The role and origins of human attitudes in Human–Wildlife Conflict responses: Insights from Spectacled Bears ( Tremarctos ornatus ) and other wild carnivores in Southern Ecuador

Background Human-wildlife conflict, which motivates retaliatory killings, is a major driver of species decline globally. Addressing an open question in human–wildlife conflict, we test whether evolutionary-rooted human attitudes, independent of economic losses, better predict retaliatory responses. Methods We examined human attitudes toward spectacled bears ( Tremarctos ornatus ) and other wild carnivores in a wildlife conflict-zone in southern Ecuador by conducting interviews in rural communities. We measured both established variables - such as education levels, age, and gender - and novel psychometric variables to identify predictors of human-wildlife conflict responses. Results Perceptions of animals emerged as the strongest predictor of conflict responses. Communities exhibiting high levels of vengefulness, particularly within an animal-directed Culture of Honor, where individuals, especially men, are expected to respond strongly or violently to perceived threats, were more likely to support lethal interventions. Conversely, individuals with strong environmental education backgrounds demonstrated more positive perceptions of wildlife, highlighting education’s potential role in conflict mitigation. Conclusion Evolutionary-derived attitudes, rather than economic factors, primarily drive human responses to wildlife conflict. Effective strategies to reduce violence against wildlife should incorporate human perceptions and culturally rooted values to address the underlying social and psychological drivers of conflict.