A Digitization Model in Ugandan Technical, Vocational and Education Training Institutions: An Agency Theory Perspective

A Digitization Model in Ugandan Technical, Vocational and Education Training Institutions: An Agency Theory Perspective | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A Digitization Model in Ugandan Technical, Vocational and Education Training Institutions: An Agency Theory Perspective Patrick Emmanuel Muinda, Annabella Habinka Basaza-Ejiri, Gilbert Maiga, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4588303/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research examines global digital transformation project success, emphasizing the contrast between developed and developing economies. While developed nations experience declining failure rates, developing economies, notably Uganda, grapple with a 70% project failure rate. Focusing on Uganda's Technical, Vocational Education, and Training (TVET) institutions, this study investigates the integration of digital technologies for skill enhancement. By applying agency theory, a tailored model is introduced to mitigate project failures. Through a quantitative approach, variables (goal conflict, shirking, communication, task programability, contract type, process quality, and digital transformation) contributing to improved success are identified. The results show positive responses, ensuring high overall validity and reliability. Cronbach's alpha exceeded 0.7 for all variables and was lowest at 0.732. The convergent validity exceeds 0.5 for the independent variables. The validated model comprehensively addresses digital transformation success, highlighting the risks related to shirking and goal conflict. Future research should explore these risks, examine contributing factors, and refine the guiding model for digital transformation investments. Systems and Networking Agency theory Digital transformation Project failure Uganda’s TVETs Digitization model Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1.0 INTRODUCTION Digitization is crucial in shaping a country's education system. Estonia and Finland exemplify the significance of technological innovation and quality enhancement in education (Kattel & Mergel, 2019 ). Estonia, known for technological innovation, leads in digitization, while Finland prioritizes digitization post-COVID-19 (Bogdandy et al., 2020 ). However, global history shows persistent challenges in digitization, with Estonia succeeding in the public sector (Bravo et al., 2022). Developing economies struggle, with a 30% success rate in digitization projects (Fattah & Setyadi, 2021 ; Stoica, 2021 ). Even Estonia faces challenges such as digital exclusion, emphasizing the need for equitable technology access before widespread digitization (Drechsler, 2018). Effective communication of organizational change is crucial. Resource misallocation is critical, with $ 900 billion misallocated out of the $ 1.3 trillion spent globally on digitization in 2018 (Sun, 2018 ). Uganda's 70% failure rate aligns with the global trend (Zobell, 2018 ), emphasizing the need to focus on critical tasks (Zobell, 2018 )to achieve digitization. In education, Uganda addresses challenges post-COVID-19 (Nakaziba & Ngulube, 2024 ). The integration of e-learning in TVET institutions requires tailored digital frameworks for practical skills training (Sani et al., 2023 ). Research has aimed to mitigate failure rates by introducing frameworks aligned with developed economies (Hanna, 2020 ; Kimuli et al., 2021 ). Emphasizing quality in digitization is crucial, especially for TVETs with limited resources (Sampaio et al., 2022 ; Wang & Wang, 2022 ). These insights highlight the complexities, challenges, and opportunities in the global landscape of digitization, particularly in education and development contexts. This study leverages agency theory to address the prevalent challenge of information asymmetry (Sternberg et al., 2022 ), employing its principles to enhance communication channels and bridge gaps among stakeholders, ultimately improving overall process quality (Sampaio et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, the research incorporates agency theory into the development of controls for initial agent conduct and the establishment of clear contractual arrangements. Agency theory, a conceptual framework examining interactions between principals (those owning or controlling resources) and agents (those acting on principals' behalf), is essential for managing conflicts and information disparities in organizational relationships (Yimenu & Surur, 2019 ). The theory emphasizes aligning both parties' interests through effective incentives, clear contracts, and controls for agent conduct. In the specific context of the study of digitization projects in Ugandan TVET institutions, agency theory is foundational for understanding the dynamics between policymakers (principals) and project implementation teams (initial agents). After the project implementation teams are assigned as initial agents for digitization, educators and administrators transition to the role of subsequent agents. To implement controls for subsequent agent conduct, the study adopts monitoring mechanisms and performance metrics. These controls aim to ensure that educators and administrators adhere to prescribed strategies, foster accountability and align their actions with the overarching objectives of digitization projects. The research also underscores the significance of well-defined contractual arrangements, outlining roles, responsibilities, and expectations. This clarity contributes to effective governance, reducing the potential for conflicts, and enhancing project management practices. In summary, this study, guided by agency theory, not only examines the theoretical framework but also practically applies its principles to address challenges in Ugandan TVET institution digitization. By incorporating controls and clear contracts for both initial and subsequent agents, the study aims to minimize project failures and create an environment conducive to successful digitization initiatives, offering valuable insights to readers new to the theory and the specific context. 1.1 Digitization in Uganda In the context of Ugandan TVETs, the challenges posed by infrastructure limitations and financial constraints are emphasized, presenting significant challenges to effective digitization (Ismail et al., 2022 ; Oviawe, 2017). Governance issues and policy implementation gaps are noted as factors affecting the successful transition of TVET graduates into the labor market, contributing to the challenges in seamlessly integrating digital technologies into the educational framework (Kintu, 2019 ). Digitization in Ugandan TVETs plays a pivotal role in redefining the learning experience by eliminating complex learning components and making education more manageable and accessible throughout learners' lives (ILO, 2020 ). The incorporation of digital tools and technologies in learning and teaching, along with essential training for instructors, is highlighted as a critical need to effectively advance digitization in Ugandan TVETs (Holler et al., 2023 ; Teis & Christo, 2021 ). The necessity of digital literacy is emphasized for both learners and instructors to leverage tools effectively, address challenges and improve employability and outcomes in the TVET sector (Ismail et al., 2022 ). 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW IT governance frameworks comprise structures, processes, and relational mechanisms within an organization. Their purpose is to align information technology and business operations, promoting value creation from IT-enabled procurements and investments (de Haes & van Grembergen, 2009). Previous research highlights the strategic domain's significant impact on the IT governance performance of TVET institutions (Khalil & Belitski, 2020). This study validated this assertion within the context of Ugandan TVET institutions. This section explores the selected frameworks considered in this study. 2.1 IT GOVERNANCE MODELS AND FRAMEWORKS ITIL Version 4 offers a wide array of management service practices that can adapt and work with existing frameworks (José et al., 2013; Moudoubah et al., 2021). Its service categorization into areas such as Service Design and Strategy, Service Operation, Service Transition, and Continual Service Enhancement is robust (Nyeko, 2019). However, within Uganda's distinctive educational environment, particularly in TVETs, there is a notable gap: ITIL lacks specific guidance on aligning processes, structures, and relational mechanisms essential for optimal IT-business orientation and alignment (Wulandari & Buliali, 2019), which is necessary for improved success of digitization projects. COBIT might not singularly meet business and IT alignment needs and is best applied in conjunction with other frameworks (Moudoubah et al., 2021; Zhang & Zhou, 2014), leveraging the strengths of multiple frameworks and addressing various aspects of digitization and control more comprehensively. This framework complexity could overwhelm resource-limited TVET institutions (Mutebi & Ferej, 2023; Okumu & Bbaale, 2019). The COSO framework lacks quantitative aspects, which are needed to assess and improve project success (Gomes & Romão, 2023) in Ugandan TVETs. Adapting the COSO framework for TVETs may support the improved success of digitization projects (Riyadi et al., 2021), mainly focusing on managing risks and controls comprehensively (Horwath et al., 2012). The rigid structure and reliance on predefined templates make the Projects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2) methodology unsuitable for the dynamic environment within Ugandan TVET digitization projects (COOKE, 2016; Hughes et al., 2017). The National IT Project methodology, tailored for managing IT projects overlooks guidance on monitoring process quality, a critical factor for successful digitization. Additionally, its linear approach to IT governance does not align well with the multifaceted and complex nature of digitization initiatives. 2.2 CONCEPTUAL MODEL Building upon prior research (Mahaney & Lederer, 2011), this study introduces a model that addresses gaps in comprehending the relationship between digitization and project success (Joshi et al., 2022), aligning with insights from agency theory that emphasize high-quality, effective organizational processes (Jackson, 2024). The framework incorporates crucial elements, including goal conflict, communication, shirking, task programmability, and contract type, with a central focus on "process quality" as a pivotal mediating influence on the success of digitization projects in Ugandan TVETs (Berthon et al., 2002; Ozili, 2023). Drawing inspiration from both the DeLone and McLean theories and the dynamic capabilities theory, the conceptual model herein enhances our understanding of the aspects influencing digitization projects in the TVET context. The framework envisions the improvement of Digitization Projects in Ugandan TVETs through effective IT governance processes (Joshi et al., 2022). In accordance with the agency theory discussed above, the framework emphasizes that, for successful digitization projects, principals should prioritize the highest quality in each process (Joshi et al., 2022) managed by the agents with support from top management (the principal). Decision-making at all stages of the transformation process underscores the importance of clear communication in minimizing goal conflicts. This conceptual model, rooted in agency theory principles, provides critical insights for enhancing successful digitization within the unique context of Ugandan TVETs. Furthermore, task programmability plays a crucial role by outlining tasks in advance during the planning phase (Joshi et al., 2020). 3.0 Research METHODS This paper employed quantitative methods to explore the factors influencing the success of digitization in TVET institutions. The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS v22. The study utilized the Smart-PLS method within structural equation modeling for factor analysis. The research followed a pragmatic approach, using abductive methodology, to refine the conceptual model. Overall, a descriptive field study was conducted to derive a tailored model for enhancing digitization success in TVET institutions. 3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN This inquiry adopted design science research (DSR) as its research methodology to develop the model for digitization in Ugandan TVETs, conceptualized as a strategy to advance digitization in these institutions. The study investigated various aspects, including project adherence to schedules, impact on teaching and administrative tasks, reported errors, CEO-CIO relationships, quality of interventions, process quality, user satisfaction, contract types, policy influence, task programmability, and activities related to implementation team shirking. Hour-long questionnaires were administered. This study adopted quantitative research methods within the framework of pragmatism and design science research (Vom Brocke et al., 2020 ; Hevner et al., 2004 ) principles. To develop the model, quantitative data were gathered through a structured questionnaire administered to key stakeholders in TVET institutions (Baskerville, 2022 ) utilizing both Krejcie and Morgan sample size determination and purposeful sampling. There was a total of 177 participants in this study. Statistical methods such as structured equation modeling (SEM) and partial least squares (PLS-SEM) were used for the analysis of the quantitative data collected in this study. The sampling methods encompass purposive, random, and critical case sampling, focusing on six Centers of Excellence selected by the government for digitization efforts. This multifaceted approach ensured a robust and comprehensive exploration of the success of the Digitization Projects in TVET institutions. 3.2 DATA COLLECTION Structured interviews were conducted across all 12 newly digitalized technical colleges in Uganda, involving 177 participants in total, all from the Ministry of Education and Sports Officials, College Principals, administrators, technical instructors, IT heads, and students. The data from 100 participants were fit for analysis after carrying out a missing value analysis to alleviate misleading results. These institutions were selected to represent diverse specialties and sizes, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of digitization management. All twelve colleges agreed to participate, and the interviews employed open-ended questions to gather insights into project implementation, monitoring processes, and project goals. 3.3 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY The table below shows the composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s alpha (CA) values for the constructs and their variables. Values exceeding 0.70 indicate that the internal consistency standards were met (Hair et al., 2021 ). Table 1 Composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s alpha (CA) values for the constructs and their variables Constructs Composite Reliability (CR rho-A) Composite Reliability (CR rho-C) Cronbach’s Alpha (CA) Criteria 0.818 0.818 0.724 Politics 0.886 0.904 0.872 Power 0.889 0.886 0.831 Counterproductive multitasking 0.93 0.936 0.92 Self-deployment 0.886 0.917 0.855 CEO-CIO Relationship type 0.938 0.940 0.916 Information Asymmetry 0.855 0.871 0.783 Outcome Oriented contract 0.734 0.882 0.732 Behavior Oriented contract 0.92 0.917 0.879 Monitoring & Evaluation 0.963 0.908 0.878 Top Management Participation 0.991 0.929 0.893 IT Resources Usage 0.868 0.909 0.867 User Satisfaction 0.845 0.904 0.839 4.0 EXPLORATORY AND CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS Smart PLS software was used to analyze these data to verify the conceptual framework and test the hypotheses. Partial least squares (Smart PLS) software was used to analyze the measurement and structure of the research framework (Castellanos, 2021). The results of this study showed that despite the extensive experience of college principals (averaging 15 years), they had limited digitization exposure. This was also detrimental to the amplification of digitization success in these TVET institutions. Table 2 provides the level of education of the respondents in this study. Table 2: Table showing the highest level of education for each of the respondent categories . Highest level of Education Frequency Percent% Bachelor’s Degree 30 30 Certificate 31 31 Diploma 15 15 Master’s Degree 16 16 Post Graduate Diploma 7 7 The total cost of the digitization effort for digitizing the 12 TVET institutions was $1,271,408.16. This study highlighted that most institutions lacked a skilled IT manager or CIO, who is trained and skilled in ICT. In situations where one was present, only one CIO had the requisite ICT skills and had a positive relationship with the CEO, greatly impeding the advancement of digitization, as revealed in the results of this study. An officer in charge of the ICT was filled by someone assigned to manage the role without requisite training, as observed in several instances. Table 3 below shows the titles and responsibilities of the respondents in this survey. Table 3: Table showing the titles and responsibilities of the respondents in this survey. Job description Frequency Percent% Academic Registrar 7 7 Commissioner TVET 1 1 Head of Division or Department 19 19 Head of ICT 4 4 ICT Officer Institution 7 7 Institution Principal 7 7 Instructor at TVET institution 8 8 Principal Officer TVET 2 2 Project Implementer 1 1 Project Supervisor 2 2 Student 42 42 Total 100 100 The findings of this study emphasized the pivotal relationship between CIOs and CEOs in influencing digitization outcomes. Moreover, the study revealed that the project implementation team juggled multiple projects simultaneously (Shirking), including construction, agriculture, furniture procurement, vehicle acquisition, and infrastructure refurbishment. Consequently, digitization projects have suffered due to limited attention, with construction projects predominantly occupying the focus on monitoring and process quality, as seen in the field study findings. 4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results for Goal Conflict The CFA for goal conflict is presented in Figure 4 below. Three factors (power, criteria and politics) were retained after the construct, ‘policy’ and all its indicators were deleted. 4.2 Reliability and Validity for Goal Conflict Scores (Cronbach’s alpha) above 0.7 were considered satisfactory. To complement Cronbach’s alpha, an average variance extracted (AVE) above 0.5 for all factors and a heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) below 0.85 for each pair of constructs were confirmed. Table 4: Results for Reliability and Validity for Goal Conflict Cronbach’s Alpha CR CR AVE HTMT rho-A rho-C Criteria Politics Criteria 0.724 0.818 0.818 0.624 Politics 0.872 0.886 0.904 0.616 0.494 Power 0.831 0.889 0.886 0.666 0.562 0.52 Model Fit Indices: SRMR=.0091, d_ULS=.756, d_G=.313, Chi-square=178.257, NFI=.756 4.3 Reliability and Validity of Communication The results in Table 5 show that the AVE for all the factors is greater than 0.5 and that the HTMT ratio is greater than 0.2 but less than 0.85, as was postulated by Henseler et al. (2015). Table 5 confirms the discriminant validity of the two factors. Furthermore, the SRMR of 0.079 for Communication falls within the acceptable range for the SRMR index, which is between 0 and 0.08 (Hu and Bentler, 1999), showing a good model fit for the measurement model for Communication. Table 5: Results for Reliability and Validity for Communication Cronbach Alpha CR CR AVE HTMT rho-A rho-C Information Asymmetry CEO-CIO Relationship Type 0.916 0.938 0.940 0.798 Information Asymmetry 0.783 0.855 0.871 0.695 0.594 Model Fit Indices: SRMR=.079, d_ULS=.173, d_G=.091, Chi-square=57.669, NFI=.870 4.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results for Contract Type The CFA for contract type is presented in Figure 6 below. Two factors (outcome-oriented and behavior-oriented) were retained after analysis. 4.5 Reliability and Validity for Contract Type The results below show that the indicators retained in the summary of the measurement model of contract type guarantee both reliability and validity. Table 6 below shows that for both the outcome and behavior-oriented contract indicators, the Cronbach’s alpha value after testing for reliability is greater than 0.7, indicating compliance with internal consistency. These indicators were later found not to be significant when establishing the structural model. Table 6: Reliability and validity measures for contract type Cronbach Alpha CR CR AVE HTMT rho-A rho-C Behavior Oriented Outcome Oriented 0.732 0.734 0.882 0.789 Behavior Oriented 0.879 0.92 0.917 0.735 0.488 Model Fit Indices: SRMR=.072, d_ULS=.108, d_G=.085, Chi-square=54.420, NFI=.820 4.6 Reliability and Validity of Process Quality The results in Table 7 below demonstrate that the indicators retained in the summary of the measurement model of process quality guarantee both reliability and validity. Table 5.25: A Table showing the Reliability and Validity of the Measures for Process Quality Cronbach’s Apha CR CR AVE HTMT rho-A rho-C Top Management Participation Monitoring & Evaluation 0.878 0.963 0.908 0.769 Top Management Participation 0.893 0.991 0.929 0.813 0.167 Model Fit Indices: SRMR=.079, d_ULS=.152, d_G=.141, Chi-square=92.099, NFI=.746 Convergent validity and discriminant validity were assured. The AVE for both factors is greater than 0.5, and the HTMT for both constructs is less than 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015) as the threshold for the HTMT ratio. Additionally, the SRMR of 0.077 in Table 5.22 falls within the allowable range for the SRMR index between 0 and 0.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). 4.7 Reliability and Validity of Digitization The results in Table 8 below show that the indicators retained in the summary of the measurement model of digitization guarantee both reliability and validity. Furthermore, the AVE for all factors is greater than 0.5, and the HTMT for the construct pair in Table 8 is less than 0.85. Table 8: A table showing the reliability and validity of ‘Digitization Cronbach’s Alpha CR CR AVE HTMT rho-A rho-C IT Resources Usage IT Resources Usage 0.867 0.868 0.909 0.715 User Satisfaction 0.839 0.845 0.904 0.759 0.824 Model Fit Indices: SRMR=.069, d_ULS=.261, d_G=.192, Chi-square=123.372, NFI=.749 5.0 THE PROPOSED MODEL FOR DIGITIZATION This section presents a comprehensive model specifically tailored to guide Ugandan TVETs and related organizations through the details of the digitization project journey. This newly created model incorporates the planning, implementation and transformation phases of digital change. It integrates established practices from agency theory, theoretical insights from the DeLone and McLean Theory and practical considerations to offer a visual roadmap that Ugandan TVETs and similar organizations can follow. 5.1 Applicability of the model The model for digitization shown in Fig. 1 presents clear model guidelines for project execution, adherence to clear procurement rules from start to finish, and clear specifications designed by the IT experts for digitization procurements. The success of digitization projects (SDTP) model is designed to improve digital initiatives in Ugandan Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions. It helps align project goals with the institution's objectives, promotes effective communication, identifies areas for automation and efficiency, encourages engagement from all stakeholders, emphasizes continuous progress monitoring, and supports quality assurance for process quality and continuous improvement. This highlights the importance of building digital skills and guides the measurement of project success. Applying this model systematically provides a structured approach to improving and increasing the chances of success in digitization projects within TVETs. The model variables assist in decision-making, stakeholder engagement, and resource allocation, ultimately leading to successful implementation and positive project outcomes. In conclusion, this ‘success of digitization projects’ model offers a robust and comprehensive approach to improving IT project governance and success. By aligning project goals with organizational objectives, emphasizing effective communication, and promoting task programmability and automation, the model provides valuable insights for IT project managers. Monitoring progress, ensuring quality assurance, and promoting continuous improvement align with essential aspects of IT project governance. The emphasis on capacity building for digitization and the measurement of success through defined key performance indicators (KPIs) further contribute to the model’s applicability in enhancing IT project outcomes. Integrating this model into IT project governance practices provides a structured and adaptive methodology, enhancing the likelihood of successful IT project implementation and fostering positive organizational outcomes for TVETs. 6.0 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS This study showed what makes these projects work well. The leaders (principals) play a large role, but just checking ongoing work (monitoring) and evaluating work completed is not enough. This seems to have been the case for such projects. Four main problems—unclear contracts, not watching for issues, undesirable internal politics (poor CEO-CIO relationships) within the institutions, and not planning tasks well—are the reasons for poor digitization outcomes. As found in this study, project implementation teams at the institution do not use contracts focused on outcomes, which turned out to be the same as the project coordination team that implemented the project. This explains the removal of the ‘contract type’ construct, as proposed earlier in the conceptual model. Good teamwork and preventing slacking off (shirking) were very important for success, as previous studies have shown. We discovered that having clear roles and responsibilities was crucial, not just planning tasks. Confusion in who does what and when, in these areas, made it hard to ensure everything went smoothly. We introduced a new idea called "process quality." This means that each step (process) of the project is performed well. We found that success depends on doing each step right. In Uganda, contracts based on outcomes are not as important because fixed wage worker engagements are common. In brief, our research challenges previous thought. This highlights that good communication, not just privately held information, clear roles and responsibilities, and doing each step well (process quality) are key to successful digitization in TVETs. Our findings, while building on past studies, differ in terms of the importance of contract type. This study also showed that having a good relationship with the CEO and the CIO amplifies digitization success. Overall, we found that focusing on doing each step well—good communication, clear roles defined, and getting tasks right (task programmability) and a healthy CEO-CIO relationship—is crucial for success in making digitization work in TVETs. 7.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Our study actively applied agency theory to identify the prerequisites for tailored digitization and proposed a model to actively fortify digital initiatives within learning institutions. Using design science, we constructed a purpose-specific model firmly rooted in agency theory, pivotal for driving digitization. This study illustrates how agency theory applies to understanding the limitations of digitization, aligning with and complementing prevailing research in this domain. Rather than conflicting, it harmonizes with these studies, providing insights at various levels and equipping us with a model to comprehend the research and failures of such projects within developing economies. Leveraging Ugandan TVETs as a case study, the results are applicable across diverse contexts. While monitoring and evaluating digitization projects are important, mere oversight is insufficient. In conclusion, unclear contracts, limited issue monitoring, internal politics, CEO-CIO challenges and task planning issues stand out as critical to enhancing project success. Clearly, defining roles and emphasizing "process quality" are crucial, especially in Uganda's context with prevalent fixed-wage contracts. Our study challenges conventional beliefs, highlighting the significance of communication and defining roles and responsibilities for digital success in TVETs. Excelling in each phase—communication, roles, and tasks—is crucial. Prioritizing quality processes, nurturing a healthy CEO-CIO relationship and addressing conflicts in project goals between principals and agents can significantly reduce agency problems and digitization failures in Uganda, aligning with our study's objective. Declarations Research ethics approval was obtained from the Mildmay Uganda Research Ethics Committee (MUREC). Approval was granted during the 114th convened meeting of MUREC held on 21st November 2022. The committee reviewed and approved the research protocol under the reference number MUREC-2022-142. 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From IT service management to IT service governance: An ontological approach for integrated use of ITIL and COBIT frameworks. International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering , 11 (6), 5292–5300. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v11i6.pp5292-5300 Mutebi, R., & Ferej, A. (2023). A Review of TVET Quality Assurance Practice in Uganda . Nakaziba, S., & Ngulube, P. (2024). Harnessing Digital Power for Relevance: Status of Digitization in Selected University Libraries in Uganda. Collection and Curation . https://doi.org/10.1108/cc-11-2023-0034 Nyeko, S. J. (2019). Information Technology Governance Effectiveness in Uganda’s Public Universities. ICT University , 1 (1), 41–57. http://www.ghbook.ir/index.php?name=فرهنگ و رسانه های نوین&option=com_dbook&task=readonline&book_id=13650 &page=73&chkhashk=ED9C9491B4&Itemid=218&lang=fa&tmpl=component%0Ahttp://www.albayan.ae%0Ahttps://scholar.google.co.id/scholar?hl=en&q=APLIKASI+PENGENA Okumu, I. M., & Bbaale, E. (2019). Technical and vocational education and training in Uganda: A critical analysis. Development Policy Review , 37 (6), 735–749. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12407 Oviawe, J. I. (2017). Bridging Skill Gap to Meet Technical, Vocational Education and Training School-Workplace Collaboration in the 21 &Amp;lt;sup>st</Sup> Century. International Journal of Vocational Education and Training Research . https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijvetr.20170301.12 Ozili, P. K. (2023). The acceptable R-square in empirical modeling for social science research . Riyadi, A., Yennisa, & Sagita, L. (2021). COSO’s Conceptual Framework to Internal Control Management Risk in Higher Education Management . Sampaio, P., Carvalho, A. C. A., Domingues, P., & Saraiva, P. (2022). Guest Editorial: Quality in the Digitization Era. In International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management . https://doi.org/10.1108/ijqrm-06-2022-415 Sani, A., Mat Noor, S. F., & Mohamed, H. (2023). E-Learning Framework of TVET Practical Skills Courses. In Online Journal for Tvet Practitioners . https://doi.org/10.30880/ojtp.2023.08.02.001 Sternberg, H., Mathauer, M., & Hofmann, E. (2022). Technology Management in Multi‐tier Chains: A Case Study of Agency in Logistics Service Outsourcing. Journal of Operations Management . https://doi.org/10.1002/joom.1219 Stoica, D. A. (2021). MANAGEMENT OF THE PROJECT PLANNING ACTIVITY IN THE FIELD OF INFORMATION . Sun, M. (2018, December 5). Businesses Predict Digitization To Be Biggest Risk Factor in 2019 . Https://Www.Wsj.Com/Articles/Businesses-Predict-Digital-Transformation-to-Be-Biggest-Risk-Factor-in-2019-1544005926. Teis, N. J. P., & Christo, J. (2021). Knowledge, Competencies and Dispositions of Lecturers in Technical Engineering in the Context of Advancing 4IR Technologies. Journal of Vocational Adult and Continuing Education and Training . https://doi.org/10.14426/jovacet.v4i1.186 Vom Brocke, J., Hevner, A., & Maedche, A. (2020). Introduction to Design Science Research (pp. 1–13). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46781-4_1 Wang, X., & Wang, F. (2022). Research on the Path of Digitization of Chinese Manufacturing Enterprises Under the Backdrop of High-Quality Development . https://doi.org/10.2991/978-94-6463-010-7_16 Wulandari, D., & Buliali, J. L. (2019). ITIL v3 and Van Grembergen Framework for System Transition Process. IPTEK Journal of Proceedings Series , 0 (5), 426. https://doi.org/10.12962/j23546026.y2019i5.6383 Yimenu, K. A., & Surur, S. A. (2019). Earning Management: From Agency and Signaling Theory Perspective in Ethiopia. In Journal of Economics Management and Trade . https://doi.org/10.9734/jemt/2019/v24i630181 Zobell, S. (2018, March 13). Why Digitizations Fail: Closing The $900 Billion Hole in Enterprise Strategy . Https://Www.Forbes.Com/Sites/Forbestechcouncil/2018/03/13/Why-Digital-Transformations-Fail-Closing-the-900-Billion-Hole-in-Enterprise-Strategy/?Sh=657a4aec7b8b. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4588303","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":314924192,"identity":"535e3ce4-6ece-4535-8594-788b80895429","order_by":0,"name":"Patrick Emmanuel Muinda","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAqklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgYGHgYbBgYJErWkkaQFCHgYDpOgRXdGctuDNzXnE/tnNx98wFBjE01Qi9mNxHbDOcduJ864cyzZgOFYWm4DEVrapHnYbic23Mgxk2BsOEysln/nEueTpoW37UDiBuK1nHnYJjm3L9l44420ZIMEovxyPP2ZxJtvdrLzbiQffPChxoawFhhwBKtMIFY5CNiTongUjIJRMApGGAAAOAVD1fkvDzoAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Patrick","middleName":"Emmanuel","lastName":"Muinda","suffix":""},{"id":314924193,"identity":"1c4b7bbd-f000-48f1-9ad0-55fbf2be400c","order_by":1,"name":"Annabella Habinka Basaza-Ejiri","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Annabella","middleName":"Habinka","lastName":"Basaza-Ejiri","suffix":""},{"id":314924194,"identity":"35667adc-5ac9-4064-b791-49a74a19e71c","order_by":2,"name":"Gilbert Maiga","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gilbert","middleName":"","lastName":"Maiga","suffix":""},{"id":314924195,"identity":"5cc3d311-e507-4f15-b544-ab22540b7755","order_by":3,"name":"Kituyi Mayoka","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Makerere University Business School","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kituyi","middleName":"","lastName":"Mayoka","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-16 03:43:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4588303/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4588303/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":58676653,"identity":"a6a51f90-b24e-4527-9ae6-3f3af3d9eb28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-19 16:04:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28659,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConceptual model for successful digitization projects derived from Mahaney and Lederer (2003).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4588303/v1/dde80dedb230e781602a2e3d.png"},{"id":58676654,"identity":"77147115-71ba-48ad-a852-d0d57f0cd756","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-19 16:04:38","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68387,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFig. 1: Model for digitization in Ugandan TVETs.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"01.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4588303/v1/284ff959a7d3032ec5adf9f5.png"},{"id":58677188,"identity":"7d6e1d93-fa0f-4930-bdfb-39aad1b304a9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-19 16:12:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":746551,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4588303/v1/ed749320-7b3c-4d91-8e80-bcbbe614dd7a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA Digitization Model in Ugandan Technical, Vocational and Education Training Institutions: An Agency Theory Perspective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eDigitization is crucial in shaping a country's education system. Estonia and Finland exemplify the significance of technological innovation and quality enhancement in education (Kattel \u0026amp; Mergel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Estonia, known for technological innovation, leads in digitization, while Finland prioritizes digitization post-COVID-19 (Bogdandy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, global history shows persistent challenges in digitization, with Estonia succeeding in the public sector (Bravo et al., 2022). Developing economies struggle, with a 30% success rate in digitization projects (Fattah \u0026amp; Setyadi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Stoica, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEven Estonia faces challenges such as digital exclusion, emphasizing the need for equitable technology access before widespread digitization (Drechsler, 2018). Effective communication of organizational change is crucial. Resource misallocation is critical, with \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e900\u0026nbsp;billion misallocated out of the \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1.3 trillion spent globally on digitization in 2018 (Sun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Uganda's 70% failure rate aligns with the global trend (Zobell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), emphasizing the need to focus on critical tasks (Zobell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)to achieve digitization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn education, Uganda addresses challenges post-COVID-19 (Nakaziba \u0026amp; Ngulube, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The integration of e-learning in TVET institutions requires tailored digital frameworks for practical skills training (Sani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Research has aimed to mitigate failure rates by introducing frameworks aligned with developed economies (Hanna, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Kimuli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmphasizing quality in digitization is crucial, especially for TVETs with limited resources (Sampaio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These insights highlight the complexities, challenges, and opportunities in the global landscape of digitization, particularly in education and development contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study leverages agency theory to address the prevalent challenge of information asymmetry (Sternberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), employing its principles to enhance communication channels and bridge gaps among stakeholders, ultimately improving overall process quality (Sampaio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the research incorporates agency theory into the development of controls for initial agent conduct and the establishment of clear contractual arrangements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgency theory, a conceptual framework examining interactions between principals (those owning or controlling resources) and agents (those acting on principals' behalf), is essential for managing conflicts and information disparities in organizational relationships (Yimenu \u0026amp; Surur, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The theory emphasizes aligning both parties' interests through effective incentives, clear contracts, and controls for agent conduct. In the specific context of the study of digitization projects in Ugandan TVET institutions, agency theory is foundational for understanding the dynamics between policymakers (principals) and project implementation teams (initial agents).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the project implementation teams are assigned as initial agents for digitization, educators and administrators transition to the role of subsequent agents. To implement controls for subsequent agent conduct, the study adopts monitoring mechanisms and performance metrics. These controls aim to ensure that educators and administrators adhere to prescribed strategies, foster accountability and align their actions with the overarching objectives of digitization projects. The research also underscores the significance of well-defined contractual arrangements, outlining roles, responsibilities, and expectations. This clarity contributes to effective governance, reducing the potential for conflicts, and enhancing project management practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study, guided by agency theory, not only examines the theoretical framework but also practically applies its principles to address challenges in Ugandan TVET institution digitization. By incorporating controls and clear contracts for both initial and subsequent agents, the study aims to minimize project failures and create an environment conducive to successful digitization initiatives, offering valuable insights to readers new to the theory and the specific context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Digitization in Uganda\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the context of Ugandan TVETs, the challenges posed by infrastructure limitations and financial constraints are emphasized, presenting significant challenges to effective digitization (Ismail et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Oviawe, 2017). Governance issues and policy implementation gaps are noted as factors affecting the successful transition of TVET graduates into the labor market, contributing to the challenges in seamlessly integrating digital technologies into the educational framework (Kintu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigitization in Ugandan TVETs plays a pivotal role in redefining the learning experience by eliminating complex learning components and making education more manageable and accessible throughout learners' lives (ILO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The incorporation of digital tools and technologies in learning and teaching, along with essential training for instructors, is highlighted as a critical need to effectively advance digitization in Ugandan TVETs (Holler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Teis \u0026amp; Christo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The necessity of digital literacy is emphasized for both learners and instructors to leverage tools effectively, address challenges and improve employability and outcomes in the TVET sector (Ismail et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW","content":"\u003cp\u003eIT governance frameworks comprise structures, processes, and relational mechanisms within an organization. Their purpose is to align information technology and business operations, promoting value creation from IT-enabled procurements and investments (de Haes \u0026amp; van Grembergen, 2009). Previous research highlights the strategic domain\u0026apos;s significant impact on the IT governance performance of TVET institutions (Khalil \u0026amp; Belitski, 2020). This study validated this assertion within the context of Ugandan TVET institutions. This section explores the selected frameworks considered in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.1\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;IT GOVERNANCE MODELS AND FRAMEWORKS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eITIL Version 4 offers a wide array of management service practices that can adapt and work with existing frameworks\u0026nbsp;(Jos\u0026eacute; et al., 2013; Moudoubah et al., 2021). Its service categorization into areas\u0026nbsp;such as\u0026nbsp;Service Design and Strategy, Service Operation, Service Transition, and Continual Service Enhancement is robust\u0026nbsp;(Nyeko, 2019). However, within Uganda\u0026apos;s distinctive educational environment, particularly in TVETs,\u0026nbsp;there is\u0026nbsp;a notable gap: ITIL lacks specific guidance on aligning processes, structures, and relational mechanisms essential for optimal IT-business orientation and alignment\u0026nbsp;(Wulandari \u0026amp; Buliali, 2019),\u0026nbsp;which is\u0026nbsp;necessary for improved success of digitization projects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOBIT might not singularly meet business and IT alignment needs and is best applied in conjunction with other frameworks (Moudoubah et al., 2021; Zhang \u0026amp; Zhou, 2014),\u0026nbsp;leveraging the strengths of multiple frameworks\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;addressing various aspects of digitization and control more comprehensively. This\u0026nbsp;framework\u0026nbsp;complexity could overwhelm resource-limited TVET institutions\u0026nbsp;(Mutebi \u0026amp; Ferej, 2023; Okumu \u0026amp; Bbaale, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe COSO framework lacks quantitative aspects, which are needed to assess and improve project success\u0026nbsp;(Gomes \u0026amp; Rom\u0026atilde;o, 2023)\u0026nbsp;in Ugandan TVETs. Adapting the COSO framework for TVETs may support\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;improved success of digitization projects\u0026nbsp;(Riyadi et al., 2021),\u0026nbsp;mainly focusing on managing risks and controls comprehensively\u0026nbsp;(Horwath et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rigid structure and reliance on predefined templates make the Projects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2) methodology unsuitable for the dynamic environment within Ugandan\u0026nbsp;TVET\u0026nbsp;digitization projects\u0026nbsp;(COOKE, 2016; Hughes et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe National IT Project methodology, tailored for managing IT projects overlooks guidance on monitoring process quality, a critical factor for successful digitization. Additionally, its linear approach to IT governance\u0026nbsp;does not\u0026nbsp;align well with the multifaceted and complex nature of digitization initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eCONCEPTUAL MODEL\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBuilding upon prior research\u0026nbsp;(Mahaney \u0026amp; Lederer, 2011), this study introduces a model that addresses gaps in comprehending the relationship between digitization and project success (Joshi et al., 2022), aligning with insights from agency theory that emphasize high-quality, effective organizational processes\u0026nbsp;(Jackson, 2024). The framework incorporates crucial elements, including goal conflict, communication, shirking, task programmability, and contract type, with a central focus on \u0026quot;process quality\u0026quot; as a pivotal mediating influence on the success of digitization projects in Ugandan TVETs\u0026nbsp;(Berthon et al., 2002; Ozili, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDrawing inspiration from both the DeLone and McLean theories and the dynamic capabilities theory, the conceptual model herein enhances our understanding of the aspects influencing digitization projects in the TVET context. The framework envisions the improvement of Digitization Projects in Ugandan TVETs through effective IT governance processes (Joshi et al., 2022). In accordance with the agency theory discussed above, the framework emphasizes that, for successful digitization projects, principals should prioritize the highest quality in each process (Joshi et al., 2022) managed by the agents with support from top management (the principal). Decision-making at all stages of the transformation process underscores the importance of clear communication in minimizing goal conflicts. This conceptual model, rooted in agency theory principles, provides critical insights for enhancing successful digitization within the unique context of Ugandan TVETs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, task programmability plays a crucial role by outlining tasks in advance during the planning phase (Joshi et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Research METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis paper employed quantitative methods to explore the factors influencing the success of digitization in TVET institutions. The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS v22. The study utilized the Smart-PLS method within structural equation modeling for factor analysis. The research followed a pragmatic approach, using abductive methodology, to refine the conceptual model. Overall, a descriptive field study was conducted to derive a tailored model for enhancing digitization success in TVET institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis inquiry adopted design science research (DSR) as its research methodology to develop the model for digitization in Ugandan TVETs, conceptualized as a strategy to advance digitization in these institutions. The study investigated various aspects, including project adherence to schedules, impact on teaching and administrative tasks, reported errors, CEO-CIO relationships, quality of interventions, process quality, user satisfaction, contract types, policy influence, task programmability, and activities related to implementation team shirking. Hour-long questionnaires were administered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study adopted quantitative research methods within the framework of pragmatism and design science research (Vom Brocke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hevner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) principles. To develop the model, quantitative data were gathered through a structured questionnaire administered to key stakeholders in TVET institutions (Baskerville, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) utilizing both Krejcie and Morgan sample size determination and purposeful sampling. There was a total of 177 participants in this study. Statistical methods such as structured equation modeling (SEM) and partial least squares (PLS-SEM) were used for the analysis of the quantitative data collected in this study. The sampling methods encompass purposive, random, and critical case sampling, focusing on six Centers of Excellence selected by the government for digitization efforts. This multifaceted approach ensured a robust and comprehensive exploration of the success of the Digitization Projects in TVET institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 DATA COLLECTION\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStructured interviews were conducted across all 12 newly digitalized technical colleges in Uganda, involving 177 participants in total, all from the Ministry of Education and Sports Officials, College Principals, administrators, technical instructors, IT heads, and students. The data from 100 participants were fit for analysis after carrying out a missing value analysis to alleviate misleading results. These institutions were selected to represent diverse specialties and sizes, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of digitization management. All twelve colleges agreed to participate, and the interviews employed open-ended questions to gather insights into project implementation, monitoring processes, and project goals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe table below shows the composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha (CA) values for the constructs and their variables. Values exceeding 0.70 indicate that the internal consistency standards were met (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposite reliability (CR) and Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha (CA) values for the constructs and their variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstructs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposite Reliability (CR rho-A)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposite Reliability (CR rho-C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha (CA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.818\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.818\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.724\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolitics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.904\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.831\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCounterproductive multitasking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.936\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-deployment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.917\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.855\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCEO-CIO Relationship type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.916\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation Asymmetry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.855\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.783\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutcome Oriented contract\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.734\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.882\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.732\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBehavior Oriented contract\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.917\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.879\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonitoring \u0026amp; Evaluation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.908\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.878\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTop Management Participation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.991\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.929\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.893\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIT Resources Usage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUser Satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.845\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.904\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 EXPLORATORY AND CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS","content":"\u003cp\u003eSmart PLS software was\u0026nbsp;used\u0026nbsp;to\u0026nbsp;analyze these\u0026nbsp;data to verify the conceptual framework and test the hypotheses.\u0026nbsp;Partial\u0026nbsp;least squares (Smart PLS) software was used to\u0026nbsp;analyze\u0026nbsp;the measurement and structure of the research framework\u0026nbsp;(Castellanos, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study showed that despite the extensive experience of college principals (averaging 15 years), they had limited digitization exposure. This was also detrimental to the amplification of digitization success in these TVET institutions. Table 2 provides the level of education of the respondents in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable 2: Table showing the\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003ehighest\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;level of education for each of the respondent categories\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHighest level of Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercent%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBachelor\u0026rsquo;s Degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCertificate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiploma\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaster\u0026rsquo;s Degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePost Graduate Diploma\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total cost of the digitization effort for digitizing the 12 TVET institutions was $1,271,408.16. This study highlighted that most institutions lacked a skilled IT manager or CIO, who is trained and skilled in ICT. In situations where one was present, only one CIO had the requisite ICT skills and had a positive relationship with the CEO, greatly impeding the advancement of digitization, as revealed in the results of this study. An officer in charge of the ICT was filled by someone assigned to manage the role without requisite training, as observed in several instances. Table 3 below shows the titles and responsibilities of the respondents in this survey.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable 3: Table showing the titles and responsibilities of the respondents in this survey.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJob description\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercent%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcademic Registrar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommissioner TVET\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHead of Division or Department\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHead of ICT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eICT Officer Institution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstitution Principal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstructor at TVET institution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrincipal Officer TVET\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProject Implementer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProject Supervisor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;this study emphasized the pivotal relationship between\u0026nbsp;CIOs\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;CEOs\u0026nbsp;in influencing digitization outcomes. Moreover, the study revealed that the project implementation team juggled multiple projects simultaneously (Shirking), including construction, agriculture, furniture procurement, vehicle acquisition, and infrastructure refurbishment. Consequently, digitization projects\u0026nbsp;have\u0026nbsp;suffered due to limited attention, with construction projects predominantly occupying the focus on monitoring and process quality,\u0026nbsp;as seen in the field study findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Confirmatory Factor Analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;for Goal Conflict\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CFA for\u0026nbsp;goal\u0026nbsp;conflict is\u0026nbsp;presented in\u0026nbsp;Figure\u0026nbsp;4 below. Three factors (power, criteria and politics) were retained after the construct,\u0026nbsp;\u0026lsquo;policy\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;and all its indicators were deleted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Reliability and Validity for Goal Conflict\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eScores (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s\u0026nbsp;alpha) above 0.7 were\u0026nbsp;considered\u0026nbsp;satisfactory. To complement Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha,\u0026nbsp;an average variance extracted\u0026nbsp;(AVE) above 0.5 for all factors and\u0026nbsp;a heterotrait\u0026ndash;monotrait\u0026nbsp;ratio (HTMT) below 0.85 for each pair of constructs\u0026nbsp;were\u0026nbsp;confirmed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eTable 4:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eResults\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;for Reliability and Validity for Goal Conflict\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHTMT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCriteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePolitics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.724\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.818\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.818\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.624\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolitics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.872\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.904\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.616\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.494\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.831\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.889\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.886\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.562\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Fit Indices: SRMR=.0091, d_ULS=.756, d_G=.313, Chi-square=178.257, NFI=.756\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Reliability and Validity\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eof\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Communication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results in\u0026nbsp;Table\u0026nbsp;5 show that the AVE for all the factors is greater than 0.5 and\u0026nbsp;that\u0026nbsp;the HTMT ratio is greater than 0.2 but\u0026nbsp;less than\u0026nbsp;0.85,\u0026nbsp;as was postulated by Henseler et al.\u0026nbsp;(2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5 confirms the discriminant validity of the two factors. Furthermore, the SRMR of 0.079 for Communication falls within the acceptable range for the SRMR index, which is between 0 and 0.08 (Hu and Bentler, 1999), showing a good model fit for the measurement model for Communication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable 5:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eResults\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;for Reliability and Validity for Communication\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCronbach Alpha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHTMT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInformation Asymmetry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCEO-CIO Relationship Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.916\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.938\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInformation Asymmetry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.783\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.855\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.695\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.594\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Fit Indices: SRMR=.079, d_ULS=.173, d_G=.091, Chi-square=57.669, NFI=.870\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.4 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Confirmatory Factor Analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;for Contract Type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CFA for contract type is presented in Figure 6 below. Two factors (outcome-oriented and behavior-oriented) were retained after analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.5 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Reliability and Validity for Contract Type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results below show that the indicators retained in the summary of the measurement model of contract type guarantee both reliability and validity. Table 6 below shows that for both the outcome and behavior-oriented contract indicators, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha value after testing for reliability is greater than 0.7, indicating compliance with internal consistency. These indicators were later found not to be significant when establishing the structural model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable 6: Reliability and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003evalidity measures for contract type\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCronbach Alpha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHTMT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavior Oriented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOutcome Oriented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.732\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.734\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.882\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.789\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavior Oriented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.879\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.917\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.735\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.488\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Fit Indices: SRMR=.072, d_ULS=.108, d_G=.085, Chi-square=54.420, NFI=.820\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.6\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Reliability and Validity\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eof\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Process Quality\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results in Table 7 below demonstrate that the indicators retained in the summary of the measurement model of process quality guarantee both reliability and validity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable 5.25: A\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;showing\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003ethe\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eReliability and Validity of\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003ethe\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeasures for Process Quality\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s Apha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHTMT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTop Management Participation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMonitoring \u0026amp; Evaluation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.878\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.963\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.908\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.769\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTop Management Participation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.893\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.929\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.813\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.167\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Fit Indices: SRMR=.079, d_ULS=.152, d_G=.141, Chi-square=92.099, NFI=.746\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConvergent validity and discriminant validity were assured.\u0026nbsp;The\u0026nbsp;AVE for both factors is\u0026nbsp;greater than\u0026nbsp;0.5,\u0026nbsp;and the HTMT for both constructs is\u0026nbsp;less than\u0026nbsp;0.85\u0026nbsp;(Henseler et al., 2015)\u0026nbsp;as the\u0026nbsp;threshold\u0026nbsp;for the HTMT ratio.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAdditionally, the SRMR of 0.077 in\u0026nbsp;Table\u0026nbsp;5.22\u0026nbsp;falls\u0026nbsp;within\u0026nbsp;the allowable range for the SRMR index\u0026nbsp;between 0 and 0.08\u0026nbsp;(Hu \u0026amp; Bentler, 1999).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.7\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Reliability and Validity\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eof\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Digitization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results in Table 8 below show that the indicators retained in the summary of the measurement model of digitization guarantee both reliability and validity. Furthermore, the AVE for all factors is greater than 0.5, and the HTMT for the construct pair in Table 8 is less than 0.85.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable 8: A table showing the reliability and validity of \u0026lsquo;Digitization\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHTMT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erho-C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIT Resources Usage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIT Resources Usage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.868\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.715\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUser Satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.845\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.904\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.759\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.824\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel Fit Indices: SRMR=.069, d_ULS=.261, d_G=.192, Chi-square=123.372, NFI=.749\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 THE PROPOSED MODEL FOR DIGITIZATION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section presents a comprehensive model specifically tailored to guide Ugandan TVETs and related organizations through the details of the digitization project journey.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis newly created model incorporates the planning, implementation and transformation phases of digital change. It integrates established practices from agency theory, theoretical insights from the DeLone and McLean Theory and practical considerations to offer a visual roadmap that Ugandan TVETs and similar organizations can follow.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Applicability of the model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe model for digitization shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents clear model guidelines for project execution, adherence to clear procurement rules from start to finish, and clear specifications designed by the IT experts for digitization procurements. The success of digitization projects (SDTP) model is designed to improve digital initiatives in Ugandan Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions. It helps align project goals with the institution's objectives, promotes effective communication, identifies areas for automation and efficiency, encourages engagement from all stakeholders, emphasizes continuous progress monitoring, and supports quality assurance for process quality and continuous improvement. This highlights the importance of building digital skills and guides the measurement of project success. Applying this model systematically provides a structured approach to improving and increasing the chances of success in digitization projects within TVETs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe model variables assist in decision-making, stakeholder engagement, and resource allocation, ultimately leading to successful implementation and positive project outcomes. In conclusion, this \u0026lsquo;success of digitization projects\u0026rsquo; model offers a robust and comprehensive approach to improving IT project governance and success. By aligning project goals with organizational objectives, emphasizing effective communication, and promoting task programmability and automation, the model provides valuable insights for IT project managers. Monitoring progress, ensuring quality assurance, and promoting continuous improvement align with essential aspects of IT project governance. The emphasis on capacity building for digitization and the measurement of success through defined key performance indicators (KPIs) further contribute to the model\u0026rsquo;s applicability in enhancing IT project outcomes. Integrating this model into IT project governance practices provides a structured and adaptive methodology, enhancing the likelihood of successful IT project implementation and fostering positive organizational outcomes for TVETs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6.0 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study showed what makes these projects work well. The leaders (principals) play a large role, but just checking ongoing work (monitoring) and evaluating work completed is not enough. This seems to have been the case for such projects. Four main problems\u0026mdash;unclear contracts, not watching for issues, undesirable internal politics (poor CEO-CIO relationships) within the institutions, and not planning tasks well\u0026mdash;are the reasons for poor digitization outcomes. As found in this study, project implementation teams at the institution do not use contracts focused on outcomes, which turned out to be the same as the project coordination team that implemented the project. This explains the removal of the \u0026lsquo;contract type\u0026rsquo; construct, as proposed earlier in the conceptual model. Good teamwork and preventing slacking off (shirking) were very important for success, as previous studies have shown. We discovered that having clear roles and responsibilities was crucial, not just planning tasks. Confusion in who does what and when, in these areas, made it hard to ensure everything went smoothly. We introduced a new idea called \"process quality.\" This means that each step (process) of the project is performed well. We found that success depends on doing each step right. In Uganda, contracts based on outcomes are not as important because fixed wage worker engagements are common. In brief, our research challenges previous thought. This highlights that good communication, not just privately held information, clear roles and responsibilities, and doing each step well (process quality) are key to successful digitization in TVETs. Our findings, while building on past studies, differ in terms of the importance of contract type. This study also showed that having a good relationship with the CEO and the CIO amplifies digitization success. Overall, we found that focusing on doing each step well\u0026mdash;good communication, clear roles defined, and getting tasks right (task programmability) and a healthy CEO-CIO relationship\u0026mdash;is crucial for success in making digitization work in TVETs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur study actively applied agency theory to identify the prerequisites for tailored digitization and proposed a model to actively fortify digital initiatives within learning institutions. Using design science, we constructed a purpose-specific model firmly rooted in agency theory, pivotal for driving digitization. This study illustrates how agency theory applies to understanding the limitations of digitization, aligning with and complementing prevailing research in this domain. Rather than conflicting, it harmonizes with these studies, providing insights at various levels and equipping us with a model to comprehend the research and failures of such projects within developing economies. Leveraging Ugandan TVETs as a case study, the results are applicable across diverse contexts. While monitoring and evaluating digitization projects are important, mere oversight is insufficient. In conclusion, unclear contracts, limited issue monitoring, internal politics, CEO-CIO challenges and task planning issues stand out as critical to enhancing project success. Clearly, defining roles and emphasizing \"process quality\" are crucial, especially in Uganda's context with prevalent fixed-wage contracts. Our study challenges conventional beliefs, highlighting the significance of communication and defining roles and responsibilities for digital success in TVETs. Excelling in each phase\u0026mdash;communication, roles, and tasks\u0026mdash;is crucial. Prioritizing quality processes, nurturing a healthy CEO-CIO relationship and addressing conflicts in project goals between principals and agents can significantly reduce agency problems and digitization failures in Uganda, aligning with our study's objective.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eResearch ethics approval was obtained from the Mildmay Uganda Research Ethics Committee (MUREC). Approval was granted during the 114th convened meeting of MUREC held on 21st November 2022. The committee reviewed and approved the research protocol under the reference number MUREC-2022-142. The approval period covered from 21st November 2022 to 21st November 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThroughout the study, all necessary precautions were taken to ensure the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. Data collection and analysis were conducted in accordance with the approved protocol, ensuring the integrity and ethical standards of the research process.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBaskerville, R. (2022). \u003cem\u003eComputational Science: A Field of Inquiry for Design Science Research\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.24251/hicss.2022.703\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBerthon, P., Pitt, L., Ewing, M., \u0026amp; Carr, C. L. (2002). Potential research space in MIS: A framework for envisioning and evaluating research replication, extension, and generation. \u003cem\u003eInformation Systems Research\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.13.4.416.71\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBogdandy, B., Tam\u0026aacute;s, J., \u0026amp; T\u0026oacute;th, Z. 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Https://Www.Forbes.Com/Sites/Forbestechcouncil/2018/03/13/Why-Digital-Transformations-Fail-Closing-the-900-Billion-Hole-in-Enterprise-Strategy/?Sh=657a4aec7b8b.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Makerere University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Agency theory, Digital transformation, Project failure, Uganda’s TVETs, Digitization model","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4588303/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4588303/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research examines global digital transformation project success, emphasizing the contrast between developed and developing economies. While developed nations experience declining failure rates, developing economies, notably Uganda, grapple with a 70% project failure rate. Focusing on Uganda's Technical, Vocational Education, and Training (TVET) institutions, this study investigates the integration of digital technologies for skill enhancement. By applying agency theory, a tailored model is introduced to mitigate project failures. Through a quantitative approach, variables (goal conflict, shirking, communication, task programability, contract type, process quality, and digital transformation) contributing to improved success are identified. The results show positive responses, ensuring high overall validity and reliability. Cronbach's alpha exceeded 0.7 for all variables and was lowest at 0.732. The convergent validity exceeds 0.5 for the independent variables. The validated model comprehensively addresses digital transformation success, highlighting the risks related to shirking and goal conflict. Future research should explore these risks, examine contributing factors, and refine the guiding model for digital transformation investments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Digitization Model in Ugandan Technical, Vocational and Education Training Institutions: An Agency Theory Perspective","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-06-19 16:04:33","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4588303/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a84c9a36-beb5-45a8-9dbe-db4f16d38d58","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 19th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":33304542,"name":"Systems and Networking"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-06-19T16:04:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-06-19 16:04:33","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4588303","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4588303","identity":"rs-4588303","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}