Co-occurrence patterns and habitat selection of the mountain hare, European hare, and European rabbit in urban areas of Sweden

Assessing the underlying mechanisms of co-occurrence patterns can be challenging as biotic and abiotic causations are hard to disentangle. To date, few studies have investigated co-occurrence patterns within urban areas that constitute novel habitat to numerous wildlife species. Moreover, as urban areas expand and are increasingly used as habitat by wildlife, there is a need for a better understanding of urban ecology to facilitate human-wildlife coexistence. Here, we investigated co-occurrence patterns and habitat selection of the European hare ( Lepus europaeus ), mountain hare ( L. timidus ), and European rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) inside urban areas of Sweden, using joint species distribution models and generalized linear mixed models based on citizen science observations. All three species were observed within urban areas, but European hares and rabbits appear to be more successful urban colonizers compared to mountain hares. Overall, our findings suggested that urban occurrence by all three lagomorphs was related to suitable conditions within the distribution of each species (e.g. climate and elevation), rather than by the presence of other lagomorph species or specific land cover types within urban areas. On a finer spatial scale, our findings suggested facilitation of European hares by rabbits, though the mechanism for this remains unclear. European hares and rabbits generally selected for green urban areas and mountain hares for residential gardens, which likely constitute suitable foraging sites. Our findings contribute to the understanding of urban ecology and provide valuable insight for management measures of the three lagomorphs in urban areas of Sweden.