Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India

Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India Madhuben Sharma, Ajay Rautela, Sameeksha Rawat, Ranjit Gurav This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Saryu River, a branch of the Sharda River (downstream of the Mahakali River), flows in the Kumaon Himalaya. This study utilized the physico-chemical parameters to assess water quality status and calculate the Water Quality Index (WQI), as well as Sentinel-2 satellite images of 10-meter resolution for 2022 and 2023 to analyse land use and land cover (LULC). The secondary water quality data was obtained from the Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board. The results revealed that the total hardness, calcium, magnesium, faecal coliform, and total coliform were beyond the acceptable limits set by Bureau of Indian Standards/World Health Organization. Ions are primarily released in water via the process of carbonate weathering. In both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, the concentration of the analysed cation and anion followed the sequence of calcium > magnesium > sodium > potassium, and sulphate > chloride > fluoride > nitrate-nitrogen, respectively. In both years, the WQI showed good water quality. The LULC shows the negative change detection of water (-0.31%), built area (-0.84%) and rangeland (-0.98%), whereas trees (+ 1.05%), crops (+ 0.39%) and bare ground (+ 0.69%) show positive change detection from 2022 to 2023. According to the study's findings, the Saryu River water is safe for drinking. However, the presence of faecal coliform and total coliform highlighted the need for enhanced sanitary infrastructure and protocols to mitigate bacterial contamination from river water. Kumaon Himalaya Land Use/Land Cover Saryu River WQI Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction River water is a key element of freshwater resources, providing a vital role in preserving ecological equilibrium, promoting agricultural activities, and sustaining human beings. The essential prerequisites for fostering economic growth and maintaining environmental well-being are the purity and accessibility of river water. Hence, it is important to take control and prevention measures to address river pollution while also collecting accurate data for evaluation and administration. Water quality fluctuations mostly result from human interference and environmental phenomena within the watershed region (Huang et al. 2013 ; Gyimah et al. 2020 ). Magadum et al. ( 2017 ) and Nihalani and Meeruty ( 2021 ) have shown in multiple studies that industrial and urban wastewater, along with agricultural runoff, have heavily contaminated Indian rivers. The significant pollution levels have reduced several freshwater rivers to mere conduits for wastewater. Thus, these contaminated rivers provide substantial health hazards to the lot of persons who depend on them for clean water (Whitehead et al. 2009 ; Rautela et al. 2023 ). Human activities have had a profound influence on river systems, resulting in a significant decrease in the quality of water, a drop in accessibility of water, and a limited ability to sustain aquatic life. Non-natural causes such as rapid development, growing tourism, changing land use designs, and garbage discarding accelerate the decline of river water quality condition in the Himalayan region (Thakur et al. 2018 ). Uttarakhand, a state in the Indian Himalayas, includes the Kumaon and Garhwal divisions. The rivers in the Kumaon area, including Saryu, Kosi, Ramganga, and others, come from the Himalayan range and flow across different terrains, providing water to fertile plains and supporting diverse forests. The Saryu River has a critical role as a water supply for the local people. It serves as a lifeline for drinking water, agriculture, and hydroelectric power generation, while also sustaining a diverse variety of flora and fauna species. The Saryu River, India is significant not only in terms of its physical existence, but also in terms of its profound impact on the cultural and spiritual aspects of the Kumaon people. The pollution, uncontrolled exploitation, and the consequences of climate change pose substantial challenges to the Saryu River. Industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and untreated urban sewage introduce a variety of pollutants, including pesticides, heavy metals, and pathogenic microbes, contaminating the river. These contaminants deteriorate water quality, disturb aquatic ecosystem balance, and pose health risks to human populations who depend on the river for drinking water and other purposes. Deforestation and uncontrolled development worsen the decline in water quality by causing soil erosion and sedimentation. The Kumaon region, known for its distinct geographical and cultural characteristics, is especially susceptible to these environmental difficulties. The status of the Saryu River serves as an indicator of the overall environmental state, including both natural phenomena and human actions in the surrounding region. Evaluating the quality condition of the Saryu River water is crucial to comprehending the magnitude of pollution and its consequences for nearby ecosystems and populations. Multiple studies have conducted assessments of water quality in different streams in Uttarakhand, as reported by (Bhutiani et al. 2016 ; Matta et al. 2020 ; Maurya et al. 2021 ; Sinha et al. 2022 ; Thakur et al. 2023 ; Mishra et al. 2024 ; Zafar and Kumari 2024 ). However, an extensive review of the current literature reveals that only a few numbers of studies (Seth et al. 2015 , 2016 ; Aithani et al. 2021 ) have focused on the quality condition of the Saryu River water. The goal of this study is to evaluate the current quality condition of the Saryu River water in the Kumaon Himalaya region. The aims of this study are: (1) to examine the physical and chemical characteristics of the water in the Saryu River and assess how they change throughout the seasons; (2) to determine the Water Quality Index (WQI) and establish the water quality rating (WQR); and (3) to evaluate the land use/land cover (LULC) within the 500-metre buffer zone of the Saryu River. People often use the WQI as a universal instrument to measure water quality and conclude its appropriateness for specific purposes (Macwan and Patel 2018 ). This extensive investigation seeks to deliver valuable insights into the environmental well-being of the Saryu River, with the goal of preserving this essential waterbody. Materials and Methods Study area This study has been carried out on the Saryu River, also known as Sarju in the local Kumaoni language. This river is the largest branch of the Sharda River (downstream of the Mahakali River) and originate from Saryu Udgam near Sarmool. It flows from the western to the eastern Kumaon Himalaya, falling within the Ganga basin and Ghaghara sub-basin. Before joining the Sharda River at Pancheshwar, which is located at the India-Nepal border, the Saryu River passes through the cities of Kapkot, Bageshwar, and Seraghat. The Saryu River (Fig. 1 ) segment of this study is located in the Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand, India. The length of river is 58.3 kilometres with a 1200 square kilometres area of the watershed. Data sources and preparation The secondary water quality data for the monsoon (Ms) and post-monsoon (PMs) seasons of 2022 and 2023 were collected by the Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board(UKPCB 2022 , 2023 ) and utilised to examine the seasonal fluctuation trends in quality condition of water and the Water Quality Index (WQI) of the Saryu River. We analysis the physico-chemical study at the "River Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar" site. The collected water quality data were analysed according to the criteria established by the World Health Organization (WHO 2008 , 2011 ), the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS 2012 ), and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR 1975 ), to calculate the WQI. For the creation of the 2022 and 2023 LULC maps, Sentinel-2 satellite data with a 10-meter resolution was obtained from the Esri Land Cover website (ESRI 2021 ). Additionally, a Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a 30-meter resolution was acquired from the United States Geological Survey(USGS 2014 ) Earth Explorer and the watershed shapefile was taken from Global Watershed(Heberger 2022 ) web application for the preparation of the study area map by using ArcGIS 10.8 software. Calculation of WQI The WQI is a measurement technique that consolidates several water quality physico-chemical parameters into one solo unique value, facilitating water quality interpretation and comparison (Akhtar et al. 2021 ). We calculated the WQI in this study using the “weighted arithmetic index” method (Brown et al. 1972 ; Sarkar and Majumder 2021 ). We calculated the WQI of the Saryu River for two years (2022 and 2023) by analysing sixteen physico-chemical parameters. Each of these parameters significantly contributes to the determination of the WQI, a crucial tool for assessing various water quality parameters. These parameters include pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolve solid (TDS), total hardness (TH), total alkalinity (TH), electric conductivity (EC), sulphate (SO 4 − ), chloride (Cl − ), fluoride (F − ), Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO 3 − N), calcium (Ca 2 + ), magnesium (Mg 2 + ), sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The WQI was calculated using the following mathematical equations: The following formula is used for obtaining the individual unit weight (Wi): $$\:{\text{w}}_{\text{i}}=\frac{\text{K}}{{\text{S}}_{\text{v}}}$$ 1 The standard allowable value (Sv) for the n th water quality parameter is determined by the WHO, BIS, and ICMR. The provided equation is used to calculate the K (proportionality constant). $$\:\text{K}=\frac{1}{\sum\:\left(\frac{1}{{\text{S}}_{\text{v}}}\right)}$$ 2 The below equation is utilised to determine the sub-quality index (Qi): $$\:{\text{Q}}_{\text{i}}=\left[\frac{\left({\text{F}}_{\text{v}}-{\text{I}}_{\text{v}}\right)}{\left({\text{s}}_{\text{v}}-{\text{v}}_{\text{i}}\right)}\right]\times\:100$$ 3 where Iv is the ideal parameter value and Fn is the actual measured value of the nth parameter present [for all parameters, Iv = 0, with the exception of pH (Iv = 7) and DO (Iv = 14.6 mg/L)]. Hence, the WQI is: $$\:\text{W}\text{Q}\text{I}=\frac{{\Sigma\:}{\text{Q}}_{\text{i}}*{\text{w}}_{\text{i}}}{{\Sigma\:}{\text{w}}_{\text{i}}}$$ 4 Based on Table 1 classification of the WQI, the WQR for the Saryu River, India was established. Table 1 Standard rating & grading of water quality as per WQI (modified from Brown et al. 1972 ; Chatterjee & Raziuddin 2002 ). WQI Class WQR Grading 100 E Unsuitable V Result and discussion Analysis of physico-chemical parameters The pH, which represents the levels of hydrogen ions (H + ), is a crucial factor in evaluating quality condition of water. It has a vital role in identifying the solubility and accessibility of nutrients (Lahon and Sahariah 2022 ). Water's pH, which typically ranges from 0 to 14, measures its acidity or alkalinity. The pH values recorded in the Ms and PMs seasons of 2022 were higher than those of 2023. Moreover, the pH values during the Ms season were consistently greater than those during the PMs season in both years (Table 2 ) (Fig. 2 (a)). In relation to the research, the water is moderately alkaline (pH > 7) throughout the year. The elevated concentration of bicarbonate ions may correlate with the river's alkalinity (Khan et al. 2016 ). Increased pH levels in water are often linked to a rise in photosynthetic activities (Thapa 2022 ; Fentaw et al. 2024 ). This may have an influence on corrosion, mucosal membranes, aquatic life, and the taste of water (Rautela et al. 2023 ). The pH measurements of the Saryu River throughout the years 2022 and 2023 fall within the allowable limit of 6.5–8.5, as specified by the BIS, ( 2012 ). The DO concentration in water reflects the total amount of oxygen available to support aquatic life and is influenced by both physical and biological activities in the water. Oxygen is introduced into the water via the process of aerial dispersion and as a result of photosynthetic action (Fentaw et al. 2024 ). Jain et al. ( 2022 ) have stressed that a decrease in DO is a common consequence of imbalances in aquatic life in water. The highest DO values recorded were 9 mg/L in the Ms and 9.4 mg/L in the PMs season of 2022. The measured levels of the 2023 season were less than 2022 values, as shown in Table 2 and Fig. 2 (b). An excessive amount of decomposing organic matter causes water pollution, as indicated by the DO readings. The decline is influenced by seasonal fluctuations and location-specific factors, such as water temperature (Wavde and Arjun 2010 ). Elevated water temperature reduces oxygen's ability to dissolve, affecting the metabolic processes, reproductive capabilities, and growth rates of bacteria that break down organic substances. Elevated temperatures intensify biological processes and accelerate the decomposition rate of organic substance, leading to an increased need for oxygen in water (Shah and Joshi 2017 ). Throughout the whole two-year period, the DO levels were constantly above the allowable threshold of 5 mg/L, as set by ICMR. When DO levels drop beneath 2 mg/L, the most of fish experience mortality (Fentaw et al. 2024 ). Elevating the DO levels may enhance the visual appeal of drinking water, resulting in a more pleasing aesthetic experience. The TDS levels are a quantitative measure of all dissolved particles in a water sample, including organic and inorganic components. The residue left behind after evaporating the filtered sample calculates TDS (Mishra et al. 2021 ). The TDS concentrations during the Ms season in 2023 were measured at 156 mg/L, while during the PMs season they were measured at 174 mg/L. These values were higher than the TDS concentration in 2022, as shown in Table 2 and Fig. 2 (c). As stated by Negi et al. (2022), a greater level of TDS in water is likely to result in an alkaline pH. The TDS amount was beneath the allowable range of 500 mg/L, as specified by BIS, ( 2012 ). It is important to emphasise that higher levels of TDS may have a substantial influence on many qualities of water, such as hardness, taste, and corrosion. As a result, this reduces the appropriateness of water for agriculture watering and drinking purposes (Seth et al. 2016 ). A key contributing factor to water hardness is the presence of multivalent anions and cations, particularly Ca and Mg (Khan et al. 2016 ). Water hardness is a characteristic that allows us to determine soap's ability to lather. Hard water does not promote the formation of a satisfactory lather with soap, making it unsuitable for industrial use due to its tendency to cause significant boiler issues. The combined levels of Mg and Ca ions in water determines the TH. The highest values recorded were 220 mg/L in the Ms season of 2023 and 226 mg/L in the PMs season of 2022, as shown in Table 2 . The TH levels in 2022 and 2023 are continuously overhead the allowable range of 200 mg/L specified by BIS, ( 2012 ) for all seasons except the Ms season (192 mg/L) in 2022 (Fig. 2 (d)). Several factors, including the breakdown of rocks containing calcium carbonate, elevated temperatures, and the presence of magnesium and calcium salts from both natural and anthropogenic sources, influence the TH (Ruhakana 2012 ). Alkalinity refers to the combined number of substances in water that increase the pH towards the alkaline side of neutrality. It also indicates the water's ability to tolerate fluctuations in pH, known as buffering capacity. The concentration of ions capable of neutralizing hydrogen ions determines the TA of water. The presence of weak acids and corresponding conjugate bases determines a solution's buffering capacity (Jain et al. 2022 ). Ca, Mg, bicarbonates, sodium carbonates, and hydroxides, often derived from salts, sediments, or dissolved rocks, influence (Kumar et al., 2012; Rautela et al., 2023 ). In both 2022 and 2023, the maximum recorded value of TA during the Ms season was 162 mg/L. However, 2023 saw the highest value of TA during the PMs season, reaching 178 mg/L (Table 2 ) (Fig. 2 (e)). Elevated alkalinity concentration in water may result in a disagreeable flavour and, more significantly, pose a risk to irrigation. According to Sundar & Saseetharan ( 2008 ), it has the capacity to degrade soil quality and greatly diminish agricultural production. Throughout both years, the alkalinity level constantly remained within the permissible range of 200 mg/L, as specified by BIS, ( 2012 ). EC is a numerical representation of water's capacity to transmit an electric current. The level of dissolved minerals in water is directly proportional to its EC (Bora and Goswami 2017 ; Jain et al. 2022 ). As the concentration of ions increases, the EC value also rises. The EC acts as a valuable tool for assessing water quality. The EC values in 2023 were greater than in 2022, measuring at 240 µS/cm during the Ms season and 260 µS/cm during the PMs season. The EC values, measured in 2022 and 2023 (Table 2 ) (Fig. 2 (f)), continuously remained below the ICMR specifications of 300 µS/cm, demonstrating that the water is pure and free from pollution. In both years, the EC is lower in the Ms season relative to the PMs season. This may be due to the higher river volume and lower temperature during the Ms, which is not favourable to the occurrence of species that might modify or enhance water conductivity (Iwar et al. 2021 ). The existence of pesticides, fertilisers, and biological waste from residential and industrial sources is known to result in higher levels of ionic concentrations, which in turn leads to a rise in conductivity (Fentaw et al. 2024 ). The anionic dominance pattern observed in both seasons 2022 and 2023 was as follows: SO 4 - > Cl - > F - > NO 3 - N. The SO 4 - anion is the predominant species present in water and is an organic compound mostly formed from gypsum and other commonly occurring minerals. In 2022, the Ms and PMs seasons reported the highest concentrations of SO 4 - (Table 2 ), with levels of 61.26 mg/L and 58.16 mg/L, respectively (Fig. 3 (a)). Over the years, the levels of SO 4 - at both locations remained consistently below the allowable threshold of 200 mg/L, as specified by BIS, ( 2012 ). The higher concentration levels of SO 4 - in the intake water have the potential to induce gastrointestinal issues in those who are in a healthy state (Heizer et al. 1997 ). The investigation found raised levels of SO 4 - concentrations in the water, suggesting the presence of rocks rich in sulphate, such as gypsum, in the riverbed (Das et al. 2022 ). The Cl - ion is the second most abundant anion species and plays a critical role in evaluating water quality. It occurs naturally in several forms, such as potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), and calcium chloride (CaCl2). This chemical's origins include leaching from rocks via weathering mechanisms, dissolution of salt deposits, intrusion of seawater, surface runoff from fields using inorganic fertilizers, irrigation discharge, and animal feed (Seth et al. 2016 ). Elevated levels of Cl - ions in water lead to salinity, laxative properties, and potential health concerns such as hypertension, osteoporosis, nephrolithiasis, and asthma (McCarty 2004 ; Das et al. 2022 ). Table 2 reveals that the Ms (23 mg/L) and PMs (24 mg/L) seasons of 2023 witnessed the highest concentrations of Cl - (Fig. 3 (b)). Throughout a span of more than two years, including both seasons, the concentration of Cl - remained constantly below the allowable range of 250 mg/L, as determined by BIS, ( 2012 ). Table 2 Water quality parameters of Saryu River during 2022 & 2023 at D/S near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar, India (modified table using UPCB 2022, 2023). River Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar 2022 Season pH DO (mg/L) TDS (mg/L) TH (mg/L) TA (mg/L) EC (µs/cm) SO 4 (mg/L) Cl (mg/L) F (mg/L) NO 3 -N (mg/L) Ca (mg/L) Mg (mg/L) Na (mg/L) K (mg/L) COD (mg/L) BOD (mg/L) FC (MPN/100ml) TC (MPN/100ml) Monsoon 7.95 9.0 136 192 162 180 61.26 15 0.16 0.07 108 84 4.3 3.0 4 1.6 94 150 Post-Monsoon 7.51 9.4 135 226 154 210 58.16 21 0.33 0.16 124 102 10.8 3.7 6 1.8 84 170 River Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar 2023 Season pH DO (mg/L) TDS (mg/L) TH (mg/L) TA (mg/L) EC (µs/cm) SO 4 (mg/L) Cl (mg/L) F (mg/L) NO 3 -N (mg/L) Ca (mg/L) Mg (mg/L) Na (mg/L) K (mg/L) COD (mg/L) BOD (mg/L) FC (MPN/100ml) TC (MPN/100ml) Monsoon 7.33 8.0 156 220 162 240 30.20 23 0.29 0.11 116 104 6.6 2.1 6 2.0 79 110 Post-Monsoon 7.25 8.2 174 210 178 260 28.93 24 0.30 0.11 114 96 3.5 2.4 5 1.4 79 140 The levels of F - and NO 3 - N are insignificant across the study region. The Ms season in 2023 (0.29 mg/L) and the PMs season in 2022 (0.33 mg/L) recorded the greatest concentrations of F - (Table 2 ) (Fig. 3 (c)). In both years, the levels of F - consistently stayed beneath the BIS, ( 2012 ) allowable limit of 1 mg/L, indicating that residential use of the water poses no immediate risk of bone and tooth fluorosis. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that an overabundance of F might lead to the growth of skeletal and dental fluorosis (Khan et al. 2016 ). The elevated levels of NO 3 - N concentration in water indicate human-caused pollution resulting from fertilizer use. The surrounding areas, which employ intensive agricultural practices for growing various crops like vegetables and cereals, are the origin of this pollution. Meanwhile, contamination may also arise from using wastewater for irrigation. According to Wu et al. ( 2020 ), and Fentaw et al. ( 2024 ), the usage of wastewater for irrigation may also lead to contamination. Nitrogen occurs naturally in the environment and plays a crucial role as a vital nutrient for plants. However, the high quantity of NO 3 - N in drinking water poses a significant health risk (Singh and Hussian 2016 ). The highest NO 3 - N concentrations were observed during the Ms season in 2023 (0.11 mg/L) and during the PMs season in 2022 (0.16 mg/L), as shown in Fig. 3 (d), and Table 2 . The seasonal concentrations of NO 3 - N at both years constantly remained below the allowable range of 10 mg/L, specified by WHO, ( 2011 ), thereby verifying the safety of the water for consumption. An excessive quantity of NO 3 may result in methemoglobinemia, sometimes referred to as “blue baby” syndrome, in bottle-fed neonates (Knobeloch et al. 2000 ). In both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, the volumetric levels of the analysed cation followed the sequence of Ca 2 + > Mg 2 + > Na + > K + . Ca 2 + is often found in natural water resources, mostly because of the decomposition of minerals containing high levels of calcium, such as calcite, gypsum, and dolomite found in riverbeds, as well as the conversion of organic materials by bacteria (Seth et al. 2016 ; Matrood and Hussein 2021 ). The Ms season of 2023 (116 mg/L) and the PMs season of 2022 (124 mg/L) recorded the highest Ca 2 + concentrations (Table 2 ) (Fig. 3 (3)). For a period of more than two years, the levels of Ca 2 + constantly surpassed the allowable range of 75 mg/L specified by BIS, ( 2012 ). In all seasons, the amount of Ca 2 + was always higher than the amount of Mg 2 + , this implies that the sedimentary basins include a large number of calcium-rich mineral/rocks, such as limestone, feldspar, calcite, and dolomite (Yadav et al. 2018 ). Mg 2 + is a frequently occurring element in natural water, often found in conjunction with Ca 2 + . However, its concentration is frequently lower than that of Ca 2 + . The concentrations of Mg 2 + (Table 2 ) were higher throughout the Ms period of 2023 (104 mg/L) and the PMs season of 2022 (102 mg/L). In fact, they continually exceed the allowable range of 30 mg/L established by BIS, ( 2012 ), which raises substantial worry about water quality in both 2022 and 2023 (Fig. 3 (f)). The presence of calcite and dolomite-rich calcareous rocks, such as limestone, is a significant contributor to the raised levels of Mg in the water (Purushothaman et al. 2012 ). Other potential sources include industrial waste, home trash, and animal waste (Bodrud-Doza et al. 2019). Na + is a commonly found alkali element in natural water. The significant quantities of Na + are added to water bodies by sea spray, deposits of minerals, and human waste (Mishra et al. 2024 ). The Na + ions exhibit a conservative behaviour by readily forming bonds with clay minerals via an ion exchange mechanism (Subramani and Saxena 1983 ). We observed the highest concentrations of Na + (Table 2 ) during the Ms season in 2023 (6.6 mg/L) and PMs season in 2022 (10.8 mg/L), as given in Table 2 and Fig. 4 (a). In both years, the Na + levels continued beneath the acceptable range of 200 mg/L specified by the WHO, ( 2011 ). K + is an important macronutrient for freshwater organisms because it plays a critical role in several metabolic processes (Mishra et al. 2024 ). In 2022, research measured the highest levels of K + at 3 mg/L in the Ms season and 3.7 mg/L in the PMs season (Table 2 ). These levels were higher than those found in 2023 (Fig. 4 (b)). Both years found that K + levels were below the WHO's permissible range of 12 mg/L (WHO 2011 ). El Ghandour et al. ( 1983 ) stated that the salinity of water directly influences the volumetric levels of Na + and K + . In this research area, K + was the fourth most prevalent positively charged ion species. The COD quantifies the quantity of oxygen needed for the chemical oxidation of organic molecules in water, namely chlorides (Jain et al. 2022 ; Mansour et al. 2024 ). The Ms season in 2023 had the greatest concentration of COD at 6 mg/L (Table 2 ), as did the PMs season in the same year (Fig. 4 (c)). However, these levels continued beneath the maximum permitted range of 10 mg/L established by the WHO, ( 2008 ). The studies directly linked raised levels of COD to increased human activity in aquatic environments. Microorganisms use BOD as an experimental method to measure the quantity of dissolved oxygen they consume during the biological breakdown of organic substances in water. The industrial regions commonly observe higher COD values than BOD values (Jain et al. 2022 ; Mishra et al. 2024 ). The Ms season in 2023 saw the highest BOD values, reaching 2 mg/L. In the PMs period, 2022 recorded the highest BOD value, measuring 1.8 mg/L (Table 2 ) (Fig. 4 (d)). The BOD values throughout 2022 and 2023 were consistently less than the allowable range of 5 mg/L set by ICMR. The increased BOD values suggest the presence of significant sources of organic pollution near the test sites (Bora and Goswami 2017 ; Verma et al. 2023 ). While BOD evaluates the amount of pollution that living organisms can decompose, COD considers both biodegradable and non-biodegradable contaminants (Khan et al. 2016 ). Coliform bacteria in water serve as an indicator of human or animal faecal waste, which may lead to waterborne illnesses such as hepatitis, typhoid, and diarrhea (Sood et al. 2008 ). The Ms season (94 MPN/100 mL) and the period after the Ms (84 MPN/100 mL) in 2022 recorded the highest concentrations of faecal coliform (FC) (Table 2 ) (Fig. 4 (e)). We found the highest concentrations of total coliform (TC) in the Ms of 2022 (150 MPN/100 mL) and in the PMs of 2022 (170 MPN/100 mL) (Table 2 ) (Fig. 4 (f)). While the presence of TC bacteria in water does not consistently signify problems with quality of water, it can increase worries about potential pathogen contamination of the water source (Pal 2014 ). According to the BIS, ( 2012 ) criteria, a 100-mL water sample should not include detectable levels of both TC and FC. The data analysis reveals the contamination of river water with FC and TC in both the 2022 and 2023 seasons. High concentrations of coliform bacteria suggest contamination from a dirty source, inadequate treatment methods, post-treatment issues, or incorrect handling and disposal of solid waste. WQI analysis We used the “weighted arithmetic water quality index” technique to compute the WQI at the Saryu River during the Ms and PMs periods of 2022 and 2023. We use the standard values (Sv) and individual unit weight (Wi) values for each parameter (Table 3 ) to calculate the WQI. Table 4 displays the WQI and WQR of the Saryu River in both the Ms and PMs seasons of 2022 and 2023. Table 3 Individual Unit weights (Wi) of the parameters used for WQI Parameters Nodal Agency Standard (Sv) Unit Weight (Wi) pH BIS 2012 8.5 0.063 DO ICMR 5 0.106 TDS BIS 2012 500 0.001 TH BIS 2012 200 0.002 TA BIS 2012 200 0.003 EC ICMR 300 0.002 SO 4 BIS 2012 200 0.003 Cl BIS 2012 250 0.002 F BIS 2012 1 0.533 NO 3 -N WHO 2011 10 0.053 Cl BIS 2012 75 0.007 Mg BIS 2012 30 0.017 Na WHO 2011 200 0.003 K WHO 2011 12 0.044 COD WHO 2008 10 0.053 BOD ICMR 5 0.106 ΣWn = 1 *All values are expressed in mg/L, except for pH and EC (µS/cm). Table 4 The depiction of WQI and WQR of Saryu River, India during 2022-23 Year Monsoon Post-Monsoon WQI WQR Grade WQI WQR Grade 2022 32.1 Good Water II 42.1 Good Water II 2023 40.5 Good Water II 38.3 Good Water II In 2022, the WQI value rose from 32.10% during the Ms season to 42.10% during the PMs season. However, in 2023, the WQI declines from 40.5% during the Ms season to 38.3% during the PMs season (Fig. 5 ). This research assessed the uniformity of WQR in the Saryu River across 2022 and 2023. We found the water quality to be good in both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, meeting the permitted limit requirements set by BIS and WHO. LULC analysis The LULC data provide essential information on the spatial distribution and changes in land use within the river basin, which significantly impact the quality of water (Yao et al. 2023 ). This comprehensive approach not only improves our understanding of the existing state of the Saryu River, but also helps in formulating targeted strategies to safeguard and improve its water quality. The land cover of the Saryu River 500-metre buffer zone underwent changes during a span of one year, from 2022 to 2023, as seen in the processed map (Fig. 6 ). LULC may have a significant impact on river water quality by altering pollutant discharge and transit processes (Tu 2011 ). This research classified the LULC into six distinct categories: waterbody, trees (forest vegetation), crop (agriculture), built area, barren ground (including barren and scrub areas), and rangeland (representing grassland). Sentinel-2 ESRI LULC data from 2022 and 2023 revealed significant changes in the regions classified as trees, crops, and built areas, while water, barren ground, and rangeland showed minor modifications. The proportion of land covered by trees in the Saryu River watershed grew from 47.26% in 2022 to 48.31% in 2023, making it the most prominent characteristic of the region. The recent expansion of forested areas may result in increased levels of rainfall, thereby contributing to the rise of water pollutants. The waterbody area experienced a decrease, from 3.56% in 2022 to 3.25% in 2023 (Table 5 ). Climate may be responsible for this modest decrease. Table 5 The LULC classes proportion change detection during 2022–2023 at 500 metre buffer zone of Saryu River, India LULC Classes 2022 2023 Change (2022–2023) Area % Area (Km 2 ) Area % Area (Km 2 ) Area % Area (Km 2 ) Water 3.56 1.92 3.25 1.75 -0.31 -0.17 Trees 47.26 25.46 48.31 26.02 + 1.05 + 0.56 Crops 2.09 1.13 2.48 1.34 + 0.39 + 0.21 Built Area 7.43 4.00 6.59 3.55 -0.84 -0.45 Bare Ground 3.35 1.80 4.04 2.18 + 0.69 + 0.38 Rangeland 36.31 19.56 35.33 19.03 -0.98 -0.53 In between 2022 and 2023, the built area dropped from 7.43–6.59%, while the crops increase from 2.09–2.48%. The extensive use of insecticides and fertilisers in farming potentially chiefs to elevated pollution levels in the nearby water bodies, highlighting the influence of human interference on these alterations. Several types of constructed areas, such as industrial regions, residential areas, urban sewage management, and discharge locations, may influence the water quality forecast model (Mello et al. 2018 ). Over this time frame, the amount of bare ground increased from 3.35–4.04%, while the area of rangeland decreased from 36.31–35.33%. Climate factors such as temperature, precipitation, and evaporation, along with environmental interactions and human activities, influence seasonal variations. The modifications in LULC have a crucial role in driving climate change, particularly in rapidly expanding urban areas. Land use change has an important effect on the physical and thermal attributes of the land surface, thereby affecting water quality. Therefore, the prolonged interaction between natural phenomena and human actions might have a substantial effect on the water quality of the region. Conclusion and Future perspective The research aimed to obtain the existing water quality condition of the Saryu River, India. The outcomes indicated that several physico-chemical parameters met the criteria established by BIS, ( 2012 ), ICMR, and WHO, ( 2011 , 2008 ). However, in both seasons, the levels of TH, Ca 2 + , and Mg 2 + consistently exceeded the permissible boundaries across the years, except for the TH concentration during the 2022 Ms season, which was beneath the acceptable limit (192 mg/L). The ions are mostly released in water via the process of carbonate weathering. The elevated levels of TH, Ca 2 + , and Mg 2 + were associated with the prevailing abundance of limestone, dolomite, calcite, and feldspar in the local geological formation. The WQI consistently indicated good water quality conditions between 2022 and 2023. The LULC maps illustrate annual variations in land use and land cover categories, highlighting the effect of both human interference and environmental factors. The water (-0.31%), built area (-0.84%) and rangeland (-0.98%) show negative change detection, whereas trees (+ 1.88%), crops (+ 0.39%) and bare ground (+ 0.69%) show positive change detection from 2022 to 2023. The levels of FC and TC in the Saryu River exceeded the permissible limits, indicating bacterial contamination during both the Ms and PMs periods. In summary, the WQI study concluded that the Saryu River water is appropriate for consumption. However, the presence of FC and TC highlighted the need for improved hygienic facilities and processes to mitigate bacterial contamination in the river system. Effective management and regulatory procedures are essential for controlling the direct disposal of industrial and household trash into the river channel, with the aim of reducing pollution and maintaining water quality. Communities should strive to increase awareness and implement preventive measures to protect water from pollution. By implementing sustainable management strategies and rigorous data analytics, it is possible to mitigate the adverse impact of global climate change and urbanization on river ecosystems. This comprehensive approach will ensure the long-term preservation and restoration of river water quality for future generations. The present research aims to establish a correlation between the upcoming year's data on the quality of the Saryu River to identify patterns in the seasonal trends of water quality. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to their organization (UPES) for the unconditional support and guidance during writing of the paper along with that authors extend their appreciation to UKPCB, USGC Earth Explorer, ESRI Land Cover and Global Watershed for all the necessary data required for this research. Author Contributions Madhuben Sharma: Writing – review & editing, Ajay Rautela: Visualization, Conceptualization, Supervision, Investigation, Validation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis. Sameeksha Rawat: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis. Ranjit Gurav : Writing – review & editing. Funding There was no funding was obtained for this study. Data Availability Statement All the relevant secondary water quality data are available from an online source of UKPCB Website https://ueppcb.uk.gov.in/pages/display/96-water-quality-data (Accessed on: 3 June 2024). Ethical Approval The manuscript is conducted in the ethical manner advised by the journal. Consent to Participate All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Consent to Publish The research is scientifically consented to be published . Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. References Aithani D, Kushawaha J, Sreerama Naik SR (2021) Water Quality of Himalayan Rivers in Uttarakhand. In: Water, Cryosphere, and Climate Change in the Himalayas: A Geospatial Approach. Springer International Publishing, pp 247–258 Akhtar N, Ishak MIS, Ahmad MI, et al (2021) Modification of the water quality index (Wqi) process for simple calculation using the multi-criteria decision-making (mcdm) method: A review. Water (Switzerland) 13(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/w13070905 Bhutiani R, Khanna DR, Kulkarni DB, Ruhela M (2016) Assessment of Ganga River ecosystem at Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India with reference to water quality indices. Appl Water Sci 6:107–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0206-6 BIS (2012) Drinking Water specifications IS: 10500:2012. New Delhi Bodrud-Doza Md, Bhuiyan MAH, Islam SMD-U, et al (2019) Hydrogeochemical investigation of groundwater in Dhaka City of Bangladesh using GIS and multivariate statistical techniques. Groundw Sustain Dev 8:226–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2018.11.008 Bora M, Goswami DC (2017) Water quality assessment in terms of water quality index (WQI): case study of the Kolong River, Assam, India. Appl Water Sci 7:3125–3135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0451-y Brown RM, Deininger RA, O’connor MF (1972) A WATER QUALITY INDEX-CRASHING THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIER Chatterjee C, Raziuddin M (2002) Determination of Water Quality Index (WQI) of a degraded river in Asansol industrial area (West Bengal). Nature, Environment and pollution technology 1:181–189 Das TK, Ahmed S, Hossen A, et al (2022) Multivariate statistics and hydrogeochemistry of deep groundwater at southwestern part of Bangladesh. Heliyon 8(10). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11206 El Ghandour MFM, Khalil JB, Atta SA (1983) Distribution of sodium and potassium in the groundwater of the Nile Delta region (Egypt). Catena (Amst) 10:175–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(83)80015-0 ESRI (2021) Global land use/land cover with Sentinel-2. In: ESRI Land Cover. https://livingatlas.arcgis.com/landcover/. Accessed 30 May 2024 Fentaw G, Beneberu G, Wondie A, Getnet B (2024) Physical and chemical features of hydro-geologically connected wetlands in the Abbay River basin, Ethiopia. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators 22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2024.100387 Gyimah RAA, Gyamfi C, Anornu GK, et al (2020) Multivariate statistical analysis of water quality of the Densu River, Ghana. International Journal of River Basin Management 19:189–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2020.1803337 Heberger Matthew (2022) Global Watersheds. https://mghydro.com/watersheds. Accessed 15 Jul 2024 Heizer WD, Sandler RS, Seal E, et al (1997) Intestinal Effects of Sulfate in Drinking Water on Normal Human Subjects. Dig Dis Sci 42:1055–1061. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018801522760 Huang J, Zhan J, Yan H, et al (2013) Evaluation of the Impacts of Land Use on Water Quality: A Case Study in The Chaohu Lake Basin. The Scientific World Journal 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/329187 ICMR (1975) Manual of standards of quality for drinking water supplies. New Delhi Iwar RT, Utsev JT, Hassan M (2021) Assessment of heavy metal and physico-chemical pollution loadings of River Benue water at Makurdi using water quality index (WQI) and multivariate statistics. Appl Water Sci 11(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01456-8 Jain N, Yevatikar R, Raxamwar TS (2022) Comparative study of physico-chemical parameters and water quality index of river. Mater Today Proc 60:859–867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.508 Khan MYA, Gani KM, Chakrapani GJ (2016) Assessment of surface water quality and its spatial variation. A case study of Ramganga River, Ganga Basin, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 9:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2134-7 Knobeloch L, Salna B, Hogan A, et al (2000) Blue babies and nitrate-contaminated well water. Environ Health Perspect 108:675–678. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.00108675 Krishna Kumar S, Chandrasekar N, Seralathan P, et al (2012) Hydrogeochemical study of shallow carbonate aquifers, Rameswaram Island, India. Environ Monit Assess 184:4127–4138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2249-6 Lahon D, Sahariah D (2022) Physico-chemical Properties of Water and Its Impactson the Species Diversity of Aquatic Plants at Disangmukh Wetland of Assam, India. Ecology, Environment and Conservation 203–207. https://doi.org/10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i01.026 Macwan E, Patel RL (2018) Drinking water quality index. Int J Latest Technol Eng Manag Appl Sci 7:25–28 Magadum A, Patel T, Gavali D (2017) Assessment of Physicochemical parameters and Water Quality Index of Vishwamitri River, Gujarat, India. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology 2:1505–1510. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/2.4.8 Mansour H, Marie Dikdim Dangwang J, Maoudombaye T, et al (2024) Changes in the Physico-Chemical Properties as Pollution Indicators in the Chari River Water Samples Along the Banda Township at Sarh-Chad. American Journal of Water Resources 12:62–70. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajwr-12-2-4 Matrood MJ, Hussein HM (2021) Groundwater Assessment of Spring Water Using (GIS) Arc map 10.8 in Al-Shanafiyah District, AL-Qadisiyah Governorate, Southern Iraq. J Phys Conf Ser 1999:012023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1999/1/012023 Matta G, Nayak A, Kumar A, Kumar P (2020) Water quality assessment using NSFWQI, OIP and multivariate techniques of Ganga River system, Uttarakhand, India. Appl Water Sci 10:206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-01288-y Maurya PK, Ali SA, Alharbi RS, et al (2021) Impacts of Land Use Change on Water Quality Index in the Upper Ganges River near Haridwar, Uttarakhand: A GIS-Based Analysis. Water (Basel) 13:3572. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243572 McCarty MF (2004) Should we restrict chloride rather than sodium? Med Hypotheses 63:138–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2003.11.005 Mello K de, Valente RA, Randhir TO, et al (2018) Effects of land use and land cover on water quality of low-order streams in Southeastern Brazil: Watershed versus riparian zone. Catena (Amst) 167:130–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.04.027 Mishra AP, Khali H, Singh S, et al (2021) An Assessment of In-situ Water Quality Parameters and its variation with Landsat 8 Level 1 Surface Reflectance datasets. Int J Environ Anal Chem 0:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2021.1954175 Mishra AP, Singh S, Jani M, et al (2024) Assessment of water quality index using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and GIS: a case study of a struggling Asan River. Int J Environ Anal Chem 104:1159–1171. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2032015 Nihalani S, Meeruty A (2021) Water quality index evaluation for major rivers in Gujarat. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 28:63523–63531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10509-5 Pal P (2014) Detection of Coliforms in Drinking Water and its Effect on Human Health - A Review. International Letters of Natural Sciences 17:122–131. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILNS.17.122 Purushothaman P, Mishra S, Das A, Chakrapani G (2012) Sediment and hydro biogeochemistry of Lake Nainital, Kumaun Himalaya, India. Environ Earth Sci 65:775–788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1123-8 Rautela KS, Kumar D, Khati BS, et al (2023) Multivariate statistical analysis to assess the surface water quality of a snow and glacier-fed river: A case from Alaknanda River basin. Water Science and Technology 88:2873–2888. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.349 Ruhakana A (2012) SPATIO-TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF WATER QUALITY AND ITS RESPONSE ON GROWTH OF IRRIGATED RICE IN RUSURIRWAMUJYINGA SUB-CATCHMENT, RWANDA Sarkar A, Majumder M (2021) Application of AHP-based water quality index for quality monitoring of peri-urban watershed. Environ Dev Sustain 23:1780–11798 Seth R, Mohan M, Singh P, et al (2015) Assessment of Seasonal Variations in Surface Water Quality of Bageshwar District, Uttarakhand, India for Drinking and Irrigation Purposes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section A: Physical Sciences 85:283–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40010-014-0195-8 Seth R, Mohan M, Singh P, et al (2016) Water quality evaluation of Himalayan Rivers of Kumaun region, Uttarakhand, India. Appl Water Sci 6:137–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0213-7 Shah KA, Joshi GS (2017) Evaluation of water quality index for River Sabarmati, Gujarat, India. Appl Water Sci 7:1349–1358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0318-7 Singh Negi P, Singh R, Mishra AP (2022) An Assessment of Water Quality of Nainital Springs, Uttarakhand, India Singh S, Hussian A (2016) Water quality index development for groundwater quality assessment of Greater Noida sub-basin, Uttar Pradesh, India. Cogent Eng 3:1177155. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2016.1177155 Sinha K, Dwivedi J, Singh P, Shankar Prasad Sinha V (2022) Spatio-temporal dynamics of water quality in river sources of drinking water in Uttarakhand with reference to human health. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29:64756–64774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20302-1 Sood A, Singh KD, Pandey P, Sharma S (2008) Assessment of bacterial indicators and physicochemical parameters to investigate pollution status of Gangetic River system of Uttarakhand (India). Ecol Indic 8:709–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2008.01.001 Subramani V, Saxena KK (1983) Hydrogeochemistry of groundwater in the Delhi region of India Relation of Groundwater Quantity and Quality. Proceedings of the Hamburg Symposium, IAHS Publication 146:1983 Sundar M.L., Saseetharan M.K. (2008) Ground water quality in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu along Noyyal River. J Environ Sci Eng 50:187–190 Thakur D, Sharma A, Goel P, et al (2023) Groundwater quality assessment in the alluvial region of upper yamuna basin, India. Groundw Sustain Dev 22:100969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2023.100969 Thakur N, Rishi M, Sharma DA, Keesari T (2018) Quality of water resources in Kullu Valley in Himachal Himalayas, India: perspective and prognosis. Appl Water Sci 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0668-z Thapa A (2022) Physico-Chemical Water Quality Parameters and Aquatic Plant Diversity of Dipang Lake, Pokhara, Nepal. Doctoral dissertation, Amrit Campus Tu J (2011) Spatially varying relationships between land use and water quality across an urbanization gradient explored by geographically weighted regression. Applied Geography 31:376–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.08.001 UKPCB (2023) Surface Water Monitoring Data. Dehradun UKPCB (2022) Surface Water Monitoring Analysis Data. Dehradun USGS (2014) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, Digital Elevation Model Data. In: U. S. Geological Survey data release. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7PR7TFT. Accessed 7 Jun 2024 Verma N, Singh G, Ahsan N (2023) Water quality management by enhancing assimilation capacity with flow augmentation: a case study for the Yamuna River, Delhi. Water Science and Technology 88:1821–1832. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.302 Wavde PN, Arjun B (2010) Groundwater quality assessment at Malegaon region of Nanded in Maharashtra (India). J Environ Sci Eng 52:57–60 Whitehead PG, Wilby RL, Battarbee RW, et al (2009) A review of the potential impacts of climate change on surface water quality. Hydrological Sciences Journal 54:101–123 WHO (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Geneva, Switzerland WHO (2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneve 27, Switzerland Wu J, Zhang Y, Zhou H (2020) Groundwater chemistry and groundwater quality index incorporating health risk weighting in Dingbian County, Ordos basin of northwest China. Chemie der Erde 80(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2020.125607 Yadav KK, Gupta N, Kumar V, et al (2018) GIS-based evaluation of groundwater geochemistry and statistical determination of the fate of contaminants in shallow aquifers from different functional areas of Agra city, India: Levels and spatial distributions. RSC Adv 8:15876–15889. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra00577j Yao S, Chen C, He M, et al (2023) Land use as an important indicator for water quality prediction in a region under rapid urbanization. Ecol Indic 146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109768 Zafar MM, Kumari A (2024) Spatio-temporal evaluation of the impact of anthropogenic stressors on physico-chemical characteristics and water quality of the River Ganga using GIS-based approach in the middle Gangetic Plains at Patna, Bihar, India. Water Science and Technology 89:1382–1400. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2024.053 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4890306","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":342485274,"identity":"d3fe3ef7-1da1-473f-a4a0-b74f5c2e6920","order_by":0,"name":"Madhuben Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Petroleum and Energy Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Madhuben","middleName":"","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""},{"id":342485275,"identity":"2920b1f8-ae44-45e9-9216-eb0f76310c78","order_by":1,"name":"Ajay Rautela","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Petroleum and Energy Studies","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ajay","middleName":"","lastName":"Rautela","suffix":""},{"id":342485276,"identity":"10a99720-40c7-463d-95a8-548386265195","order_by":2,"name":"Sameeksha Rawat","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Petroleum and Energy Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sameeksha","middleName":"","lastName":"Rawat","suffix":""},{"id":342485277,"identity":"b8402407-a001-4850-9a5c-c2c15a04d111","order_by":3,"name":"Ranjit Gurav","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Petroleum and Energy Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ranjit","middleName":"","lastName":"Gurav","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-10 06:38:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":66096649,"identity":"4f7087bb-8c53-48f2-b716-6d6fdcf1a75b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-07 16:04:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":136751,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area map of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4890306/v1/0b8c0816b01ee1ba127882b5.jpg"},{"id":66096650,"identity":"467901d6-ab6d-49d9-af1f-95cc3afb6bac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-07 16:04:55","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhysico-chemical parameters seasonal fluctuation trend at Saryu River, India during 2022-2023: (a) pH, (b) DO, (c) TDS, (d) TH, (e) TA, (f) EC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4890306/v1/7bdbc2abfdb2227467ee8af1.jpg"},{"id":66096418,"identity":"9495cdf0-5ac5-4118-a44b-ac23bfac9ac3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-07 15:56:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67979,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhysico-chemical parameters seasonal fluctuation trend at Saryu River, India during 2022-2023: (a) SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, (b) Cl, (c) F, (d)NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-N, (e) Ca, (f) Mg.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4890306/v1/5c64cff62b6e55ed1d37bfb1.jpg"},{"id":66096423,"identity":"12f38748-218f-4db5-bf3f-1bf92e221d70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-07 15:56:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66959,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhysico-chemical parameters seasonal fluctuation trend at Saryu River, India during 2022-2023: (a) Na, (b) K, (c) COD, (d) BOD, (e) FC, (f) TC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4890306/v1/03f63562bfff1b86d1c9e7bd.jpg"},{"id":66096420,"identity":"c3c1b11e-c11d-4b56-9125-33ccc59ed162","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-07 15:56:54","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44719,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe seasonal variation of WQI during 2022-2023 at Saryu River, India.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4890306/v1/39253720be80fd8e8879f11d.jpg"},{"id":66096651,"identity":"70609832-7c15-47e5-b129-06d8c7fc1bb0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-07 16:04:55","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69074,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe map showing variation on the LULC classes during 2022-2023 at 500-meter buffer zone of Saryu River, India.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4890306/v1/698c961d19185a9a4876e2db.jpg"},{"id":66098168,"identity":"56c56b54-7259-461b-8a6a-80ff8740de63","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-07 16:20:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1223128,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4890306/v1/8e707cb0-6f7a-4857-b7ec-de7b0a65230a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRiver water is a key element of freshwater resources, providing a vital role in preserving ecological equilibrium, promoting agricultural activities, and sustaining human beings. The essential prerequisites for fostering economic growth and maintaining environmental well-being are the purity and accessibility of river water. Hence, it is important to take control and prevention measures to address river pollution while also collecting accurate data for evaluation and administration. Water quality fluctuations mostly result from human interference and environmental phenomena within the watershed region (Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Gyimah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Magadum et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and Nihalani and Meeruty (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) have shown in multiple studies that industrial and urban wastewater, along with agricultural runoff, have heavily contaminated Indian rivers. The significant pollution levels have reduced several freshwater rivers to mere conduits for wastewater. Thus, these contaminated rivers provide substantial health hazards to the lot of persons who depend on them for clean water (Whitehead et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Rautela et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Human activities have had a profound influence on river systems, resulting in a significant decrease in the quality of water, a drop in accessibility of water, and a limited ability to sustain aquatic life. Non-natural causes such as rapid development, growing tourism, changing land use designs, and garbage discarding accelerate the decline of river water quality condition in the Himalayan region (Thakur et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUttarakhand, a state in the Indian Himalayas, includes the Kumaon and Garhwal divisions. The rivers in the Kumaon area, including Saryu, Kosi, Ramganga, and others, come from the Himalayan range and flow across different terrains, providing water to fertile plains and supporting diverse forests. The Saryu River has a critical role as a water supply for the local people. It serves as a lifeline for drinking water, agriculture, and hydroelectric power generation, while also sustaining a diverse variety of flora and fauna species. The Saryu River, India is significant not only in terms of its physical existence, but also in terms of its profound impact on the cultural and spiritual aspects of the Kumaon people. The pollution, uncontrolled exploitation, and the consequences of climate change pose substantial challenges to the Saryu River. Industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and untreated urban sewage introduce a variety of pollutants, including pesticides, heavy metals, and pathogenic microbes, contaminating the river. These contaminants deteriorate water quality, disturb aquatic ecosystem balance, and pose health risks to human populations who depend on the river for drinking water and other purposes. Deforestation and uncontrolled development worsen the decline in water quality by causing soil erosion and sedimentation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kumaon region, known for its distinct geographical and cultural characteristics, is especially susceptible to these environmental difficulties. The status of the Saryu River serves as an indicator of the overall environmental state, including both natural phenomena and human actions in the surrounding region. Evaluating the quality condition of the Saryu River water is crucial to comprehending the magnitude of pollution and its consequences for nearby ecosystems and populations. Multiple studies have conducted assessments of water quality in different streams in Uttarakhand, as reported by (Bhutiani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Matta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Maurya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sinha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Thakur et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Zafar and Kumari \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, an extensive review of the current literature reveals that only a few numbers of studies (Seth et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Aithani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) have focused on the quality condition of the Saryu River water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe goal of this study is to evaluate the current quality condition of the Saryu River water in the Kumaon Himalaya region. The aims of this study are: (1) to examine the physical and chemical characteristics of the water in the Saryu River and assess how they change throughout the seasons; (2) to determine the Water Quality Index (WQI) and establish the water quality rating (WQR); and (3) to evaluate the land use/land cover (LULC) within the 500-metre buffer zone of the Saryu River. People often use the WQI as a universal instrument to measure water quality and conclude its appropriateness for specific purposes (Macwan and Patel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This extensive investigation seeks to deliver valuable insights into the environmental well-being of the Saryu River, with the goal of preserving this essential waterbody.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has been carried out on the Saryu River, also known as Sarju in the local Kumaoni language. This river is the largest branch of the Sharda River (downstream of the Mahakali River) and originate from Saryu Udgam near Sarmool. It flows from the western to the eastern Kumaon Himalaya, falling within the Ganga basin and Ghaghara sub-basin. Before joining the Sharda River at Pancheshwar, which is located at the India-Nepal border, the Saryu River passes through the cities of Kapkot, Bageshwar, and Seraghat. The Saryu River (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) segment of this study is located in the Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand, India. The length of river is 58.3 kilometres with a 1200 square kilometres area of the watershed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData sources and preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe secondary water quality data for the monsoon (Ms) and post-monsoon (PMs) seasons of 2022 and 2023 were collected by the Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board(UKPCB \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and utilised to examine the seasonal fluctuation trends in quality condition of water and the Water Quality Index (WQI) of the Saryu River. We analysis the physico-chemical study at the \"River Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar\" site. The collected water quality data were analysed according to the criteria established by the World Health Organization (WHO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e), to calculate the WQI. For the creation of the 2022 and 2023 LULC maps, Sentinel-2 satellite data with a 10-meter resolution was obtained from the Esri Land Cover website (ESRI \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, a Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a 30-meter resolution was acquired from the United States Geological Survey(USGS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) Earth Explorer and the watershed shapefile was taken from Global Watershed(Heberger \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) web application for the preparation of the study area map by using ArcGIS 10.8 software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCalculation of WQI\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe WQI is a measurement technique that consolidates several water quality physico-chemical parameters into one solo unique value, facilitating water quality interpretation and comparison (Akhtar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). We calculated the WQI in this study using the \u0026ldquo;weighted arithmetic index\u0026rdquo; method (Brown et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; Sarkar and Majumder \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). We calculated the WQI of the Saryu River for two years (2022 and 2023) by analysing sixteen physico-chemical parameters. Each of these parameters significantly contributes to the determination of the WQI, a crucial tool for assessing various water quality parameters. These parameters include pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolve solid (TDS), total hardness (TH), total alkalinity (TH), electric conductivity (EC), sulphate (SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e), chloride (Cl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e), fluoride (F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e), Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003eN), calcium (Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), magnesium (Mg\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), sodium (Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), potassium (K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The WQI was calculated using the following mathematical equations:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following formula is used for obtaining the individual unit weight (Wi):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{\\text{w}}_{\\text{i}}=\\frac{\\text{K}}{{\\text{S}}_{\\text{v}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe standard allowable value (Sv) for the n\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e water quality parameter is determined by the WHO, BIS, and ICMR. The provided equation is used to calculate the K (proportionality constant).\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{K}=\\frac{1}{\\sum\\:\\left(\\frac{1}{{\\text{S}}_{\\text{v}}}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe below equation is utilised to determine the sub-quality index (Qi):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{\\text{Q}}_{\\text{i}}=\\left[\\frac{\\left({\\text{F}}_{\\text{v}}-{\\text{I}}_{\\text{v}}\\right)}{\\left({\\text{s}}_{\\text{v}}-{\\text{v}}_{\\text{i}}\\right)}\\right]\\times\\:100$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere Iv is the ideal parameter value and Fn is the actual measured value of the nth parameter present [for all parameters, Iv\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0, with the exception of pH (Iv\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) and DO (Iv\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.6 mg/L)].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHence, the WQI is:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{W}\\text{Q}\\text{I}=\\frac{{\\Sigma\\:}{\\text{Q}}_{\\text{i}}*{\\text{w}}_{\\text{i}}}{{\\Sigma\\:}{\\text{w}}_{\\text{i}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e classification of the WQI, the WQR for the Saryu River, India was established.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard rating \u0026amp; grading of water quality as per WQI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(modified from Brown et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; Chatterjee \u0026amp; Raziuddin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWQI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWQR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrading\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcellent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery Poor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnsuitable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Result and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalysis of physico-chemical parameters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe pH, which represents the levels of hydrogen ions (H\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), is a crucial factor in evaluating quality condition of water. It has a vital role in identifying the solubility and accessibility of nutrients (Lahon and Sahariah \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Water's pH, which typically ranges from 0 to 14, measures its acidity or alkalinity. The pH values recorded in the Ms and PMs seasons of 2022 were higher than those of 2023. Moreover, the pH values during the Ms season were consistently greater than those during the PMs season in both years (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(a)). In relation to the research, the water is moderately alkaline (pH\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;7) throughout the year. The elevated concentration of bicarbonate ions may correlate with the river's alkalinity (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Increased pH levels in water are often linked to a rise in photosynthetic activities (Thapa \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Fentaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This may have an influence on corrosion, mucosal membranes, aquatic life, and the taste of water (Rautela et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The pH measurements of the Saryu River throughout the years 2022 and 2023 fall within the allowable limit of 6.5\u0026ndash;8.5, as specified by the BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe DO concentration in water reflects the total amount of oxygen available to support aquatic life and is influenced by both physical and biological activities in the water. Oxygen is introduced into the water via the process of aerial dispersion and as a result of photosynthetic action (Fentaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Jain et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) have stressed that a decrease in DO is a common consequence of imbalances in aquatic life in water. The highest DO values recorded were 9 mg/L in the Ms and 9.4 mg/L in the PMs season of 2022. The measured levels of the 2023 season were less than 2022 values, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(b). An excessive amount of decomposing organic matter causes water pollution, as indicated by the DO readings. The decline is influenced by seasonal fluctuations and location-specific factors, such as water temperature (Wavde and Arjun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated water temperature reduces oxygen's ability to dissolve, affecting the metabolic processes, reproductive capabilities, and growth rates of bacteria that break down organic substances. Elevated temperatures intensify biological processes and accelerate the decomposition rate of organic substance, leading to an increased need for oxygen in water (Shah and Joshi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Throughout the whole two-year period, the DO levels were constantly above the allowable threshold of 5 mg/L, as set by ICMR. When DO levels drop beneath 2 mg/L, the most of fish experience mortality (Fentaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Elevating the DO levels may enhance the visual appeal of drinking water, resulting in a more pleasing aesthetic experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TDS levels are a quantitative measure of all dissolved particles in a water sample, including organic and inorganic components. The residue left behind after evaporating the filtered sample calculates TDS (Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The TDS concentrations during the Ms season in 2023 were measured at 156 mg/L, while during the PMs season they were measured at 174 mg/L. These values were higher than the TDS concentration in 2022, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(c). As stated by Negi et al. (2022), a greater level of TDS in water is likely to result in an alkaline pH. The TDS amount was beneath the allowable range of 500 mg/L, as specified by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). It is important to emphasise that higher levels of TDS may have a substantial influence on many qualities of water, such as hardness, taste, and corrosion. As a result, this reduces the appropriateness of water for agriculture watering and drinking purposes (Seth et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key contributing factor to water hardness is the presence of multivalent anions and cations, particularly Ca and Mg (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Water hardness is a characteristic that allows us to determine soap's ability to lather. Hard water does not promote the formation of a satisfactory lather with soap, making it unsuitable for industrial use due to its tendency to cause significant boiler issues. The combined levels of Mg and Ca ions in water determines the TH. The highest values recorded were 220 mg/L in the Ms season of 2023 and 226 mg/L in the PMs season of 2022, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The TH levels in 2022 and 2023 are continuously overhead the allowable range of 200 mg/L specified by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) for all seasons except the Ms season (192 mg/L) in 2022 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(d)). Several factors, including the breakdown of rocks containing calcium carbonate, elevated temperatures, and the presence of magnesium and calcium salts from both natural and anthropogenic sources, influence the TH (Ruhakana \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlkalinity refers to the combined number of substances in water that increase the pH towards the alkaline side of neutrality. It also indicates the water's ability to tolerate fluctuations in pH, known as buffering capacity. The concentration of ions capable of neutralizing hydrogen ions determines the TA of water. The presence of weak acids and corresponding conjugate bases determines a solution's buffering capacity (Jain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Ca, Mg, bicarbonates, sodium carbonates, and hydroxides, often derived from salts, sediments, or dissolved rocks, influence (Kumar et al., 2012; Rautela et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In both 2022 and 2023, the maximum recorded value of TA during the Ms season was 162 mg/L. However, 2023 saw the highest value of TA during the PMs season, reaching 178 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(e)). Elevated alkalinity concentration in water may result in a disagreeable flavour and, more significantly, pose a risk to irrigation. According to Sundar \u0026amp; Saseetharan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), it has the capacity to degrade soil quality and greatly diminish agricultural production. Throughout both years, the alkalinity level constantly remained within the permissible range of 200 mg/L, as specified by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEC is a numerical representation of water's capacity to transmit an electric current. The level of dissolved minerals in water is directly proportional to its EC (Bora and Goswami \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Jain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). As the concentration of ions increases, the EC value also rises. The EC acts as a valuable tool for assessing water quality. The EC values in 2023 were greater than in 2022, measuring at 240 \u0026micro;S/cm during the Ms season and 260 \u0026micro;S/cm during the PMs season. The EC values, measured in 2022 and 2023 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(f)), continuously remained below the ICMR specifications of 300 \u0026micro;S/cm, demonstrating that the water is pure and free from pollution. In both years, the EC is lower in the Ms season relative to the PMs season. This may be due to the higher river volume and lower temperature during the Ms, which is not favourable to the occurrence of species that might modify or enhance water conductivity (Iwar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The existence of pesticides, fertilisers, and biological waste from residential and industrial sources is known to result in higher levels of ionic concentrations, which in turn leads to a rise in conductivity (Fentaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe anionic dominance pattern observed in both seasons 2022 and 2023 was as follows: SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026gt; Cl\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026gt; F\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026gt; NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003eN. The SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e anion is the predominant species present in water and is an organic compound mostly formed from gypsum and other commonly occurring minerals. In 2022, the Ms and PMs seasons reported the highest concentrations of SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), with levels of 61.26 mg/L and 58.16 mg/L, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(a)). Over the years, the levels of SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e at both locations remained consistently below the allowable threshold of 200 mg/L, as specified by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The higher concentration levels of SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e in the intake water have the potential to induce gastrointestinal issues in those who are in a healthy state (Heizer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). The investigation found raised levels of SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e concentrations in the water, suggesting the presence of rocks rich in sulphate, such as gypsum, in the riverbed (Das et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Cl\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e ion is the second most abundant anion species and plays a critical role in evaluating water quality. It occurs naturally in several forms, such as potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), and calcium chloride (CaCl2). This chemical's origins include leaching from rocks via weathering mechanisms, dissolution of salt deposits, intrusion of seawater, surface runoff from fields using inorganic fertilizers, irrigation discharge, and animal feed (Seth et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated levels of Cl\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e ions in water lead to salinity, laxative properties, and potential health concerns such as hypertension, osteoporosis, nephrolithiasis, and asthma (McCarty \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Das et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e reveals that the Ms (23 mg/L) and PMs (24 mg/L) seasons of 2023 witnessed the highest concentrations of Cl\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(b)). Throughout a span of more than two years, including both seasons, the concentration of Cl\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e remained constantly below the allowable range of 250 mg/L, as determined by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater quality parameters of Saryu River during 2022 \u0026amp; 2023 at D/S near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar, India (modified table using UPCB 2022, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"19\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c19\" colnum=\"19\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"19\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeason\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003epH\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDO (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTDS (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTH (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTA (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEC (\u0026micro;s/cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003e(mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCl (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e-N (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCa (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMg (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNa (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eK (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCOD (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBOD (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFC (MPN/100ml)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTC (MPN/100ml)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonsoon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e192\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-Monsoon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e226\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"19\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeason\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003epH\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDO (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTDS (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTH (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTA (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEC (\u0026micro;s/cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003e(mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCl (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e-N (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCa (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMg (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNa (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eK (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCOD (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBOD (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFC (MPN/100ml)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTC (MPN/100ml)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonsoon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-Monsoon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe levels of F\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e and NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003eN are insignificant across the study region. The Ms season in 2023 (0.29 mg/L) and the PMs season in 2022 (0.33 mg/L) recorded the greatest concentrations of F\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(c)). In both years, the levels of F\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e consistently stayed beneath the BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) allowable limit of 1 mg/L, indicating that residential use of the water poses no immediate risk of bone and tooth fluorosis. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that an overabundance of F might lead to the growth of skeletal and dental fluorosis (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The elevated levels of NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003eN concentration in water indicate human-caused pollution resulting from fertilizer use. The surrounding areas, which employ intensive agricultural practices for growing various crops like vegetables and cereals, are the origin of this pollution. Meanwhile, contamination may also arise from using wastewater for irrigation. According to Wu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and Fentaw et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), the usage of wastewater for irrigation may also lead to contamination. Nitrogen occurs naturally in the environment and plays a crucial role as a vital nutrient for plants. However, the high quantity of NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003eN in drinking water poses a significant health risk (Singh and Hussian \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The highest NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003eN concentrations were observed during the Ms season in 2023 (0.11 mg/L) and during the PMs season in 2022 (0.16 mg/L), as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(d), and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The seasonal concentrations of NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003eN at both years constantly remained below the allowable range of 10 mg/L, specified by WHO, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), thereby verifying the safety of the water for consumption. An excessive quantity of NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e may result in methemoglobinemia, sometimes referred to as \u0026ldquo;blue baby\u0026rdquo; syndrome, in bottle-fed neonates (Knobeloch et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, the volumetric levels of the analysed cation followed the sequence of Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026gt; Mg\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026gt; Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026gt; K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e. Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e is often found in natural water resources, mostly because of the decomposition of minerals containing high levels of calcium, such as calcite, gypsum, and dolomite found in riverbeds, as well as the conversion of organic materials by bacteria (Seth et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Matrood and Hussein \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The Ms season of 2023 (116 mg/L) and the PMs season of 2022 (124 mg/L) recorded the highest Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e concentrations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(3)). For a period of more than two years, the levels of Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e constantly surpassed the allowable range of 75 mg/L specified by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In all seasons, the amount of Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e was always higher than the amount of Mg\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, this implies that the sedimentary basins include a large number of calcium-rich mineral/rocks, such as limestone, feldspar, calcite, and dolomite (Yadav et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Mg\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e is a frequently occurring element in natural water, often found in conjunction with Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e. However, its concentration is frequently lower than that of Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e. The concentrations of Mg\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) were higher throughout the Ms period of 2023 (104 mg/L) and the PMs season of 2022 (102 mg/L). In fact, they continually exceed the allowable range of 30 mg/L established by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), which raises substantial worry about water quality in both 2022 and 2023 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(f)). The presence of calcite and dolomite-rich calcareous rocks, such as limestone, is a significant contributor to the raised levels of Mg in the water (Purushothaman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Other potential sources include industrial waste, home trash, and animal waste (Bodrud-Doza et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e is a commonly found alkali element in natural water. The significant quantities of Na\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;are added to water bodies by sea spray, deposits of minerals, and human waste (Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e ions exhibit a conservative behaviour by readily forming bonds with clay minerals via an ion exchange mechanism (Subramani and Saxena \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). We observed the highest concentrations of Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) during the Ms season in 2023 (6.6 mg/L) and PMs season in 2022 (10.8 mg/L), as given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(a). In both years, the Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e levels continued beneath the acceptable range of 200 mg/L specified by the WHO, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e is an important macronutrient for freshwater organisms because it plays a critical role in several metabolic processes (Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In 2022, research measured the highest levels of K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e at 3 mg/L in the Ms season and 3.7 mg/L in the PMs season (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). These levels were higher than those found in 2023 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(b)). Both years found that K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e levels were below the WHO's permissible range of 12 mg/L (WHO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). El Ghandour et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e) stated that the salinity of water directly influences the volumetric levels of Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e and K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e. In this research area, K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e was the fourth most prevalent positively charged ion species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe COD quantifies the quantity of oxygen needed for the chemical oxidation of organic molecules in water, namely chlorides (Jain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mansour et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The Ms season in 2023 had the greatest concentration of COD at 6 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), as did the PMs season in the same year (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(c)). However, these levels continued beneath the maximum permitted range of 10 mg/L established by the WHO, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The studies directly linked raised levels of COD to increased human activity in aquatic environments. Microorganisms use BOD as an experimental method to measure the quantity of dissolved oxygen they consume during the biological breakdown of organic substances in water. The industrial regions commonly observe higher COD values than BOD values (Jain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The Ms season in 2023 saw the highest BOD values, reaching 2 mg/L. In the PMs period, 2022 recorded the highest BOD value, measuring 1.8 mg/L (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(d)). The BOD values throughout 2022 and 2023 were consistently less than the allowable range of 5 mg/L set by ICMR. The increased BOD values suggest the presence of significant sources of organic pollution near the test sites (Bora and Goswami \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Verma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). While BOD evaluates the amount of pollution that living organisms can decompose, COD considers both biodegradable and non-biodegradable contaminants (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eColiform bacteria in water serve as an indicator of human or animal faecal waste, which may lead to waterborne illnesses such as hepatitis, typhoid, and diarrhea (Sood et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The Ms season (94 MPN/100 mL) and the period after the Ms (84 MPN/100 mL) in 2022 recorded the highest concentrations of faecal coliform (FC) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(e)). We found the highest concentrations of total coliform (TC) in the Ms of 2022 (150 MPN/100 mL) and in the PMs of 2022 (170 MPN/100 mL) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(f)). While the presence of TC bacteria in water does not consistently signify problems with quality of water, it can increase worries about potential pathogen contamination of the water source (Pal \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). According to the BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) criteria, a 100-mL water sample should not include detectable levels of both TC and FC. The data analysis reveals the contamination of river water with FC and TC in both the 2022 and 2023 seasons. High concentrations of coliform bacteria suggest contamination from a dirty source, inadequate treatment methods, post-treatment issues, or incorrect handling and disposal of solid waste.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWQI analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used the \u0026ldquo;weighted arithmetic water quality index\u0026rdquo; technique to compute the WQI at the Saryu River during the Ms and PMs periods of 2022 and 2023. We use the standard values (Sv) and individual unit weight (Wi) values for each parameter (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) to calculate the WQI. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e displays the WQI and WQR of the Saryu River in both the Ms and PMs seasons of 2022 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividual Unit weights (Wi) of the parameters used for WQI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNodal Agency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard (Sv)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit Weight (Wi)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.533\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBIS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBOD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣWn\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*All values are expressed in mg/L, except for pH and EC (\u0026micro;S/cm).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe depiction of WQI and WQR of Saryu River, India during 2022-23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonsoon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-Monsoon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWQI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWQR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWQI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWQR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eII\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2022, the WQI value rose from 32.10% during the Ms season to 42.10% during the PMs season. However, in 2023, the WQI declines from 40.5% during the Ms season to 38.3% during the PMs season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This research assessed the uniformity of WQR in the Saryu River across 2022 and 2023. We found the water quality to be good in both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, meeting the permitted limit requirements set by BIS and WHO.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLULC analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe LULC data provide essential information on the spatial distribution and changes in land use within the river basin, which significantly impact the quality of water (Yao et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This comprehensive approach not only improves our understanding of the existing state of the Saryu River, but also helps in formulating targeted strategies to safeguard and improve its water quality. The land cover of the Saryu River 500-metre buffer zone underwent changes during a span of one year, from 2022 to 2023, as seen in the processed map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). LULC may have a significant impact on river water quality by altering pollutant discharge and transit processes (Tu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This research classified the LULC into six distinct categories: waterbody, trees (forest vegetation), crop (agriculture), built area, barren ground (including barren and scrub areas), and rangeland (representing grassland). Sentinel-2 ESRI LULC data from 2022 and 2023 revealed significant changes in the regions classified as trees, crops, and built areas, while water, barren ground, and rangeland showed minor modifications. The proportion of land covered by trees in the Saryu River watershed grew from 47.26% in 2022 to 48.31% in 2023, making it the most prominent characteristic of the region. The recent expansion of forested areas may result in increased levels of rainfall, thereby contributing to the rise of water pollutants. The waterbody area experienced a decrease, from 3.56% in 2022 to 3.25% in 2023 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Climate may be responsible for this modest decrease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe LULC classes proportion change detection during 2022\u0026ndash;2023 at 500 metre buffer zone of Saryu River, India\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLULC Classes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChange (2022\u0026ndash;2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea (Km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea (Km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea (Km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrees\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;1.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilt Area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBare Ground\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRangeland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn between 2022 and 2023, the built area dropped from 7.43\u0026ndash;6.59%, while the crops increase from 2.09\u0026ndash;2.48%. The extensive use of insecticides and fertilisers in farming potentially chiefs to elevated pollution levels in the nearby water bodies, highlighting the influence of human interference on these alterations. Several types of constructed areas, such as industrial regions, residential areas, urban sewage management, and discharge locations, may influence the water quality forecast model (Mello et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Over this time frame, the amount of bare ground increased from 3.35\u0026ndash;4.04%, while the area of rangeland decreased from 36.31\u0026ndash;35.33%. Climate factors such as temperature, precipitation, and evaporation, along with environmental interactions and human activities, influence seasonal variations. The modifications in LULC have a crucial role in driving climate change, particularly in rapidly expanding urban areas. Land use change has an important effect on the physical and thermal attributes of the land surface, thereby affecting water quality. Therefore, the prolonged interaction between natural phenomena and human actions might have a substantial effect on the water quality of the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and Future perspective","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe research aimed to obtain the existing water quality condition of the Saryu River, India. The outcomes indicated that several physico-chemical parameters met the criteria established by BIS, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), ICMR, and WHO, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). However, in both seasons, the levels of TH, Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, and Mg\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e consistently exceeded the permissible boundaries across the years, except for the TH concentration during the 2022 Ms season, which was beneath the acceptable limit (192 mg/L). The ions are mostly released in water via the process of carbonate weathering. The elevated levels of TH, Ca\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, and Mg\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e were associated with the prevailing abundance of limestone, dolomite, calcite, and feldspar in the local geological formation. The WQI consistently indicated good water quality conditions between 2022 and 2023. The LULC maps illustrate annual variations in land use and land cover categories, highlighting the effect of both human interference and environmental factors. The water (-0.31%), built area (-0.84%) and rangeland (-0.98%) show negative change detection, whereas trees (+\u0026thinsp;1.88%), crops (+\u0026thinsp;0.39%) and bare ground (+\u0026thinsp;0.69%) show positive change detection from 2022 to 2023. The levels of FC and TC in the Saryu River exceeded the permissible limits, indicating bacterial contamination during both the Ms and PMs periods. In summary, the WQI study concluded that the Saryu River water is appropriate for consumption. However, the presence of FC and TC highlighted the need for improved hygienic facilities and processes to mitigate bacterial contamination in the river system. Effective management and regulatory procedures are essential for controlling the direct disposal of industrial and household trash into the river channel, with the aim of reducing pollution and maintaining water quality. Communities should strive to increase awareness and implement preventive measures to protect water from pollution. By implementing sustainable management strategies and rigorous data analytics, it is possible to mitigate the adverse impact of global climate change and urbanization on river ecosystems. This comprehensive approach will ensure the long-term preservation and restoration of river water quality for future generations. The present research aims to establish a correlation between the upcoming year's data on the quality of the Saryu River to identify patterns in the seasonal trends of water quality.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors are thankful to their organization (UPES) for the unconditional support and guidance during writing of the paper along with that authors extend their appreciation to UKPCB, USGC Earth Explorer, ESRI Land Cover and Global Watershed for all the necessary data required for this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions Madhuben Sharma:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing,\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ajay Rautela:\u003c/strong\u003e Visualization, Conceptualization, Supervision, Investigation, Validation, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Formal analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eSameeksha Rawat:\u003c/strong\u003e Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Formal analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eRanjit Gurav\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThere was no funding was obtained for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll the relevant secondary water quality data are available from an online source of UKPCB Website https://ueppcb.uk.gov.in/pages/display/96-water-quality-data (Accessed on: 3 June 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe manuscript is conducted in the ethical manner advised by the journal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe research is scientifically consented to be published\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAithani D, Kushawaha J, Sreerama Naik SR (2021) Water Quality of Himalayan Rivers in Uttarakhand. In: Water, Cryosphere, and Climate Change in the Himalayas: A Geospatial Approach. Springer International Publishing, pp 247\u0026ndash;258\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkhtar N, Ishak MIS, Ahmad MI, et al (2021) Modification of the water quality index (Wqi) process for simple calculation using the multi-criteria decision-making (mcdm) method: A review. Water (Switzerland) 13(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/w13070905\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBhutiani R, Khanna DR, Kulkarni DB, Ruhela M (2016) Assessment of Ganga River ecosystem at Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India with reference to water quality indices. Appl Water Sci 6:107\u0026ndash;113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0206-6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBIS (2012) Drinking Water specifications IS: 10500:2012. New Delhi\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBodrud-Doza Md, Bhuiyan MAH, Islam SMD-U, et al (2019) Hydrogeochemical investigation of groundwater in Dhaka City of Bangladesh using GIS and multivariate statistical techniques. Groundw Sustain Dev 8:226\u0026ndash;244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2018.11.008\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBora M, Goswami DC (2017) Water quality assessment in terms of water quality index (WQI): case study of the Kolong River, Assam, India. Appl Water Sci 7:3125\u0026ndash;3135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0451-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrown RM, Deininger RA, O\u0026rsquo;connor MF (1972) A WATER QUALITY INDEX-CRASHING THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIER\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChatterjee C, Raziuddin M (2002) Determination of Water Quality Index (WQI) of a degraded river in Asansol industrial area (West Bengal). Nature, Environment and pollution technology 1:181\u0026ndash;189\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDas TK, Ahmed S, Hossen A, et al (2022) Multivariate statistics and hydrogeochemistry of deep groundwater at southwestern part of Bangladesh. Heliyon 8(10). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11206\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEl Ghandour MFM, Khalil JB, Atta SA (1983) Distribution of sodium and potassium in the groundwater of the Nile Delta region (Egypt). Catena (Amst) 10:175\u0026ndash;187. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(83)80015-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eESRI (2021) Global land use/land cover with Sentinel-2. In: ESRI Land Cover. https://livingatlas.arcgis.com/landcover/. Accessed 30 May 2024\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFentaw G, Beneberu G, Wondie A, Getnet B (2024) Physical and chemical features of hydro-geologically connected wetlands in the Abbay River basin, Ethiopia. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators 22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2024.100387\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGyimah RAA, Gyamfi C, Anornu GK, et al (2020) Multivariate statistical analysis of water quality of the Densu River, Ghana. International Journal of River Basin Management 19:189\u0026ndash;199. https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2020.1803337\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHeberger Matthew (2022) Global Watersheds. https://mghydro.com/watersheds. Accessed 15 Jul 2024\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHeizer WD, Sandler RS, Seal E, et al (1997) Intestinal Effects of Sulfate in Drinking Water on Normal Human Subjects. Dig Dis Sci 42:1055\u0026ndash;1061. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018801522760\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuang J, Zhan J, Yan H, et al (2013) Evaluation of the Impacts of Land Use on Water Quality: A Case Study in The Chaohu Lake Basin. The Scientific World Journal 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/329187\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eICMR (1975) Manual of standards of quality for drinking water supplies. New Delhi\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIwar RT, Utsev JT, Hassan M (2021) Assessment of heavy metal and physico-chemical pollution loadings of River Benue water at Makurdi using water quality index (WQI) and multivariate statistics. Appl Water Sci 11(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01456-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJain N, Yevatikar R, Raxamwar TS (2022) Comparative study of physico-chemical parameters and water quality index of river. Mater Today Proc 60:859\u0026ndash;867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.508\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhan MYA, Gani KM, Chakrapani GJ (2016) Assessment of surface water quality and its spatial variation. A case study of Ramganga River, Ganga Basin, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 9:1\u0026ndash;9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2134-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKnobeloch L, Salna B, Hogan A, et al (2000) Blue babies and nitrate-contaminated well water. Environ Health Perspect 108:675\u0026ndash;678. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.00108675\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKrishna Kumar S, Chandrasekar N, Seralathan P, et al (2012) Hydrogeochemical study of shallow carbonate aquifers, Rameswaram Island, India. Environ Monit Assess 184:4127\u0026ndash;4138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2249-6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLahon D, Sahariah D (2022) Physico-chemical Properties of Water and Its Impactson the Species Diversity of Aquatic Plants at Disangmukh Wetland of Assam, India. Ecology, Environment and Conservation 203\u0026ndash;207. https://doi.org/10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i01.026\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMacwan E, Patel RL (2018) Drinking water quality index. Int J Latest Technol Eng Manag Appl Sci 7:25\u0026ndash;28\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMagadum A, Patel T, Gavali D (2017) Assessment of Physicochemical parameters and Water Quality Index of Vishwamitri River, Gujarat, India. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology 2:1505\u0026ndash;1510. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/2.4.8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMansour H, Marie Dikdim Dangwang J, Maoudombaye T, et al (2024) Changes in the Physico-Chemical Properties as Pollution Indicators in the Chari River Water Samples Along the Banda Township at Sarh-Chad. American Journal of Water Resources 12:62\u0026ndash;70. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajwr-12-2-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMatrood MJ, Hussein HM (2021) Groundwater Assessment of Spring Water Using (GIS) Arc map 10.8 in Al-Shanafiyah District, AL-Qadisiyah Governorate, Southern Iraq. J Phys Conf Ser 1999:012023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1999/1/012023\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMatta G, Nayak A, Kumar A, Kumar P (2020) Water quality assessment using NSFWQI, OIP and multivariate techniques of Ganga River system, Uttarakhand, India. Appl Water Sci 10:206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-01288-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaurya PK, Ali SA, Alharbi RS, et al (2021) Impacts of Land Use Change on Water Quality Index in the Upper Ganges River near Haridwar, Uttarakhand: A GIS-Based Analysis. Water (Basel) 13:3572. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243572\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcCarty MF (2004) Should we restrict chloride rather than sodium? Med Hypotheses 63:138\u0026ndash;148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2003.11.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMello K de, Valente RA, Randhir TO, et al (2018) Effects of land use and land cover on water quality of low-order streams in Southeastern Brazil: Watershed versus riparian zone. Catena (Amst) 167:130\u0026ndash;138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.04.027\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMishra AP, Khali H, Singh S, et al (2021) An Assessment of In-situ Water Quality Parameters and its variation with Landsat 8 Level 1 Surface Reflectance datasets. Int J Environ Anal Chem 0:1\u0026ndash;23. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2021.1954175\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMishra AP, Singh S, Jani M, et al (2024) Assessment of water quality index using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and GIS: a case study of a struggling Asan River. Int J Environ Anal Chem 104:1159\u0026ndash;1171. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2032015\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNihalani S, Meeruty A (2021) Water quality index evaluation for major rivers in Gujarat. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 28:63523\u0026ndash;63531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10509-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePal P (2014) Detection of Coliforms in Drinking Water and its Effect on Human Health - A Review. International Letters of Natural Sciences 17:122\u0026ndash;131. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILNS.17.122\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePurushothaman P, Mishra S, Das A, Chakrapani G (2012) Sediment and hydro biogeochemistry of Lake Nainital, Kumaun Himalaya, India. Environ Earth Sci 65:775\u0026ndash;788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1123-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRautela KS, Kumar D, Khati BS, et al (2023) Multivariate statistical analysis to assess the surface water quality of a snow and glacier-fed river: A case from Alaknanda River basin. Water Science and Technology 88:2873\u0026ndash;2888. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.349\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRuhakana A (2012) SPATIO-TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF WATER QUALITY AND ITS RESPONSE ON GROWTH OF IRRIGATED RICE IN RUSURIRWAMUJYINGA SUB-CATCHMENT, RWANDA\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSarkar A, Majumder M (2021) Application of AHP-based water quality index for quality monitoring of peri-urban watershed. Environ Dev Sustain 23:1780\u0026ndash;11798\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSeth R, Mohan M, Singh P, et al (2015) Assessment of Seasonal Variations in Surface Water Quality of Bageshwar District, Uttarakhand, India for Drinking and Irrigation Purposes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section A: Physical Sciences 85:283\u0026ndash;293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40010-014-0195-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSeth R, Mohan M, Singh P, et al (2016) Water quality evaluation of Himalayan Rivers of Kumaun region, Uttarakhand, India. Appl Water Sci 6:137\u0026ndash;147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0213-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShah KA, Joshi GS (2017) Evaluation of water quality index for River Sabarmati, Gujarat, India. Appl Water Sci 7:1349\u0026ndash;1358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0318-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingh Negi P, Singh R, Mishra AP (2022) An Assessment of Water Quality of Nainital Springs, Uttarakhand, India\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingh S, Hussian A (2016) Water quality index development for groundwater quality assessment of Greater Noida sub-basin, Uttar Pradesh, India. Cogent Eng 3:1177155. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2016.1177155\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSinha K, Dwivedi J, Singh P, Shankar Prasad Sinha V (2022) Spatio-temporal dynamics of water quality in river sources of drinking water in Uttarakhand with reference to human health. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29:64756\u0026ndash;64774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20302-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSood A, Singh KD, Pandey P, Sharma S (2008) Assessment of bacterial indicators and physicochemical parameters to investigate pollution status of Gangetic River system of Uttarakhand (India). Ecol Indic 8:709\u0026ndash;717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2008.01.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSubramani V, Saxena KK (1983) Hydrogeochemistry of groundwater in the Delhi region of India Relation of Groundwater Quantity and Quality. Proceedings of the Hamburg Symposium, IAHS Publication 146:1983\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSundar M.L., Saseetharan M.K. (2008) Ground water quality in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu along Noyyal River. J Environ Sci Eng 50:187\u0026ndash;190\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThakur D, Sharma A, Goel P, et al (2023) Groundwater quality assessment in the alluvial region of upper yamuna basin, India. Groundw Sustain Dev 22:100969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2023.100969\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThakur N, Rishi M, Sharma DA, Keesari T (2018) Quality of water resources in Kullu Valley in Himachal Himalayas, India: perspective and prognosis. Appl Water Sci 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0668-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThapa A (2022) Physico-Chemical Water Quality Parameters and Aquatic Plant Diversity of Dipang Lake, Pokhara, Nepal. Doctoral dissertation, Amrit Campus\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTu J (2011) Spatially varying relationships between land use and water quality across an urbanization gradient explored by geographically weighted regression. Applied Geography 31:376\u0026ndash;392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.08.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUKPCB (2023) Surface Water Monitoring Data. Dehradun\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUKPCB (2022) Surface Water Monitoring Analysis Data. Dehradun\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUSGS (2014) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, Digital Elevation Model Data. In: U. S. Geological Survey data release. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7PR7TFT. Accessed 7 Jun 2024\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVerma N, Singh G, Ahsan N (2023) Water quality management by enhancing assimilation capacity with flow augmentation: a case study for the Yamuna River, Delhi. Water Science and Technology 88:1821\u0026ndash;1832. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2023.302\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWavde PN, Arjun B (2010) Groundwater quality assessment at Malegaon region of Nanded in Maharashtra (India). J Environ Sci Eng 52:57\u0026ndash;60\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWhitehead PG, Wilby RL, Battarbee RW, et al (2009) A review of the potential impacts of climate change on surface water quality. Hydrological Sciences Journal 54:101\u0026ndash;123\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWHO (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Geneva, Switzerland\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWHO (2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneve 27, Switzerland\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWu J, Zhang Y, Zhou H (2020) Groundwater chemistry and groundwater quality index incorporating health risk weighting in Dingbian County, Ordos basin of northwest China. Chemie der Erde 80(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2020.125607\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYadav KK, Gupta N, Kumar V, et al (2018) GIS-based evaluation of groundwater geochemistry and statistical determination of the fate of contaminants in shallow aquifers from different functional areas of Agra city, India: Levels and spatial distributions. RSC Adv 8:15876\u0026ndash;15889. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra00577j\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYao S, Chen C, He M, et al (2023) Land use as an important indicator for water quality prediction in a region under rapid urbanization. Ecol Indic 146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109768\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZafar MM, Kumari A (2024) Spatio-temporal evaluation of the impact of anthropogenic stressors on physico-chemical characteristics and water quality of the River Ganga using GIS-based approach in the middle Gangetic Plains at Patna, Bihar, India. Water Science and Technology 89:1382\u0026ndash;1400. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2024.053\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Kumaon Himalaya, Land Use/Land Cover, Saryu River, WQI","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Saryu River, a branch of the Sharda River (downstream of the Mahakali River), flows in the Kumaon Himalaya. This study utilized the physico-chemical parameters to assess water quality status and calculate the Water Quality Index (WQI), as well as Sentinel-2 satellite images of 10-meter resolution for 2022 and 2023 to analyse land use and land cover (LULC). The secondary water quality data was obtained from the Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board. The results revealed that the total hardness, calcium, magnesium, faecal coliform, and total coliform were beyond the acceptable limits set by Bureau of Indian Standards/World Health Organization. Ions are primarily released in water via the process of carbonate weathering. In both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, the concentration of the analysed cation and anion followed the sequence of calcium\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;magnesium\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;sodium\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;potassium, and sulphate\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;chloride\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;fluoride\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;nitrate-nitrogen, respectively. In both years, the WQI showed good water quality. The LULC shows the negative change detection of water (-0.31%), built area (-0.84%) and rangeland (-0.98%), whereas trees (+\u0026thinsp;1.05%), crops (+\u0026thinsp;0.39%) and bare ground (+\u0026thinsp;0.69%) show positive change detection from 2022 to 2023. According to the study's findings, the Saryu River water is safe for drinking. However, the presence of faecal coliform and total coliform highlighted the need for enhanced sanitary infrastructure and protocols to mitigate bacterial contamination from river water.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-10-07 15:56:49","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fa7d4be9-5f58-4b65-ab9a-fcde638e6461","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 7th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-10-07T15:56:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-10-07 15:56:49","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4890306","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4890306","identity":"rs-4890306","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"cBFmMYwuxLRRLfASyISRj","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}