Evidence from Gravity and Remote Sensing: A Structural High and Neotectonics Activity Associated with the Hydrogeological Divider at the Iraqi-Saudi Border

Evidence from Gravity and Remote Sensing: A Structural High and Neotectonics Activity Associated with the Hydrogeological Divider at the Iraqi-Saudi Border | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evidence from Gravity and Remote Sensing: A Structural High and Neotectonics Activity Associated with the Hydrogeological Divider at the Iraqi-Saudi Border Ahmed S. Al-Zubedi, Hayder A. Al-Bahadily, Younus I. Al-Saady This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5764099/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Information about groundwater resources in arid regions is certainly invaluable. Therefore, this study applied an integrated approach combining geophysical, remote sensing, and hydrogeological data in a GIS framework to analyze groundwater movement patterns and accumulation in the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq, concentrating on the Saffawi area. The methodology incorporated gravity and magnetic data, satellite imagery (Sentinel-2 and ALOS PALSAR), digital elevation models, and a hydrogeological database. Analyses revealed evidence of neotectonic activity in the Saffawi area, marked by structural uplift reflected in positive gravity anomaly and fault activation near the Ediacaran basement. This uplift altered drainage patterns, promoted groundwater infiltration, and reshaped groundwater flow within the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat aquifers, forming the interconnected "Safawi Hydrogeological Flow System". The study emphasizes the role of tectonic activity in controlling groundwater dynamics and underscores the importance of multidisciplinary approaches in hydrogeological investigations. Gravity Remote Sensing Neotectonics Activity Hydrogeology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Introduction Subsurface structures play a major role in groundwater movement patterns and accumulation in the subsurface, and should therefore be considered in studies related to hydrogeological classifications. The gravity method is one of the oldest geophysical techniques mainly used for delineating subsurface structures that control the configuration of groundwater aquifers and oil reservoirs, (Araffa, 2018). Numerous researchers have employed the gravity method for groundwater exploration and to identify structural patterns that govern the regional configuration of groundwater aquifers (Khogali et al., 2024; Murty and Raghavan, 2002; Jassas et al., 2019). Remote sensing strategies blended with GIS techniques may be utilized to identify groundwater movement patterns. By integrating satellite imagery and spatial data analysis, these approaches provide a comprehensive view of the factors influencing groundwater flow, such as surface topography and the nature of geological formations. This combination allows for more accurate mapping and monitoring of groundwater dynamics over large areas, (Mukherjee, 2008; Hewaidy et al. 2015; Ejepu et al. 2017). According to Jassas et al., (2019), many studies that have utilized remote sensing techniques in combination with GIS methods have overlooked the impact that structural features in basement rocks might have on the distribution of groundwater within the overlying sedimentary layers. For this reason, gravity and magnetic data including satellite gravity imagery (GRACE Model), and data from satellite imagery (Digital Elevation Model) (SRTM DEM) were utilized to evaluate the impact of Safawi uplift on the groundwater movement patterns in the Shabcha – Al-Salman hydrogeological area within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq. This approach will contribute to the reclassification of hydrogeological areas in this Region. Hydrogeological classifications are the maximum vital strategies used to assess the hydrogeological conditions and spatial distribution of groundwater, recharge, discharge areas, and groundwater flow systems. These classifications are primarily based on the tectonic, geological, climatic, morphological, and hydrographical factors, which consequently affect the surface drainage and groundwater paths. The tectonic setting determines the hydrogeological basins' geometry that impacts the groundwater flow and accumulation within aquifers, (Alzubedi, 2022). This study aims to identify how the Safawi uplift affected the overlying sedimentary layers and its influence on groundwater distribution and movement patterns within the fractured aquifers of Iraq's Desert Hydrogeological Region. Site Description The Safawi uplift is a subsurface structure located close to Iraqi-Saudi Arabia borders within the Iraqi Southern Desert and was initiated in the Late Triassic – Early Jurassic, (Roychoudhury and Nahar, 1980; Al-Bassam et al ., 2004; Ma'ala,2009). It originated as an Arch from Hail area of Saudi Arabia and extends to the south of Iraq. This arch is trending northeast through the Safawi locality in the direction of Samawa metropolis, within Iraqi territory (Fig.1) (Henson, 1951; Roychoudhury and Nahar, 1980; Ma'ala,2009). The available geophysical data display that Safawi uplift is a basement swell with down warping on each flank, which is marked by distinguished positive gravity anomaly indicating the presence of basement at an extraordinarily shallow intensity, (Sallomy and Al-Khatib, 1981; Al-Ethawi, 2002). Moreover, Ditmar et al. (1972) showed that the zone, which is situated alongside the Safawi lineament, could be very unique structural element of the Arabian platform; it represents a system of large local uplift of ellipsoidal forms, generally bordered limited by faults of mainly N – S trend. The first major tectonic event during the Jurassic period was the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, which occurred due to the collision of central Iran with the Laurasia landmass. This event was also accompanied by the clear uplift and activation of the Safawi Arch, (Ma'ala,2009). Therefore, the Late Jurassic sequence in the Safawi area represents a platform depositional environment. The platform facies cover the surface of the highest part of the pre-Mesozoic basement structure, which may be related to the activity of the Safawi Arch, as suggested by Roychoudhury and Nahar (1980). The Safawi area is predominantly covered by two geological formations. The older Umm Er Radhuma Formation, dating back to the Paleocene and early Eocene, outcrops along the Iraq-Saudi border and on the flanks of the Nukhaib Graben, as reported by Al-Hashimi (1973). The younger Dammam Formation, spanning the Late to Middle Eocene, is widely exposed in the eastern parts of the Safawi uplift, (Fig. 2). According to data from the Safawi-1 well, drilled in positive gravity, at a depth of 6000 feet (1828.8 m), the oldest formations are the Muhaiwir Formation (Middle Jurassic). This formation is a relatively heterogeneous unit composed mainly of two parts. The upper part consists of limestone alternating with sandstone and marly limestone. The lower part is mainly limestone, with thin sandstone (Jassim and Buday in Jassim and Goff, 2006). Hydrogeology The Safawi Uplift is located in the Shabcha – Al-Salman hydrogeological area within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq (Alzubedi, 2022). This area is situated between the Al-Maanya hydrogeological area to the north and the Takhadeed – Al-Bussaya hydrogeological area to the south. It is bounded by the Iraqi-Saudi Arabia borders to the west and the right bank of the Euphrates River to the east, (Fig. 3). The northern boundary of the Shabcha – Al-Salman hydrogeological area is marked by the Rhaimawi – Hilla fault, which separates it from the Al-Maanya hydrogeological area. The sharp boundary between this area and the Takhadeed – Al-Bussaya hydrogeological area to the south is represented by the Takhadeed – Suq Al-Shoyokh-Amara fault. The main aquifers in the central and vicinities of the Safawi uplift are formed within the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat formations. These aquifers are formed within carbonate rock formations that are characterized by the presence of fractures and cavities. The fractures and cavities play a significant role in the hydraulic characteristics of these aquifer systems. The thickness of the Umm Er Radhuma formation reaches up to 350 m and increases towards the southeast, reaching up to 500 m near the Euphrates River within the Shabcha – Al-Salman hydrogeological area (Al-Fatlawi, 2011). The Tayarat aquifer represents an important, yet untapped, groundwater source in this area because it is located at large depths. The thickness of the Tayarat formation reaches up to 350 m in the central and surrounding areas of the Safawi uplift, but decreases towards the east and northeast, dropping to less than 200 m near the Euphrates River within the Shabcha - Al-Salman hydrogeological area. The primary source of groundwater recharge in the Shabcha - Al-Salman hydrogeological area is rainfall. The vertical movement of groundwater from the deeper aquifer systems to the shallower aquifers represents a secondary source of recharge. The Euphrates River represents the primary discharge zone for the Shabcha – Al-Salman hydrogeological area. Additionally, springs and Sawa Lake, located along the regional Abu-Jir fault zone, also serve as discharge points. The general trend of groundwater flow in this area is towards the east, along the right bank of the Euphrates River. The groundwater flow direction map for the Desert Hydrogeological Region, compiled by the Iraqi Geological Survey, indicates the presence of localized groundwater movement patterns due to the Safawi uplift in this area (Al-Jiburi and Al-Basrawi, 2008), Fig. (4). Methodology This study utilized geophysical (gravity and magnetic), remote sensing, and hydrological data to identify patterns of groundwater movement and accumulation in the subsurface. Groundwater databases along with previous geological and hydrogeological surveys, were employed to assess the spatial variations in groundwater flow. All these data sets were combined with additional supporting information in a GIS environment to improve the hydrogeological classification of areas within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq. The available gravity and magnetic data, stored in the standard Geosoft database format (GEOSURV and GETECH, 2011), were enhanced, filtered, and interpreted using the Geosoft software package. A residual gravity map, along with its tilt derivative map was generated by subtracting the 5000 m upward continuation of the Decompensative Anomaly (DA) field (Al-Bahadily, 2022) to reveal subsurface structures. The 1D-power spectrum plot, based on the method proposed by Spector and Grant (1970), was applied to automatically calculate source depths from gridded magnetic data, producing a depth-to-magnetic-basement map (Thurston and Smith 1997 in Paterson et al. 2004). Satellite gravity model data (GRACE) were used to provide a regional perspective on structural features, extending the analysis of anomalies beyond Iraq's borders. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data were processed using hydrology tools to extract drainage networks. Additionally, layers representing tectonic elements (Sharland et al. 2001), groundwater distribution, and movement patterns were overlaid on gravity and magnetic maps to investigate potential relationships between these factors. This study utilized also satellite images of Sentinel 2 scenes obtained from the Website (https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/ ), and ALOS PALSAR Scenes for DEM data were obtained from the website (https://asf.alaska.edu/datasets/daac/alos-palsar/). The Data preparation and pre-processing techniques of satellite data were achieved using ERDAS IMAGINE 14 software. The ArcGIS 10.2 software was utilized for the automated extraction of drainage networks. To delineate the drainage network, the watershed tool from the hydrology toolbox in ArcGIS 10.8 was employed. A topographic survey map of Iraq (1:100000) was used to verify the delineated drainage networks. Stream orders were determined using Strahler's method. The lineament extraction was done automatically using the algorithm librarian tools of LINE, which extracts linear features from an image of the Geomatica 16 software. The lineament extraction algorithm of PCI Geomatica 16 software was carried out over shaded relief images under the following parameters of the software Table 1. ArcGIS10.8 software was used for the processing, interpolation results, and layout maps and Rockwork16 was used to produce a rose diagram of lineament direction extraction, and validation of lineaments. This study utilized geophysical (gravity and magnetic), remote sensing, and hydrological data to identify patterns of groundwater movement and accumulation in the subsurface. Groundwater databases along with previous geological and hydrogeological surveys, were employed to assess the spatial variations in groundwater flow. All these data sets were combined with additional supporting information in a GIS environment to improve the hydrogeological classification of areas within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq. The available gravity and magnetic data, stored in the standard Geosoft database format (GEOSURV and GETECH, 2011), were enhanced, filtered, and interpreted using the Geosoft software package. A residual gravity map, along with its tilt derivative map was generated by subtracting the 5000 m upward continuation of the Decompensative Anomaly (DA) field (Al-Bahadily, 2022) to reveal subsurface structures. The 1D-power spectrum plot, based on the method proposed by Spector and Grant (1970), was applied to automatically calculate source depths from gridded magnetic data, producing a depth-to-magnetic-basement map (Thurston and Smith 1997 in Paterson et al. 2004). Satellite gravity model data (GRACE) were used to provide a regional perspective on structural features, extending the analysis of anomalies beyond Iraq's borders. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data were processed using hydrology tools to extract drainage networks. Additionally, layers representing tectonic elements (Sharland et al. 2001), groundwater distribution, and movement patterns were overlaid on gravity and magnetic maps to investigate potential relationships between these factors. This study utilized also satellite images of Sentinel 2 scenes obtained from the Website (https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/ ), and ALOS PALSAR Scenes for DEM data were obtained from the website (https://asf.alaska.edu/datasets/daac/alos-palsar/). The Data preparation and pre-processing techniques of satellite data were achieved using ERDAS IMAGINE 14 software. The ArcGIS 10.2 software was utilized for the automated extraction of drainage networks. To delineate the drainage network, the watershed tool from the hydrology toolbox in ArcGIS 10.8 was employed. A topographic survey map of Iraq (1:100000) was used to verify the delineated drainage networks. Stream orders were determined using Strahler's method. The lineament extraction was done automatically using the algorithm librarian tools of LINE, which extracts linear features from an image of the Geomatica 16 software. The lineament extraction algorithm of PCI Geomatica 16 software was carried out over shaded relief images under the following parameters of the software Table 1. Table 1: The lineament extraction parameters of PCI Geomatica 16 Software applied to Sentinel 2 image of the Safawi area. Name Description Values RADI Radius of filter in pixels 60 GTHR Threshold for edge gradient 10 LTHR Threshold for curve length 60 FTHR Threshold for line fitting error 3 ATHR Threshold for angular difference 5 DTHR Threshold for linking distance 10 ArcGIS10.8 software was used for the processing, interpolation results, and layout maps and Rockwork16 was used to produce a rose diagram of lineament direction extraction, and validation of lineaments. Results and Discussion Geophysical Data The Bouguer gravity map shown in Fig. (5) of the Saffawi area displays a distinctive gravity high at the Saffawi town and in the central part of groundwater anomaly at the Iraqi-Saudi Arabia border. The residual positive gravity underneath the groundwater anomaly has an amplitude value of about 2 mGal and it is aligned in the north-south direction. This direction is a weak zone dominated by the Ediacaran (635-541 million years ago (Ma)) basemen terrane of the Arabian Plate. The depth to the top of this anomaly is 5230 m being estimated from the 1D-power spectrum plot shown in Fig. (6) using the technique suggested by Spector and Grant (1970). The depth to the basement is about 7.5 km estimated by Al-Bahadily and Al-Rahim (2024). The residual positive gravity could be interpreted as an uplifted area rather than a lateral change in lithology. However, the RTP-magnetic field shows a moderate magnetic intensity beneath the Safawi area Fig. (7, the green area). Such intensity is related to the magnetic background that is mostly reflects metamorphic facies. This suggests that the basement may not be involved in the uplifting movement and some faults near the basement were activated allowing the upper sedimentary layers to be shifted upward and giving the gravity anomaly. It is believed that the Safawi area has neotectonic activity. The area is described by a topographic bulge resulting from structural uplift. In the gravity map (Fig.5), this uplift is reflected by the positive anomaly that leads to enhanced fractures in upper sedimentary beds which consist of mainly carbonate rocks and anhydrite. Such enhancement increases the groundwater infiltration allowing groundwater aquifers to recharge. The indication of neotectonic activity can be noticed on the geological map (Fig. 2), which displays NE-SW-oriented normal faults reaching the ground surface. These structures reveal the stress accommodation resulting from the progress collision between Arabia and Eurasia (Al-Bahadily et al. 2024). Remote Sensing and Hydrogeology The analysis of drainage patterns in tectonically active areas contributes to predicting regional geomorphology since subsurface changes can be identified through drainage conditions, which may present as drainage anomalies (Joshi et al., 2022). The results of the drainage network analysis show that the dendritic pattern is dominant, in addition to the presence of the irregular pattern and the rectangular pattern. It also demonstrates that the flow direction is from the southwest towards the northeast with the general direction of the slope of the region. The presence of the rectangular pattern in the middle of the region, as Fig. (8) shows, indicates the presence of recent tectonic activity. The main valleys and small streams show a clear impact along the middle part of the study area, which confirms that they are affected by the change in the structure in this part compared to the rest of the river network in the region. The rectangular drainage pattern is widely spread in areas exposed to cracks and fractures. The valleys flow in areas with less resistance and thus are concentrated in places where the rocks are weak and relatively easy to penetrate, where the density and orientation of the surface cracks and fractures lead to a change in the direction of the valleys. As a result, the valleys deviate sharply and suddenly and at high angles when they encounter cracks and fractures, and this is evident in the middle of the study area. The presence of irregular and deranged patterns indicates the presence of dissolution phenomena and their spread in the region, such as karst, as a result of the low slope and the presence of carbonate rocks. The digital elevation model map of the study area indicates that elevations between 203 and 458 meters above mean sea level are primarily found in dissected plateaus, escarpments as well as karst features, distributed in various parts of the area (Fig. 9). The study area is characterized by decreasing elevation with a general slope from the southwest to the northeast. The term "lineament" is widely used in geology and refers to any extensive linear feature on the earth’s surface, such as a fault or fracture line. The directional analysis of the automatically extracted lineaments map was conducted using the DEM image (Fig. 10). The major lineament trends in the study area are NW-SE, N-S, E-W, and NE-SW, as shown in (Fig. 11). Among these, the NW-SE direction is the most dominant that coincides with Abu Jir Trend (the trend is dated back to ~630 Ma). The lineaments extracted from both images highlight the significance of the NW-SE, N-S, E-W, and NE-SW oriented lineament sets. There is a clear relationship between these lineaments and the distribution of the drainage pattern system. Furthermore, the lineaments in the central part of the area, exhibit a typical lineament pattern (Fig. 10) that coincides with a drainage pattern (Fig. 8). This is confirmed by the groundwater flow direction map drawn on the Desert Hydrogeological Region map which reveals that the Safawi uplift caused a change in the pattern of groundwater flow direction within the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat aquifers in the Shabcha – Al-Salman hydrogeological area (Fig. 12). It is observed that groundwater moves northward and northwestward towards the Al-Maanya hydrogeological area and southward and southwestward towards the Takhadeed – Al-Bussaya hydrogeological area, as shown in Fig. (12). Due to the absence of groundwater discharge points such as springs near the boundaries of these hydrogeological areas, this uplift resulted in the existence of a groundwater flow system in these hydrogeological areas. Therefore, the Shabcha – Al-Salman, Al-Maanya, and Takhadeed – Al-Bussaya hydrogeological areas form a hydrogeological flow system, which we named the Safawi hydrogeological flow system. This hydrogeological system is identified based on the shared and interconnected groundwater flow between these hydrogeological regions. Conclusions The groundwater flow patterns at the Saffawi area, near the Iraq-Saudi Arabia border in the southwestern part of the Southern Desert of Iraq are associated with the position of a gravity high which, in turn, is associated with areas where the depth to basement rocks is relatively shallow. The gravity high suggests that the sedimentary cover underwent tectonic movement that led to form groundwater movement patterns in the region are controlled by subsurface structures and fractures. It is concluded that the Saffawi area exhibits evidence of neotectonic activity characterized by a structural uplift reflected in a positive gravity anomaly, attributed to the uplift of sedimentary layers without significant lithological changes. This suggests that the uplift has taken place after the deposition of the Paleocene (Umm Er Radhuma Formation) and is still active. Gravity and magnetic analyses indicate the activation of faults near the Ediacaran basement, with anomalies aligned north-south, influencing surface features and enhancing groundwater infiltration. Drainage patterns reveal dendritic, rectangular, and irregular forms, indicative of structural control, fractures, and karst phenomena, while the topography slopes from southwest to northeast with elevations ranging from 203 to 458 meters. The Saffawi uplift has altered groundwater flow directions in the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat aquifers, creating the interconnected "Saffawi Hydrogeological Flow System," linking the Shabcha – Al-Salman, Al-Maanya, and Takhadeed – Al-Bussaya hydrogeological areas. This underground flow system, influenced by structural uplift and the absence of discharge points like springs, underscores the tectonic control over groundwater dynamics in the region. Declarations Author Contribution A. Alzubedi contributed to writing the main manuscript text, Hayder A. authored the Geophysical section, and Younus I. prepared the Remote Sensing section. All authors participated in reviewing the manuscript. References Al-Bahadily, H. (2022) Evolution the geological view of the Southern Desert of Iraq using gravity and magnetic data: Ph.D. dissertation, University of Baghdad. Al-Bahadily, H. A. and Al-Rahim, A. M., (2024) Depth-to-Basement Estimates Using Magnetic Data of the Iraqi Southern Desert: A Statistical Approach. IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 1300012004; doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1300/1/012004. Al-Bahadily, H. A., Al-Rahim, A. M. & Smith, R. S., (2024) Tectonic elements and structural framework deduced from magnetic data of the Southern Desert, Iraq. Pure Appl. Geophys. 181, 1523–1540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-024-03460-w. Al-Bassam, K.S., Al-Azzawi, A.M., Dawood, R.M. and Al-Bedawi, J.A., (2004) Subsurface study of the pre – Cretaceous regional unconformity in the Western Desert of Iraq. Iraqi Geol. Jour., Vol. 32/ 33, p. 1 – 25. Al-Ethawi, A.M., (2002) Tectonic Boundary Evolution of the Southern Part of Al-Salman Zone by Analysis of Geophysical data. Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, College of Science, University of Baghdad. Al-Hashimi, H.A.J., (1973) The Sedimentary Facies and Depositional Environments of Eocene Dammam and Rus Formations. Jour. Geol. Soci. Iraq, Vol. VI (Al-Naqib Volume), p. 1 – 18. Al-Zubedi, Ahmed S., (2022) Groundwater in Iraq, Araa for printing, publishing and distribution, Baghdad – Iraq, 152p. Ditamr, V. and others, (1972) Geological conditions and Hydrocarbon Prospects of the Republic of Iraq (Northern and Central parts). Tecno-Export, INOC Lib. Baghdad. Ejepu JS, Olasehinde P, Okhimamhe AA, Okunlola I (2017) Investigation of hydrogeological structures of Paiko Region, North-Central Nigeria using integrated geophysical and remote sensing techniques. Geosciences 7:122. Henson, F.B.S., (1951)Observations on geology and petroleum occurrences of the Middle East. Proc. 3rd World Pet. Cong. The Hague, I, p. 113 – 140. Hewaidy AGA, El-Motaal EA, Sultan SA, Ramdan TM, El khafif AA, Soliman SA (2015) Groundwater exploration using resistivity and magnetic data at the northwestern part of the Gulf of Suez, Egypt.Egypt J Petrol 24(3):255–263. Jassas, Hussein A., Al‑Bahadily, H. A., and Al‑Saady, Y. I., (2019) Integrating hydrogeological, geophysical, and remote‑sensing data to identify fresh groundwater resources in arid regions: a case study from Western Iraq. Environmental Earth Sciences. 78:521. Jassim, S.Z. and Buday, T.,(2006) Chapter fourth, pp.45-56: In Jassim and Goff, editors, Geology of Iraq 2006; Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum, Brno, 341p. Joshi, M., Kothyari, G. C., Malik, K., & Taloor, A. K., (2022) Response of drainage to tectonics and PS-InSAR derived deformation study in Bilaspur, northwestern Himalaya, India. Geodesy and Geodynamics, 13(3), 205–218. Khogali, A., Chavanidis, K., Stampolidis, A., Kirmizakis, P., Yassin, M., Abu-Mahfouz, I. S., Al-Shaibani, A., Tawabini, B., Soupios, P., (2024) Subsurface complexity controls the aquifer heterogeneity: A case study from the Al-Hassa oasis, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 27, 101322,2-801X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101322. Ma'ala, K.A., (2009) Tectonic and Structural Evolution. Iraq Bull. Geol. and Mine. Special Issue, Geology of the Iraqi Southern Desert. p. 35 – 52. Murty, B.V.S., Raghavan, V.K., (2002) The gravity method in groundwater exploration in crystalline rocks: a study in the peninsular granitic region of Hyderabad, India. Hydrogeol. J. 10, 307–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2. Roychoudhury, S.C. and Nahar, K.S., (1980) Jurassic oil prospects in south and west Iraq. Jour. Geol. Soc. of Iraq, Special Issue, 5th Iraqi Geological Conference, p.199 – 204. S. Mukherjee, (2008) “Role of Satellite Sensors in Groundwater Exploration,” Sensors, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 2006- 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s8032006. Sallomy, J.T. and Al-Khatib, H. H., (1981) Basement Tectonics in Al-Salman Area, Southwestern Desert, Iraq. Proceedings of the 6th Iraqi Geol. Cong. Sultan A. Araffa, (2018) Gravity Application for Delineating Subsurface Structures at Different Localities in Egypt. Chapter 6 , Gravity - Geoscience Applications, Industrial Technology and Quantum Aspect. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71492. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5764099","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":398363045,"identity":"6475d8d6-99a0-4480-beb3-8fc19d34a8fc","order_by":0,"name":"Ahmed S. Al-Zubedi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAArUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC+QYGA2aGCgYGA6K1GBwAaTlDkhYgYmZsI0mL9OGNnwvnHZY3Z28+wPCjYhthLfJ9acXSM7cdNtzZcyyBsefMbSKsOcNjIM277TDjhhs5IBcSp8X4N++cw/YkaTGT5m04nEi8FoMzbGXWPMfSkzecOZZwkCi/yPcwb77NU2Ntu+F488EHPyqIcRgENIPJA0SrB4I6UhSPglEwCkbBSAMAeTA9GfP7bdMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahmed","middleName":"S.","lastName":"Al-Zubedi","suffix":""},{"id":398363046,"identity":"de56a414-9efb-43da-a88a-084e387cebdd","order_by":1,"name":"Hayder A. Al-Bahadily","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Iraq Geological Survey","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hayder","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Al-Bahadily","suffix":""},{"id":398363047,"identity":"c114ede4-de05-43d3-8198-5d58716e8afb","order_by":2,"name":"Younus I. Al-Saady","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Iraq Geological Survey","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Younus","middleName":"I.","lastName":"Al-Saady","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-04 14:38:03","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5764099/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5764099/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":73277193,"identity":"db1e7232-6e64-4bc2-8b34-9dd265e6b51e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:55:25","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":434263,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation map of the study area on Sentinel-2 satellite image.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/7f3cb60a804e3bc7350be579.png"},{"id":73276277,"identity":"1add2577-68ec-4421-90b2-7ff712b405fd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:26","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":428998,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeological map of study area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/3667d99123d5c13297cdfdbe.png"},{"id":73276275,"identity":"e2717831-c8fb-41c3-8fc4-c4f96d65729e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:26","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":320177,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDesert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq, (Alzubedi,2022).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/166afbd87de2020760ff790f.png"},{"id":73276273,"identity":"d2cef90c-b61a-45a8-b9a8-8ba69d4059d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:25","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":339044,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGroundwater flow direction map of the Desert Hydrogeological Region after (Al-Jiburi and Al-Basrawi, 2008).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/98e88ad94d60ee3e305fd604.png"},{"id":73276283,"identity":"e06736dc-52e9-48cd-bc8c-f1542d803111","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:26","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3522830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBouguer anomaly map of the Saffawi study area with groundwater flow directions. Note the center of the gravity high is coincided with the center of groundwater enclose at Safawi area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/6ecc2ef79531a9fcfa8c8691.png"},{"id":73277197,"identity":"b8eeb234-5422-48da-bf5a-e07b4991e1c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:55:26","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":392829,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePower spectrum plot of the gravity high shown in (Fig. 5, yellow box). Two depth slices are calculated; 5230 m and 1070 m for deep and shallow sources, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/de1959e830b67d72af38194d.png"},{"id":73276301,"identity":"5f318fa1-8a02-42b9-a479-15a0e9fc1a2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:27","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3369059,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRTP magnetic map of the Saftawi area with groundwater flow directions, showing a moderate magnetic field in the central part of the groundwater movement patterns.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/a911731518de0869dff40eb5.png"},{"id":73277196,"identity":"b67d3f1d-2655-4778-add0-063134c2a8e3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:55:26","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":454028,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStream network of study area. Note the different drainage patterns around Safawi.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/0324c7221e0e83e887c4a702.png"},{"id":73276285,"identity":"32cbcd47-bb80-44de-b7f8-8994805947ce","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:26","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":284547,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eElevation map of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/b888906022446ca5434f57c4.png"},{"id":73277204,"identity":"a81e8fdd-2809-4a0e-9bd5-ae038ae0c4e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:55:27","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":343621,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLineaments map of the Safawi study area deduced from automatic extraction of DEM image.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/2101cc39a44d4222fe5135f9.png"},{"id":73276310,"identity":"8b6e6885-8239-4d2e-ad45-5b6f9b32b16a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:27","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":227415,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRose diagram showing the dominated trends of lineaments in the Safawi study area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/8a50a3ceb484775ba1169e16.png"},{"id":73276280,"identity":"dbd74af3-1861-4d33-9a8b-2cf00733f8b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 11:47:26","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":227046,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of the Safawi uplift on groundwater flow direction patterns in Desert Hydrogeological Areas.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/445049375cd9c6812a38c9a7.png"},{"id":75242059,"identity":"db7ae028-3c51-482b-8cfe-921019af9562","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-01 22:01:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":12421843,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5764099/v1/c31b7020-1a85-4e29-8a95-6175ce1b721a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Evidence from Gravity and Remote Sensing: A Structural High and Neotectonics Activity Associated with the Hydrogeological Divider at the Iraqi-Saudi Border","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSubsurface structures play a major role in groundwater movement patterns and accumulation in the subsurface, and should therefore be considered in studies related to hydrogeological classifications. The gravity method is one of the oldest geophysical techniques mainly used for delineating subsurface structures that control the configuration of groundwater aquifers and oil reservoirs, (Araffa, 2018). Numerous researchers have employed the gravity method for groundwater exploration and to identify structural patterns that govern the regional configuration of groundwater aquifers (Khogali et al., 2024; Murty and Raghavan, 2002; Jassas et al., 2019). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRemote sensing strategies blended with GIS techniques may be utilized to identify groundwater movement patterns. By integrating satellite imagery and spatial data analysis, these approaches provide a comprehensive view of the factors influencing groundwater flow, such as surface topography and the nature of geological formations. This combination allows for more accurate mapping and monitoring of groundwater dynamics over large areas, (Mukherjee, 2008; Hewaidy et al. 2015; Ejepu et al. 2017). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to Jassas et al., (2019), many studies that have utilized remote sensing techniques in combination with GIS methods have overlooked the impact that structural features in basement rocks might have on the distribution of groundwater within the overlying sedimentary layers. For this reason, gravity and magnetic data including satellite gravity imagery (GRACE Model), and data from satellite imagery (Digital Elevation Model) (SRTM DEM) were utilized to evaluate the impact of Safawi uplift on the groundwater movement patterns in the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman hydrogeological area within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq. This approach will contribute to the reclassification of hydrogeological areas in this Region. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHydrogeological classifications are the maximum vital strategies used to assess the hydrogeological conditions and spatial distribution of groundwater, recharge, discharge areas, and groundwater flow systems. These classifications are primarily based on the tectonic, geological, climatic, morphological, and hydrographical factors, which consequently affect the surface drainage and groundwater paths. The tectonic setting determines the hydrogeological basins\u0026apos; geometry that impacts the groundwater flow and accumulation within aquifers, (Alzubedi, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to identify how the Safawi uplift affected the overlying sedimentary layers and its influence on groundwater distribution and movement patterns within the fractured aquifers of Iraq\u0026apos;s Desert Hydrogeological Region. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSite Description\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Safawi uplift is a subsurface structure located close to Iraqi-Saudi Arabia borders within the Iraqi Southern Desert and was initiated in the Late Triassic \u0026ndash; Early Jurassic, (Roychoudhury and Nahar, 1980; Al-Bassam \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2004; Ma\u0026apos;ala,2009). It originated as an Arch from Hail area of Saudi Arabia and extends to the south of Iraq. This arch is trending northeast through the Safawi locality in the direction of Samawa metropolis, within Iraqi territory (Fig.1) (Henson, 1951; Roychoudhury and Nahar, 1980; Ma\u0026apos;ala,2009). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe available geophysical data display that Safawi uplift is a basement swell with down warping on each flank, which is marked by distinguished positive gravity anomaly indicating the presence of basement at an extraordinarily shallow intensity, (Sallomy and Al-Khatib, 1981; Al-Ethawi, 2002). Moreover, Ditmar et al. (1972) showed that the zone, which is situated alongside the Safawi lineament, could be very unique structural element of the Arabian platform; it represents a system of large local uplift of ellipsoidal forms, generally bordered limited by faults of mainly N \u0026ndash; S trend. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first major tectonic event during the Jurassic period was the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, which occurred due to the collision of central Iran with the Laurasia landmass. This event was also accompanied by the clear uplift and activation of the Safawi Arch, (Ma\u0026apos;ala,2009). Therefore, the Late Jurassic sequence in the Safawi area represents a platform depositional environment. The platform facies cover the surface of the highest part of the pre-Mesozoic basement structure, which may be related to the activity of the Safawi Arch, as suggested by Roychoudhury and Nahar (1980).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Safawi area is predominantly covered by two geological formations. The older Umm Er Radhuma Formation, dating back to the Paleocene and early Eocene, outcrops along the Iraq-Saudi border and on the flanks of the Nukhaib Graben, as reported by Al-Hashimi (1973). The younger Dammam Formation, spanning the Late to Middle Eocene, is widely exposed in the eastern parts of the Safawi uplift, (Fig. 2). According to data from the Safawi-1 well, drilled in positive gravity, at a depth of 6000 feet (1828.8 m), the oldest formations are the Muhaiwir Formation (Middle Jurassic). This formation is a relatively heterogeneous unit composed mainly of two parts. The upper part consists of limestone alternating with sandstone and marly limestone. The lower part is mainly limestone, with thin sandstone (Jassim and Buday in Jassim and Goff, 2006).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHydrogeology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Safawi Uplift is located in the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman hydrogeological area within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq (Alzubedi, 2022). This area is situated between the Al-Maanya hydrogeological area to the north and the Takhadeed \u0026ndash; Al-Bussaya hydrogeological area to the south. It is bounded by the Iraqi-Saudi Arabia borders to the west and the right bank of the Euphrates River to the east, (Fig. 3). The northern boundary of the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman hydrogeological area is marked by the Rhaimawi \u0026ndash; Hilla fault, which separates it from the Al-Maanya hydrogeological area. The sharp boundary between this area and the Takhadeed \u0026ndash; Al-Bussaya hydrogeological area to the south is represented by the Takhadeed \u0026ndash; Suq Al-Shoyokh-Amara fault. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main aquifers in the central and vicinities of the Safawi uplift are formed within the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat formations. These aquifers are formed within carbonate rock formations that are characterized by the presence of fractures and cavities. The fractures and cavities play a significant role in the hydraulic characteristics of these aquifer systems. The thickness of the Umm Er Radhuma formation reaches up to 350 m and increases towards the southeast, reaching up to 500 m near the Euphrates River within the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman hydrogeological area (Al-Fatlawi, 2011). The Tayarat aquifer represents an important, yet untapped, groundwater source in this area because it is located at large depths. The thickness of the Tayarat formation reaches up to 350 m in the central and surrounding areas of the Safawi uplift, but decreases towards the east and northeast, dropping to less than 200 m near the Euphrates River within the Shabcha - Al-Salman hydrogeological area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary source of groundwater recharge in the Shabcha - Al-Salman hydrogeological area is rainfall. The vertical movement of groundwater from the deeper aquifer systems to the shallower aquifers represents a secondary source of recharge. The Euphrates River represents the primary discharge zone for the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman hydrogeological area. Additionally, springs and Sawa Lake, located along the regional Abu-Jir fault zone, also serve as discharge points. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe general trend of groundwater flow in this area is towards the east, along the right bank of the Euphrates River. The groundwater flow direction map for the Desert Hydrogeological Region, compiled by the Iraqi Geological Survey, indicates the presence of localized groundwater movement patterns due to the Safawi uplift in this area (Al-Jiburi and Al-Basrawi, 2008), Fig. (4).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized geophysical (gravity and magnetic), remote sensing, and hydrological data to identify patterns of groundwater movement and accumulation in the subsurface. Groundwater databases along with previous geological and hydrogeological surveys, were employed to assess the spatial variations in groundwater flow. All these data sets were combined with additional supporting information in a GIS environment to improve the hydrogeological classification of areas within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe available gravity and magnetic data, stored in the standard Geosoft database format (GEOSURV and GETECH, 2011), were enhanced, filtered, and interpreted using the Geosoft software package. A residual gravity map, along with its tilt derivative map was generated by subtracting the 5000 m upward continuation of the Decompensative Anomaly (DA) field (Al-Bahadily, 2022) to reveal subsurface structures. The 1D-power spectrum plot, based on the method proposed by Spector and Grant (1970), was applied to automatically calculate source depths from gridded magnetic data, producing a depth-to-magnetic-basement map (Thurston and Smith 1997 in Paterson et al. 2004).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSatellite gravity model data (GRACE) were used to provide a regional perspective on structural features, extending the analysis of anomalies beyond Iraq\u0026apos;s borders. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data were processed using hydrology tools to extract drainage networks. Additionally, layers representing tectonic elements (Sharland et al. 2001), groundwater distribution, and movement patterns were overlaid on gravity and magnetic maps to investigate potential relationships between these factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized also satellite images of Sentinel 2 scenes obtained from the Website (https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/ ), and ALOS PALSAR Scenes for DEM data were obtained from the website (https://asf.alaska.edu/datasets/daac/alos-palsar/). The Data preparation and pre-processing techniques of satellite data were achieved using ERDAS IMAGINE 14 software.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ArcGIS 10.2 software was utilized for the automated extraction of drainage networks. To delineate the drainage network, the watershed tool from the hydrology toolbox in ArcGIS 10.8 was employed. A topographic survey map of Iraq (1:100000) was used to verify the delineated drainage networks. Stream orders were determined using Strahler\u0026apos;s method. The lineament extraction was done automatically using the algorithm librarian tools of LINE, which extracts linear features from an image of the Geomatica 16 software. The lineament extraction algorithm of PCI Geomatica 16 software was carried out over shaded relief images under the following parameters of the software Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArcGIS10.8 software was used for the processing, interpolation results, and layout maps and Rockwork16 was used to produce a rose diagram of lineament direction extraction, and validation of lineaments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized geophysical (gravity and magnetic), remote sensing, and hydrological data to identify patterns of groundwater movement and accumulation in the subsurface. Groundwater databases along with previous geological and hydrogeological surveys, were employed to assess the spatial variations in groundwater flow. All these data sets were combined with additional supporting information in a GIS environment to improve the hydrogeological classification of areas within the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe available gravity and magnetic data, stored in the standard Geosoft database format (GEOSURV and GETECH, 2011), were enhanced, filtered, and interpreted using the Geosoft software package. A residual gravity map, along with its tilt derivative map was generated by subtracting the 5000 m upward continuation of the Decompensative Anomaly (DA) field (Al-Bahadily, 2022) to reveal subsurface structures. The 1D-power spectrum plot, based on the method proposed by Spector and Grant (1970), was applied to automatically calculate source depths from gridded magnetic data, producing a depth-to-magnetic-basement map (Thurston and Smith 1997 in Paterson et al. 2004).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSatellite gravity model data (GRACE) were used to provide a regional perspective on structural features, extending the analysis of anomalies beyond Iraq\u0026apos;s borders. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data were processed using hydrology tools to extract drainage networks. Additionally, layers representing tectonic elements (Sharland et al. 2001), groundwater distribution, and movement patterns were overlaid on gravity and magnetic maps to investigate potential relationships between these factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized also satellite images of Sentinel 2 scenes obtained from the Website (https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/ ), and ALOS PALSAR Scenes for DEM data were obtained from the website (https://asf.alaska.edu/datasets/daac/alos-palsar/). The Data preparation and pre-processing techniques of satellite data were achieved using ERDAS IMAGINE 14 software.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ArcGIS 10.2 software was utilized for the automated extraction of drainage networks. To delineate the drainage network, the watershed tool from the hydrology toolbox in ArcGIS 10.8 was employed. A topographic survey map of Iraq (1:100000) was used to verify the delineated drainage networks. Stream orders were determined using Strahler\u0026apos;s method. The lineament extraction was done automatically using the algorithm librarian tools of LINE, which extracts linear features from an image of the Geomatica 16 software. The lineament extraction algorithm of PCI Geomatica 16 software was carried out over shaded relief images under the following parameters of the software Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1: The lineament extraction parameters of PCI Geomatica 16 Software applied to Sentinel 2 image of the Safawi area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"323\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 19.8758%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eName\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 59.3168%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescription\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20.8075%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValues\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 19.8758%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eRADI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 59.3168%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eRadius of filter in pixels\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20.8075%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 19.8758%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eGTHR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 59.3168%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eThreshold for edge gradient\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20.8075%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 19.8758%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eLTHR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 59.3168%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eThreshold for curve length\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20.8075%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 19.8758%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eFTHR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 59.3168%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eThreshold for line fitting error\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20.8075%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 19.8758%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eATHR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 59.3168%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eThreshold for angular difference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20.8075%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 19.8758%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eDTHR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 59.3168%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eThreshold for linking distance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20.8075%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArcGIS10.8 software was used for the processing, interpolation results, and layout maps and Rockwork16 was used to produce a rose diagram of lineament direction extraction, and validation of lineaments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeophysical Data\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Bouguer gravity map shown in Fig. (5) of the Saffawi area displays a distinctive gravity high at the Saffawi town and in the central part of groundwater anomaly at the Iraqi-Saudi Arabia border. The residual positive gravity underneath the groundwater anomaly has an amplitude value of about 2 mGal and it is aligned in the north-south direction. This direction is a weak zone dominated by the Ediacaran (635-541 million years ago (Ma)) basemen terrane of the Arabian Plate. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe depth to the top of this anomaly is 5230 m being estimated from the 1D-power spectrum plot shown in Fig. (6) using the technique suggested by Spector and Grant (1970). The depth to the basement is about 7.5 km estimated by Al-Bahadily and Al-Rahim (2024). The residual positive gravity could be interpreted as an uplifted area rather than a lateral change in lithology. However, the RTP-magnetic field shows a moderate magnetic intensity beneath the Safawi area Fig. (7, the green area). Such intensity is related to the magnetic background that is mostly reflects metamorphic facies. This suggests that the basement may not be involved in the uplifting movement and some faults near the basement were activated allowing the upper sedimentary layers to be shifted upward and giving the gravity anomaly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is believed that the Safawi area has neotectonic activity. The area is described by a topographic bulge resulting from structural uplift. In the gravity map (Fig.5), this uplift is reflected by the positive anomaly that leads to enhanced fractures in upper sedimentary beds which consist of mainly carbonate rocks and anhydrite. Such enhancement increases the groundwater infiltration allowing groundwater aquifers to recharge. The indication of neotectonic activity can be noticed on the geological map (Fig. 2), which displays NE-SW-oriented normal faults reaching the ground surface. These structures reveal the stress accommodation resulting from the progress collision between Arabia and Eurasia (Al-Bahadily et al. 2024). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRemote Sensing and Hydrogeology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of drainage patterns in tectonically active areas contributes to predicting regional geomorphology since subsurface changes can be identified through drainage conditions, which may present as drainage anomalies (Joshi et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the drainage network analysis show that the dendritic pattern is dominant, in addition to the presence of the irregular pattern and the rectangular pattern. It also demonstrates that the flow direction is from the southwest towards the northeast with the general direction of the slope of the region. The presence of the rectangular pattern in the middle of the region, as Fig. (8) shows, indicates the presence of recent tectonic activity. The main valleys and small streams show a clear impact along the middle part of the study area, which confirms that they are affected by the change in the structure in this part compared to the rest of the river network in the region. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rectangular drainage pattern is widely spread in areas exposed to cracks and fractures. The valleys flow in areas with less resistance and thus are concentrated in places where the rocks are weak and relatively easy to penetrate, where the density and orientation of the surface cracks and fractures lead to a change in the direction of the valleys. As a result, the valleys deviate sharply and suddenly and at high angles when they encounter cracks and fractures, and this is evident in the middle of the study area. The presence of irregular and deranged patterns indicates the presence of dissolution phenomena and their spread in the region, such as karst, as a result of the low slope and the presence of carbonate rocks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe digital elevation model map of the study area indicates that elevations between 203 and 458 meters above mean sea level are primarily found in dissected plateaus, escarpments as well as karst features, distributed in various parts of the area (Fig. 9). The study area is characterized by decreasing elevation with a general slope from the southwest to the northeast.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe term \u0026quot;lineament\u0026quot; is widely used in geology and refers to any extensive linear feature on the earth\u0026rsquo;s surface, such as a fault or fracture line. The directional analysis of the automatically extracted lineaments map was conducted using the DEM image (Fig. 10). The major lineament trends in the study area are NW-SE, N-S, E-W, and NE-SW, as shown in (Fig. 11). Among these, the NW-SE direction is the most dominant that coincides with Abu Jir Trend (the trend is dated back to ~630 Ma). The lineaments extracted from both images highlight the significance of the NW-SE, N-S, E-W, and NE-SW oriented lineament sets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is a clear relationship between these lineaments and the distribution of the drainage pattern system. Furthermore, the lineaments in the central part of the area, exhibit a typical lineament pattern (Fig. 10) that coincides with a drainage pattern (Fig. 8). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis is confirmed by the groundwater flow direction map drawn on the Desert Hydrogeological Region map which reveals that the Safawi uplift caused a change in the pattern of groundwater flow direction within the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat aquifers in the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman hydrogeological area (Fig. 12). It is observed that groundwater moves northward and northwestward towards the Al-Maanya hydrogeological area and southward and southwestward towards the Takhadeed \u0026ndash; Al-Bussaya hydrogeological area, as shown in Fig. (12). Due to the absence of groundwater discharge points such as springs near the boundaries of these hydrogeological areas, this uplift resulted in the existence of a groundwater flow system in these hydrogeological areas. Therefore, the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman, Al-Maanya, and Takhadeed \u0026ndash; Al-Bussaya hydrogeological areas form a hydrogeological flow system, which we named the Safawi hydrogeological flow system. This hydrogeological system is identified based on the shared and interconnected groundwater flow between these hydrogeological regions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe groundwater flow patterns at the Saffawi area, near the Iraq-Saudi Arabia border in the southwestern part of the Southern Desert of Iraq are associated with the position of a gravity high which, in turn, is associated with areas where the depth to basement rocks is relatively shallow. The gravity high suggests that the sedimentary cover underwent tectonic movement that led to form groundwater movement patterns in the region are controlled by subsurface structures and fractures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is concluded that the Saffawi area exhibits evidence of neotectonic activity characterized by a structural uplift reflected in a positive gravity anomaly, attributed to the uplift of sedimentary layers without significant lithological changes. This suggests that the uplift has taken place after the deposition of the Paleocene (Umm Er Radhuma Formation) and is still active. Gravity and magnetic analyses indicate the activation of faults near the Ediacaran basement, with anomalies aligned north-south, influencing surface features and enhancing groundwater infiltration. Drainage patterns reveal dendritic, rectangular, and irregular forms, indicative of structural control, fractures, and karst phenomena, while the topography slopes from southwest to northeast with elevations ranging from 203 to 458 meters. The Saffawi uplift has altered groundwater flow directions in the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat aquifers, creating the interconnected \"Saffawi Hydrogeological Flow System,\" linking the Shabcha \u0026ndash; Al-Salman, Al-Maanya, and Takhadeed \u0026ndash; Al-Bussaya hydrogeological areas. This underground flow system, influenced by structural uplift and the absence of discharge points like springs, underscores the tectonic control over groundwater dynamics in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA. Alzubedi contributed to writing the main manuscript text, Hayder A. authored the Geophysical section, and Younus I. prepared the Remote Sensing section. All authors participated in reviewing the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Bahadily, H. (2022) Evolution the geological view of the Southern Desert of Iraq using gravity and magnetic data: Ph.D. dissertation, University of Baghdad.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Bahadily, H. A. and Al-Rahim, A. M., (2024) \u003cem\u003eDepth-to-Basement Estimates Using Magnetic Data of the Iraqi Southern Desert: A Statistical Approach. IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e1300012004; doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1300/1/012004.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Bahadily, H. A., Al-Rahim, A. M. \u0026amp; Smith, R. S., (2024) Tectonic elements and structural framework deduced from magnetic data of the Southern Desert, Iraq. Pure Appl. Geophys. 181, 1523\u0026ndash;1540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-024-03460-w.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Bassam, K.S., Al-Azzawi, A.M., Dawood, R.M. and Al-Bedawi, J.A., (2004) Subsurface study of the pre \u0026ndash; Cretaceous regional unconformity in the Western Desert of Iraq. Iraqi Geol. Jour., Vol. 32/ 33, p. 1 \u0026ndash; 25.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Ethawi, A.M., (2002) Tectonic Boundary Evolution of the Southern Part of Al-Salman Zone by Analysis of Geophysical data. Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, College of Science, University of Baghdad.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Hashimi, H.A.J., (1973) The Sedimentary Facies and Depositional Environments of Eocene Dammam and Rus Formations. Jour. Geol. Soci. Iraq, Vol. VI (Al-Naqib Volume), p. 1 \u0026ndash; 18.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Zubedi, Ahmed S., (2022) Groundwater in Iraq, Araa for printing, publishing and distribution, Baghdad \u0026ndash; Iraq, 152p.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDitamr, V. and others, (1972) Geological conditions and Hydrocarbon Prospects of the Republic of Iraq (Northern and Central parts). Tecno-Export, INOC Lib. Baghdad. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEjepu JS, Olasehinde P, Okhimamhe AA, Okunlola I (2017) Investigation of hydrogeological structures of Paiko Region, North-Central Nigeria using integrated geophysical and remote sensing techniques. Geosciences 7:122.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHenson, F.B.S., (1951)Observations on geology and petroleum occurrences of the Middle East. Proc. 3rd World Pet. Cong. The Hague, I, p. 113 \u0026ndash; 140.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHewaidy AGA, El-Motaal EA, Sultan SA, Ramdan TM, El khafif AA, Soliman SA (2015) Groundwater exploration using resistivity and magnetic data at the northwestern part of the Gulf of Suez, Egypt.Egypt J Petrol 24(3):255\u0026ndash;263.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJassas, Hussein A., Al‑Bahadily, H. A., and Al‑Saady, Y. I., (2019) Integrating hydrogeological, geophysical, and remote‑sensing data to identify fresh groundwater resources in arid regions: a case study from Western Iraq. Environmental Earth Sciences. 78:521.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJassim, S.Z. and Buday, T.,(2006) Chapter fourth, pp.45-56: In Jassim and Goff, editors, Geology of Iraq 2006; Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum, Brno, 341p.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJoshi, M., Kothyari, G. C., Malik, K., \u0026amp; Taloor, A. K., (2022) Response of drainage to tectonics and PS-InSAR derived deformation study in Bilaspur, northwestern Himalaya, India. Geodesy and Geodynamics, 13(3), 205\u0026ndash;218.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhogali, A., Chavanidis, K., Stampolidis, A., Kirmizakis, P., Yassin, M., Abu-Mahfouz, I. S., Al-Shaibani, A., Tawabini, B., Soupios, P., (2024) Subsurface complexity controls the aquifer heterogeneity: A case study from the Al-Hassa oasis, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 27, 101322,2-801X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101322.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMa\u0026apos;ala, K.A., (2009) Tectonic and Structural Evolution. Iraq Bull. Geol. and Mine. Special Issue, Geology of the Iraqi Southern Desert. p. 35 \u0026ndash; 52.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMurty, B.V.S., Raghavan, V.K., (2002) The gravity method in groundwater exploration in crystalline rocks: a study in the peninsular granitic region of Hyderabad, India. Hydrogeol. J. 10, 307\u0026ndash;321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoychoudhury, S.C. and Nahar, K.S., (1980) Jurassic oil prospects in south and west Iraq. Jour. Geol. Soc. of Iraq, Special Issue, 5th Iraqi Geological Conference, p.199 \u0026ndash; 204.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eS. Mukherjee, (2008) \u0026ldquo;Role of Satellite Sensors in Groundwater Exploration,\u0026rdquo; Sensors, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 2006- 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s8032006.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSallomy, J.T. and Al-Khatib, H. H., (1981) Basement Tectonics in Al-Salman Area, Southwestern Desert, Iraq. Proceedings of the 6th Iraqi Geol. Cong.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSultan A. Araffa, (2018) Gravity Application for Delineating Subsurface Structures at Different Localities in Egypt. Chapter 6 , Gravity - Geoscience Applications, Industrial Technology and Quantum Aspect. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71492.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Gravity, Remote Sensing, Neotectonics Activity, Hydrogeology","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5764099/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5764099/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eInformation about groundwater resources in arid regions is certainly invaluable. Therefore, this study applied an integrated approach combining geophysical, remote sensing, and hydrogeological data in a GIS framework to analyze groundwater movement patterns and accumulation in the Desert Hydrogeological Region of Iraq, concentrating on the Saffawi area. The methodology incorporated gravity and magnetic data, satellite imagery (Sentinel-2 and ALOS PALSAR), digital elevation models, and a hydrogeological database. Analyses revealed evidence of neotectonic activity in the Saffawi area, marked by structural uplift reflected in positive gravity anomaly and fault activation near the Ediacaran basement. This uplift altered drainage patterns, promoted groundwater infiltration, and reshaped groundwater flow within the Umm Er Radhuma and Tayarat aquifers, forming the interconnected \"Safawi Hydrogeological Flow System\". The study emphasizes the role of tectonic activity in controlling groundwater dynamics and underscores the importance of multidisciplinary approaches in hydrogeological investigations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evidence from Gravity and Remote Sensing: A Structural High and Neotectonics Activity Associated with the Hydrogeological Divider at the Iraqi-Saudi Border","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-08 11:47:21","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5764099/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c74d8f30-efc1-4171-b66d-eb600819242f","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-01T21:53:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-08 11:47:21","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5764099","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5764099","identity":"rs-5764099","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}