Architecting cis -regulation to quantitatively tune gene expression in cereals

Precise modulation of gene expression via cis -regulatory editing holds promise for non-transgenic crop improvement, but the sequence-to-function relationships that govern plant promoter activity remain poorly understood. Here, we develop a massively parallel reporter assay (MPRA) in Sorghum bicolor to systematically measure the effects of >30,000 CRISPR-like mutations-deletions, substitutions, and motif insertions-across entire native promoters and 5′ untranslated regions (UTRs) of three photosynthesis genes: PsbS , Raf1 , and SBPase . We find that gene expression is most tunable within a ∼500 base pair core promoter region, where mutational effects are reproducible across biological replicates and predictive of protein output. Within these regions, we identify compact deletions and motif insertions that strongly increase protein production (>30-fold relative to wild type), exceeding the performance of transgenic enhancer elements. Mutation-effect relationships are gene-specific, highlighting the need for tailored regulatory maps. Our results establish a high-throughput strategy for cis -regulatory fine-mapping that enables crop improvements via minimal, precise, and non-transgenic gene edits.