0026rsquo; paternity leave combined with online interventions throughout the breastfeeding process are preferred to meet the needs of couples for breastfeeding support and parental development. Regular self-assessment of parental breastfeeding self-efficacy can be used as a predictor and parental and tool to detect differences in parental perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eethical approval was granted from the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Public Health and Nursing, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (approval number: SJUPN-202138). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003enot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e every human participant consented to participate in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ethis study was supported by the Innovation research team of high-level local universities in Shanghai (Grant No. SHSMU-ZDCX20212801).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eW.C. drafted the article and performed the initial analysis. L.R. reviewed drafts of articles and made substantial contributions to draft. J.Z. and J.H. performed preliminary analysis for the project. C.W. and S.L. conceived the original project, scientific design, analysis plan, and reviewed multiple drafts of the article. All authors contributed to and approved the final article and submission.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe author would like to express gratitude to all the postpartum women and their spouses participating in our research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. United Nations Children\u0026rsquo;s Fund: Infant and young child feeding counselling: an integrated course: trainer\u0026rsquo;s guide. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFrank NM, Lynch KF, Uusitalo U, Yang, J, L\u0026ouml;nnrot, M, Virtanen, SM, et al. The relationship between breastfeeding and reported respiratory and gastrointestinal infection rates in young children. BMC Pediatr. 2019;19(1):339.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHamner HC, Chiang KV, Li R. Returning to Work and Breastfeeding Duration at 12 Months, WIC Infant and Toddler Feeding Practices Study-2. Breastfeed Med. 2021;16(12):956\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;64.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChina Development Research Foundation. Survey Report on Factors Affecting Breastfeeding in China. 2019. [Cited 2024 Nov. 22] Available from https://www.cdrf.org.cn/jjhdt/4853.htm\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi J, Nguyen TT, Wang X, Mathisen R, Fang J. Breastfeeding practices and associated factors at the individual, family, health facility and environmental levels in China. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):e13002.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgrawal J, Chakole S, Sachdev C. The Role of Fathers in Promoting Exclusive Breastfeeding. Cureus. 2022;14(10):e30363.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRempel LA, Rempel JK. The breastfeeding team: the role of involved fathers in the breastfeeding family. J Hum Lact. 2011;27(2):115\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;21.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSherriff N, Hall V, Panton C. Engaging and supporting fathers to promote breast feeding: a concept analysis. Midwifery. 2014;30(6):667\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;77.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFeldman JS, Natale BN, Shaw DS, Nordahl KB, Janson H, N\u0026aelig;rde A. Duration of Breastfeeding and Supportive Paternal Caregiving in Early Childhood and the Potential Mediating Function of Maternal Caregiving. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2023;44(4):e309-e314.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWhite BK, Giglia RC, Burns SK, Scott JA. Investigating Maternal Perspectives of Breastfeeding Support Targeted Towards Fathers in the Milk Man Mobile App Intervention. Matern Child Health J. 2023;27(5):954\u0026ndash;964.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBudiati T, Adjie S, Gunawijaya J, Setyowati S. Fathers\u0026rsquo; role in sustainability of exclusive breastfeeding practice in post-cesarean-section mothers. J Public Health Res. 2021;11(2):2744.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRuan JM, Wu LJ. Postpartum depression and partner support during the period of lactation: Correlation research and its influencing factors. World J Psychiatry. 2024;14(1):119\u0026ndash;127.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSezer HK, Ceran MA, Demirsoz M, Kucukoglu S. Development and psychometric evaluation of the paternal support scale of breastfeeding. J Pediatr Nurs. 2024;75:149\u0026ndash;157.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eErdoğan E, \u0026Ouml;zerdoğan N. Evaluation of the effect of the father\u0026rsquo;s support on the mother\u0026rsquo;s breastfeeding motivation. J Eval Clin Pract. Published online October 13, 2024.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeng RNW, Shorey S, Yin SLK, Chan CPP, He HG. Fathers\u0026rsquo; Involvement in Their Wives\u0026rsquo;/Partners\u0026rsquo; Breastfeeding: A Descriptive Correlational Study. J Hum Lact. 2019;35(4):801\u0026ndash;812.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCalatrava M, Martins MV, Schweer-Collins M, Duch-Ceballos C, Rodr\u0026iacute;guez-Gonz\u0026aacute;lez M. Differentiation of self: A scoping review of Bowen Family Systems Theory\u0026rsquo;s core construct. Clin Psychol Rev. 2022;91:102101.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDurmazoğlu G, \u0026Ccedil;i\u0026ccedil;ek \u0026Ouml;, Okumuş H. The effect of spousal support perceived by mothers on breastfeeding in the postpartum period. Turk Arch Pediatr. 2021;56(1):57\u0026ndash;61.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGebremariam KT, Zelenko O, Mulugeta A, Gallegos D. A cross-sectional comparison of breastfeeding knowledge, attitudes, and perceived partners\u0026rsquo; support among expectant couples in Mekelle, Ethiopia. Int Breastfeed J. 2021;16(1):3.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGayesa RT, Xie YJ, Ngai FW. Measuring the role of fathers on breastfeeding success: Psychometric properties of Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s Afaan Oromo version of the partner breastfeeding influence scale. J Pediatr Nurs. 2025;80:e264-e271.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuazhong University of Science and Technology. Research on the Current Status and Influencing Factors of Spousal Support for Breastfeeding. Huazhong University of Science and Technology; 2021.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDennis CL, Faux S. Development and psychometric testing of the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale. Res Nurs Health. 1999;22(5):399\u0026ndash;409.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDennis CL. The breastfeeding self-efficacy scale: psychometric assessment of the short form. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2003;32(6):734\u0026ndash;744.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDennis CL, Brennenstuhl S, Abbass-Dick J. Measuring paternal breastfeeding self-efficacy: A psychometric evaluation of the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form among fathers. Midwifery. 2018;64:17\u0026ndash;22.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChinese Academy of Medical Sciences \u0026amp; Peking Union Medical College. Factors associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy among Beijing new mothers. Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences \u0026amp; Peking Union Medical College; 2008\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXiaofang W, Qiang H, Yang Q, Ying L, Cai L. The effect of workplace social capital on breastfeeding behavior of working women - mediating role based on family support. Chinese Journal of Health Statistics. 2021, 38(02): 273-5.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbbass-Dick J, Sun W, Newport A, Xie F, Godfrey D, Goodman WM. The comparison of access to an eHealth resource to current practice on mother and co-parent teamwork and breastfeeding rates: A randomized controlled trial. Midwifery. 2020;90:102812.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEslahi Z, Alimoradi Z, Bahrami N, Lin CY, Griffiths MD, Pakpour AH. Psychometric properties of Postpartum Partner Support Scale-Persian version. Nurs Open. 2021;8(4):1688\u0026ndash;1695.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRempel LA, Rempel JK, Moore KCJ. Relationships between types of father breastfeeding support and breastfeeding outcomes. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13(3):e12337.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMercan Y, Tari Selcuk K. Association between postpartum depression level, social support level and breastfeeding attitude and breastfeeding self-efficacy in early postpartum women. PLoS One. 2021;16(4):e0249538.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSun T, Duan C, Wang Y, Li Q. The status quo and influencing factors of breastfeeding social support in China based on LASSO regression model. Peer J. 2025;13:e18779.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNie J, Zhang L, Song S, Hartnett, AJ, Liu, Z, Wang, N, et al. Exclusive breastfeeding in rural Western China: does father\u0026rsquo;s co-residence matter? BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1981.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRohmah N, Laksono AD. Relationship between family support, personal communication, shared decision making, and breastfeeding in low birth weight babies. Health Care Women Int. 2025;46(1):45\u0026ndash;57.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdelblute HB, Altman CE. The Interaction and Impact of Social Support and Father Absence on Breastfeeding. Breastfeed Med. 2021;16(8):629\u0026ndash;634.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao ZH, Huang YY, Qiao J, Huang, WP, Redding, SR, Wang, R, et al. Co-Parenting Impact on Breastfeeding: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Breastfeed Med. 2023;18(6):431\u0026ndash;448.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDraman N, Mohamad N, Yusoff HM, Muhamad R. The decision of breastfeeding practices among parents attending primary health care facilities in suburban Malaysia. J Taibah Univ Med Sci. 2017;12(5):412\u0026ndash;417.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Breastfeeding, Father support, Parental perception, Breastfeeding self-efficacy, Family system theory","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6897663/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6897663/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFather support is a crucial factor influencing breastfeeding. Limited evidence suggests that there are differences between maternal and paternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding. Moreover, the factors contributing to these differences have not yet been fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to compare paternal and maternal perceptions of father support for breastfeeding and to investigate potential factors associated with differences in parental perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis was a cross-sectional study. Between October 2021 and April 2022, 432 couples were recruited from three tertiary hospitals in Shanghai, China. Each couple received two sets of questionnaires, one for the father and one for the mother. The questionnaire included basic sociodemographics, the Partner Breastfeeding Influence Scale, Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form, and the Breastfeeding Knowledge Questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 354 matched questionnaires were collected. The scores of the fathers\u0026rsquo; perception of their breastfeeding support were significantly higher than those made by mothers (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The mean difference score for the overall father support (paternal perception minus maternal perception) was 17.88. In adjusted analysis, the differences in parental perceptions of father support for breastfeeding were larger among fathers who were younger (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.155 at age 30\u0026ndash;33, 0.247 at age 23\u0026ndash;39, vs age\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;34), had better breastfeeding knowledge (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.140) and higher breastfeeding self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.375) and mothers who were un-employed (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.117) and had lower breastfeeding self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.540).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fathers perceived higher levels of father support for breastfeeding than the mothers. Maternal and paternal characteristics as well as parental breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy were potential predictors for the gap in perception. Further interventions should focus on enhancing fathers\u0026rsquo; breastfeeding knowledge and self-efficacy to improve their support for breastfeeding.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Differences in Parental Perceptions of Father Support for Breastfeeding and Associated Factors","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-29 14:47:27","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6897663/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e64b0c82-c48d-4f87-8e60-0529de81548e","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-12T23:38:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-29 14:47:27","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6897663","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6897663","identity":"rs-6897663","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}