Versatile blood carbon dots functionalized sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol electroblown nanofibers for rapid fabricated innovative active food packaging

Versatile blood carbon dots functionalized sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol electroblown nanofibers for rapid fabricated innovative active food packaging | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Versatile blood carbon dots functionalized sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol electroblown nanofibers for rapid fabricated innovative active food packaging Mehmet Ali ALP, Cemhan DOĞAN, Yasin AKGUL This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4287163/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research used electroblown nanofibers made from a blend of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate (SA), activated by carbon dots obtained from bovine blood (BCDs), to create a new solution for active food packaging. The nanoscale size of BCDs revealed low toxicity on chondrocyte and lung cell types, ensuring safety in biomedical applications. The insertion of BCDs into the nanofiber matrix lowered surface hydrophobicity but strengthened water solubility and mechanical strength. These nanofibers demonstrated exceptional antioxidant activities and exhibited inhibitory effects against both E. coli and S. aureus . Conducting real food trials on chicken fillets disclosed the large reduction in viable bacteria count and lipid oxidation, consequently extending the durability of the product. Noteworthy is the eco-conscious element of these nanofibers; in soil burial experiments, the packing material disintegrated within a mere 57 days, underlining its negligible environmental impact. These environmentally friendly electroblown nanofibers, supplemented with BCDs, represent a viable future for sustainable food packaging. In seamlessly coupling food safety with eco-friendly methods, this methodology offers a comprehensive and practical answer for the packaging industry. Active packaging Electroblowing Carbon dots Polyvinyl alcohol Sodium alginate Nanofibers Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction The main purpose of traditional food packaging is to protect food goods from external factors that could potentially harm their quality during transportation and storage. Nonetheless, conventional packaging methods may not consistently provide protection against two significant adversaries: microbial contamination and oxidative deterioration, both of which can transpire between the stages of packaging and consumption. This concern assumes heightened significance in the context of the burgeoning food retail sector, where the need for products with extended shelf lives is on the rise (Atta et al. 2022 ). In response to this evolving landscape, the concept of active food packaging has arisen as a pioneering solution that transcends the conventional bounds of packaging. Rather than confining its role to the mere containment and physical preservation of food items, active food packaging ventures into the realm of functionality and preservation. The incorporation of spinning processes into the creation of nanostructured food packaging materials signifies a critical milestone in the quest for creative solutions in the packaging sector (M. Zhang et al. 2023 ). By harnessing spinning methods, especially the robust and rapid capabilities of solution blow spinning (SBS) and its refined counterpart, electroblowing (EB), the realm of food packaging stands to benefit significantly (Pokorný et al. 2023 ). The utilization of SBS is crucial in ensuring the efficient and prompt production of nanofibers, thanks to its capacity to achieve high production rates (Silva et al. 2023 ). These nanofibers, when incorporated into packaging materials, not only enhance mechanical strength but also elevate the material's barrier properties, making them optimal for maintaining the freshness and integrity of food product (Shen, Zhong, et al. 2023 ). Moreover, the unique attributes of SBS-manufactured nanofibers possess notable characteristics such as elevated porosity and a distinct surface area, pave the way for the creation of high-performance packaging materials tailored to the stringent demands of the food industry (Shen, Yang, et al. 2023 ). The transformative potential of EB further amplifies the scope of these innovations. By combining electrical and air-blowing forces, EB not only addresses the challenges associated with processing viscous polymer solutions but also amplifies the efficiency and precision of nanofiber production (Liu et al. 2023 ). This simultaneous application of forces, characteristic of EB, ensures a more effective fiberization process, leading to the development of nanofibers with unparalleled properties, a vital characteristic for the creation of next-generation food packaging materials. Carbon dots (CDs) are currently acknowledged as an especially promising category of zero-dimensional (0D) carbon nanomaterials(Moradi et al. 2023 ). Their exceptional properties have recently led to significant recognition, culminating in the award of the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Alexei Ekimov, Louis Brus, and Moungi Bawendi. The bioactive, non-toxic, harmless, and biocompatible nature of CDs renders them highly advantageous (Wagh et al. 2023 ). These unique attributes have generated significant enthusiasm for exploring their applications across diverse fields. Recently, there has been a considerable trend towards employing biomass waste as a source for making CDs (Kuang et al. 2023 ). This transformation has been driven by issues such as the increased stringency of environmental rules and the increasing volume of trash generated throughout production operations. This innovative approach not only aligns with sustainable practices but also represents a promising pathway for converting waste materials into valuable nanomaterials with versatile applications. Blood waste, an unavoidable byproduct of the meat industry, poses a significant environmental challenge due to its immense global production, exemplified by the staggering 5 billion liters of bovine blood generated annually from slaughterhouses. The direct disposal of this waste into the environment results in rapid and extensive putrefaction, leading to severe pollution issues (Mozhiarasi and Natarajan 2022 ). Consequently, finding practical applications for blood waste has become a crucial endeavour for both scientists and the meat industry. This effort is essential not only for curbing pollution but also for harnessing potentially valuable materials (Chalmpes et al. 2021 ; Marques et al. 2023 ). In tackling this challenge, the food industry has viewed blood waste from slaughterhouses as a good source of protein (da Silva Bambirra Alves et al. 2021 ) and bioactive components (Bah et al. 2013 ). Additionally, blood, albeit to a lesser extent, has served as a foundational source in the production of effective carbon materials (Chalmpes et al. 2021 ; J. Zhang et al. 2015 ). These innovative approaches not only address environmental concerns but also open up new pathways for sustainable resource utilization and the development of valuable materials. There is currently no research on using CDs from blood waste in food packaging, despite the potential benefits. This unexplored area could provide innovative and eco-friendly solutions, making use of the substantial waste generated by slaughterhouses. Alginate, a biopolymer derived from marine brown algae, finds extensive use in biological applications due to its biocompatibility, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and gel-forming properties (Rafiq et al. 2018 ; Tong et al. 2023 ). It is composed of (1,4)-linked β-D-mannuronic acid and α-L-guluronic acid blocks connected through glycoside linkages (Dodero et al. 2021 ). However, spinning sodium alginate (SA) into nanofibrous structures faces challenges due to its rigid molecular chains, limiting proper chain entanglement in aqueous solutions (Nie et al. 2008 ). Successful spinning of SA has been achieved using various solvent-mixture containing water-soluble polymers like polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (Islam and Karim 2010b ). PVA, a water-soluble synthetic polymer, enhances spinnability of alginate through intermolecular interactions, making it suitable for diverse biomedical applications (Das et al. 2023 ; Sattariazar, Nejad Ebrahimi, et al. 2023; Y. Wang et al. 2023 ). There is limited research on utilizing carbon dots synthesis from diverse sources in food packaging films (Khan et al. 2023 ; Mao et al. 2023 ; Wagh et al. 2023 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ), and to our knowledge, no study has explored their use in spun nanofibers for food packaging applications. In this study, eco-friendly SA-PVA nanofibers functionalized with CDs sourced from bovine blood (BCDs) were fabricated using the EB method. The resulting packaging material underwent thorough characterization, including morphological, chemical, mechanical, thermal, barrier, and bioactive analyses. Finally, the created food packaging underwent testing with a real food model, representing a noteworthy stride towards innovative and sustainable packaging solutions. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Bovine blood was obtained from Yozgat, Boğazlıyan Municipality Slaughterhouse (Yozgat, Türkiye). The blood, which was filled directly into sterile sample containers during slaughter, was stored at -18 ᵒC until carbon dots synthesis. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), characterized by a purity of 87.8%, a density ranging from 0.4 to 0.6 g/cm3 at 20°C, and a melting point within the range of 160–240°C, was procured from ZAG Kimya, situated in Istanbul, Türkiye. Sodium alginate, the sodium derivative of alginate, is a linear, anionic polysaccharide comprising two forms of 1,4-linked hexuronic acid residues, B-d-mannuronopyranosyl (M), and a-I-glucuronopyranosyl (G) residues. Sodium alginate was acquired from Kimbiotek Chemical Substances in Istanbul, Türkiye. Notably, the polymers were employed in their original form without undergoing any additional physical or chemical modifications. The chicken breast used was purchased from butcher shop (Yozgat, Türkiye). The fresh samples brought to the laboratory in an insulated bag were immediately taken into packaging applications. 2.2. BCDs synthesis The synthesis of carbon dots from blood and the characterization of the resulting carbon dots are provided in the supplementary materials. 2.3. Preparation of solutions for electroblown spinning The composite nanofiber mats were produced from three distinct solutions. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate (PVA/SA), and polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate/blood carbon dots (PVA/SA/ BCDs) dissolved in water and ethanol cosolvent. To ensure the complete dissolution of all components, the solutions were stirred for 6 hours at a temperature of 90℃. The electro-solution blowing process was applied to produce the nanofiber mats. The formulation of three distinct solutions and the detailed composition of each constituent is provided in Table 1 . Table 1 Formation of polymer solutions Sample code Solution components PVA (g) SA (g) BCDs (wt.% based on polymer) Water (mL) Ethanol (mL) PVA 12 0 0 52.8 35.2 PVA-SA 10 2 0 52.8 35.2 PVA-SA-BCDs 10 2 5 52.8 35.2 2.4. Fabrication of nanofibers The production of nanofiber mats involved the use of the electro-blow spinning (EBS) technique, a method previously elucidated and detailed in our prior study, with slight modifications (Ahmed et al. 2023 ). The solutions were extruded through a nozzle using a 20-mL syringe connected to a syringe pump. The power supply was connected to both the nozzle and the machine frame. The schematic representation of the EBS process is depicted in Fig. 1 . Constant air pressure of 1.5 bar, an applied voltage of 15 kV, and a feed rate of 15 mL/hr. were maintained to generate shear force. The resulting nanofibers were collected onto a rotating collector situated 35 cm away from the nozzle. After collection, the nanofibrous mats underwent a drying process for 24 hours at an ambient temperature of 40 ℃. Methods for morphological, chemical, thermal, mechanical, degradation, antioxidant and antimicrobial characterization of the produced nanofibers are given as supplementary material. 2.5. Characterization of nanofibers Methods for morphological, chemical, thermal, mechanical, degradation, antioxidant and antimicrobial characterization of the produced nanofibers are given as supplementary material. 2.6. Packaging of chicken fillets and challenge tests The chicken fillets were initially cut into dimensions of 1 × 2 × 6 cm and coated with nanofibers. Subsequently, the coated chicken fillets were individually sealed in sterile polyethylene zipper bags and stored at + 4°C under aerobic conditions for the designated storage periods (0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 days). Samples stored without coating were considered as the control group. To assess the impact of nanofibers on the samples, microbiological analyses including total viable bacteria and, as well as oxidation (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were conducted (Doğan et al. 2022 ). Microbiological Analyses : In this experiment, a microbiological analysis was undertaken on the chicken samples post-separation from nanofibers. To aid accurate assessment, a tenfold dilution of the chicken samples was done using Ringer's solution, followed by aseptic homogenization via a stomacher. Subsequently, 0.1 mL of the resulting homogenate was carefully placed onto 9 cm diameter petri dishes, each containing Plate Count agar (PCA) chosen specifically for total viable count (TVC). Incubation of these petri plates proceeded for a duration of 24 hours at 35°C under aerobic conditions. Following this incubation time, rigorous enumeration of bacterial colony-forming units (CFUs) was done to derive insights regarding the microbial composition. TBARS : TBARS analysis on chicken fillets was performed using the method of Borzi et al. (Borzi et al. 2019 ). 2.7. Statistical analysis The obtained results were subjected to statistical analysis using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and presented as mean ± standard deviation. Significance of differences (p < 0.05) among the data sets was determined using IBM-SPSS 22.0 statistical package (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Group means were further compared utilizing the Duncan multiple comparison test. All analyses were conducted in triplicate under consistent experimental conditions. 3. Result and discussion 3.1. Characterization of BCDs The resultant solution of BCDs has a characteristic yellowish-brown tint, shifting drastically to a deep green hue when exposed to ultraviolet light (Fig. 2 ). This apparent color shift is ascribed to the quantum confinement phenomenon caused by the carbon dots, revealing their distinct optical features under specified illumination conditions (Khoshkalampour et al. 2023 ; Roy et al. 2021 ; Wagh et al. 2023 ). BCDs display a characteristic peak at roughly 280 nm, related with the n–π* transition of C═O or the C–OH bond (Fig. 2 ). This strong peak provides as unequivocal evidence of the successful synthesis of carbon dots through the carbonization procedure applied to bovine blood. The optical properties position these carbon dots as attractive possibilities for active food packaging applications. The absorption peak aligns with the ultraviolet range, suggesting their efficiency as UV absorbers. This feature becomes particularly crucial in limiting the photooxidation of packaged food components, as UV exposure can result in the deterioration of nutritious content and undesired flavor modifications (Wagh et al. 2023 ). Additionally, TEM study verified that the sizes of the generated BCDs were within the nanometric range (Fig. 1 ). 3.2. Cell toxicity of BCDs Conducting a comprehensive analysis of the adverse effects associated with substances used in active food packaging systems is a crucial aspect of guaranteeing food safety. In this research, PVA and SA polymers, both of which are recognised as safe under the Generally Recognised as Safe (GRAS) label, were used for the production of nanofibers. Since the nanofibers were activated with carbon dots derived from bovine blood, assessment of cell viability was performed using the MTT assay to examine the in vitro cytotoxic effect of BCDs. This evaluation specifically examined two separate cell lines: Beas2B normal lung cell line and HC normal chondrocyte cell line. Detailed findings are presented in Fig. 3 . Significant data arose from this undertaking, indicating a noticeable decrease in cell viability in both cell lines, illustrating a pattern that is depending on the concentration. Remarkably, despite exposure to 3.2 mg/mL, cellular viability remained robust, with levels exceeding 84% for the chondrocytes cell line and 82% for the lung cell line. The detailed observations offered by digital optical microscopy images, depicted in Fig. 3 (b-d), illustrate the cellular structure of chondrocytes and lung cells after being exposed to BCDs. An important aspect of this work is the detailed examination of cellular density, which clearly shows that there are no significant changes in cellular density based on the concentration of BCDs in both cell lines. This absence of noticeable alterations highlights the durability and robustness of cellular structures, further substantiating the benign character of the produced carbon dots. Upon a thorough analysis of these facts, it becomes apparent that the carbon dots being examined demonstrate a notable combination of minimal toxicity and admirable compatibility with living organisms. These characteristics have significant ramifications, particularly when considering their use in food packing. The corroborative weight of earlier investigations (Truskewycz et al. 2022 ) fortifies the argument that these carbon dots, designated as BCDs, feature an innately low degree of toxicity, placing them as attractive candidates for use in the area of food packaging with better safety requirements. 3.3. Characterization of nanofibers 3.3.1. SEM The morphology of nanofibrous mats made of PVA, PVA blended with sodium alginate (SA), and PVA/SA embedded with BCDs was investigated by SEM. The SEM images, together with the diameter distribution of the samples, are displayed in Fig. 2 . The average diameters of the fibers were found to be 887.06 ± 9.27 nm, 924.41 ± 19.97 nm, and 893.79 ± 12.99 nm for PVA, PVA/SA, and PVA/SA/BCDs nanocomposite fibrous mats, respectively. It was also discovered that the addition of SA into a PVA solution resulted in fibrous mats with a smooth, bead-free appearance and enhanced nanofiber diameters. This effect may be linked to the higher amount of SA, resulting to an elevation in stiff components within the spinning solution. This augmentation in polyelectrolytes within the solution relates to alterations in viscosity. The presence of SA may generate a gel-like reaction, making the spinning liquid more viscous and harder to inject during the spinning process (Kalaiselvimary et al. 2019 ). This result correlates with comparable results reported by Wang et al. (C. Wang et al. 2021 ), demonstrating a continuous impact of increasing SA content on the solution's rheological characteristics throughout the spinning process. It was investigated that the effect of SA content on fiber diameter and morphology. The first results underline the important significance of altering SA concentration in affecting both the diameter size and shape of PVA/SA fibers. This demonstrates the important influence of SA content on the ensuing features. An increase in SA content is related to a larger proportion of beads in the nanofibers. This is attributable to the heightened presence of stiff compounds in the spinning solution as SA content rises, resulting in an enhanced concentration of polyelectrolytes. The spinning liquid undergoes a gel-like reaction, increasing viscosity and hindering the spinning process. Conversely, a drop in SA concentration leads to an ongoing reduction in spinning solution viscosity, resulting in inadequate chain entanglement. This instability in the jet creates unequal fiber widths, with electrostatic repulsion causing jet splitting and the development of beaded fibers. These results underline the delicate link between SA content, solution rheology, and the final nanofiber shape, giving useful insights for improving the manufacturing process(C. Wang et al. 2021 ). The dimensions of nanofibers were impacted by the incorporation of BCDs in varying concentrations during the electro-blow spinning process. It was observed that the introduction of BCDs brought about a slight alteration in the distribution diameter of nanofibers, which decreased from 924.41 ± 19.97 nm to 893.79 ± 12.99 nm. This finding aligns with prior research suggesting that the addition of CDs to nanofibers can reduce their diameter, attributed to the electrical conductivity of the CDs (Lee et al. 2016 ). Additionally, Sattariazar et al. (Sattariazar, Ebrahimi, et al. 2023), reported that as the concentration of the polyphenol-enriched extract of pomegranate peel carbon dots (CDs) increased, the average diameter of nanofibers exhibited a declining trend. Notably, SEM images of the PVA-Oxided SA scaffold in the group displayed surface fragility, a characteristic that was mitigated after the incorporation of CDs. This implies that CDs serve as an effective additive for enhancing the structural stability of nanofibers. 3.3.2. FTIR analysis In Fig. 5 (A), the FT-IR spectra of nanofiber mats are presented. The spectra exhibit distinctive peaks associated with functional groups that significantly influence membrane performance. Across all samples, the stretching of the O-H hydroxyl group is evident within the broad peak range of 3000–3500 cm − 1 , suggesting the membrane's ability to facilitate water molecule flow and activate proton conductivity. Furthermore, a comparable peak in the range of 2700–3000 cm − 1 indicates stretching on the C-H group, confirming that all membranes are hydrocarbon-based. (Shaari et al. 2018 ; Wong et al. 2020 ). In the spectrum of pure PVA, distinctive peaks are observed, including –OH stretching at 3289 cm − 1 , aliphatic –CH2 stretching at 2927 cm − 1 , and –C-O- stretching at 1099 cm − 1 . The PVA/SA blend-based electro-blow spun nanofibers mats exhibit distinctive peaks corresponding to both PVA and SA. Notably, a broader –OH band is observed at 3318 cm − 1 , and symmetric and asymmetric –C double bond O- groups are identified at 1610 cm − 1 and 1407 cm − 1 , respectively. The introduction of SA results in a slight shift in the IR band due to carboxylate functionality, coupled with the broader -OH stretching. This shift suggests a potential hydrogen bonding interaction between the –OH of PVA and the –OH or –COO- of SA within the blend, as indicated by Ali et al.(Ali et al. 2019 ). In the fingerprint region, a discernible change in peak intensity is observed between 1400–1700 cm − 1 and 700–1200 cm − 1 , representing COO- COO-stretching and C-C, C-O, and C-H bending, respectively (Shaari et al. 2018 ). The bending of functional groups within this composite membrane is evident. The PVA/SA polymer combination distinctly features oxygenated functional groups, including O-H, C-O, C = O, C-O-C, and -COO. The incorporation of PVA into SA further extends the hydroxyl peak, indicating a weaker stretching vibration of the molecules in PVA/SA compared to pure SA nanofiber samples. This condition facilitates the formation of hydrogen bonds between the O-H groups of PVA and SA (Kalaiselvimary et al. 2019 ). Whereas when BCDs are added there were not any significance change in the infrared spectra with respect to the PVA-SA blend samples, which proved that no new chemical bond was formed. This might be due to the complete embedment of BCD into PVA-SA fibers mats. 3.3.3. TGA The TGA analysis was employed to characterize the thermal degradation behaviour of the electro-blow spun PVA, PVA/SA, and PVA/SA fiber mats. The representative outcome is illustrated in Figure. 5 (B), revealing two stages of decomposition for all samples. At the first stage between 51 ºC to 134.5 ºC approx. 3.5% weight loss occurred due to the loss of moisture absorbed by the composite nanofibers for the PVA sample. In the second/final stage, another 70% weight loss occurred for PVA between 200 ºC to 393 ºC due to the degradation of PVA. The same results were reported by Shahidul Islam and Rezaul Karim (Islam and Karim 2010a ). In their study, it was reported that in the absence of oxygen, PVA typically undergoes dehydration and depolymerization at temperatures exceeding 200 and 400°C, respectively. The precise depolymerization temperature is influenced by factors such as the polymer's structure, molecular weight, and conformation. For the case of PVA/SA samples, the weight loss occurred at a temperature range between 98 to 178°C and 236 to 399°C, respectively for first-stage and second-stage weight losses. This heightened initiation temperature of decomposition observed in the PVA/SA fiber mat, as opposed to pure PVA, underscores the reinforcing effect of incorporating SA into the composite structure. The augmented thermal stability of the PVA/SA composite fibers is attributed to the inherently superior thermal properties of SA. The physical interaction between PVA and SA appears to fortify the overall thermal resilience of the composite, substantiating the advantageous impact of this compositional synergy on the material's thermal characteristics. (Tamizi et al. 2018 ; C. Wang et al. 2021 ). However, the temperature interval of the PVA/SA/BCD composite nanofiber mat in the second stage was significantly higher than that of the other two kinds of nanofiber mats. This may be due to the strong hydrogen bonding between sodium alginate and BCDs, which increases the thermal stability of the PVA/SA/BCD and increases the thermal degradation temperature (Nigiz 2020 ). Overall, evident from the TGA graphs, the inclusion of blending and integrating carbon dots significantly influences the reduction in weight losses of PVA nanofibers and plays a pivotal role in enhancing their thermal stability characteristics. 3.3.4. Water contact angle Figure. 5 (C) illustrates the water contact angle outcomes, serving as a measure of the nanofiber mats' surface hydrophobicity. The results disclosed that both PVA/SA and PVA/SA/BCD samples displayed water contact angles below 90°, indicative of their hydrophilic nature. The incorporation of SA into PVA notably decreased the water contact angle, emphasizing heightened hydrophilicity. This phenomenon may be attributed to the significant hydrophilic –OH groups in PVA and –COOH groups in SA, as indicated by the FTIR results. These functional groups shows a strong affinity with water molecules, enhancing the nanofibers' moisture absorption capacity (Talebi et al. 2017 ). In the same fashion, the inclusion of BCDs did show noticeable impact on the water contact angle of PVA/SA/BCD samples. This was potentially due to the inherent robust hydrophilic properties of SA and carbon dots. The findings suggest that the hydrophilicity of the doped carbon dots (CDs) has the capacity to alter the surface properties of the composite membranes. The introduction of carbon dots is identified as a contributing factor with the potential to modify the surface characteristics of the composite membranes (Dai et al. 2019 ). 3.3.5. Water solubility Water sensitivity stands out as a crucial aspect in the realm of biodegradable or edible and films. This characteristic encompasses both water resistance during the application of the film on the surface of food products and its impact on the nanofiber's biodegradability when utilized as a packaging material. The ability of these films to resist water during their use is vital for maintaining their integrity and effectiveness in preserving and protecting food items. Simultaneously, the level of water sensitivity is a key factor influencing the biodegradation process when these nanofibers are eventually employed as packaging materials. Striking the right balance in water sensitivity is essential to ensure optimal functionality during usage and adherence to sustainability goals during the end-of-life phase [15]. The same principle is applicable for nanofiber mats too. Here in the water sensitivity was measured in terms of water solubility results. The water solubility of PVA, PVA/SA, and PVA/SA/BCDs nanofiber mats is depicted in Figure. 5 (D). The results showed a decrease in water solubility with the introduction of SA into PVA, further reduced with the incorporation of nanoparticles such as BCDs. This trend aligns with findings reported by Borregales et al.[16] in their study on Black Tea Extracts/Polyvinyl Alcohol active nanofibers. The observed consistency in outcomes across different studies underscores the influence of blending and nanoparticle incorporation on the water solubility of polymer nanocomposites. The decrease in water solubility observed in the nanofiber mats can be attributed primarily to the robust hydrogen bonds established between PVA and SA [17]. The introduction of SA enables the carboxyl and hydroxyl groups of SA to engage with an increased number of hydroxyl groups from PVA, resulting in the formation of new hydrogen bonds. This enhanced intermolecular interaction serves to strengthen the overall structure, reducing the likelihood of water molecules binding to the polymer. Simultaneously, the introduction of SA makes it challenging for water molecules to penetrate the interior of the polymer molecules by disrupting the hydrogen bonds between them. This phenomenon contributes to the reduction in water solubility. A similar trend of reduced water solubility with an increased nanoparticle content has been observed in other alginate nanocomposite films, such as PVA/SA blend filled with hybrid nanoparticles (Ag and TiO2 NPs) [18] and the polycaprolactone (PCL) incorporated with phycocyanin-containing nanoparticles [19]. The findings suggest a consistent influence of nanoparticle incorporation on water solubility in various polymer nanocomposite systems. 3.3.6. Mechanical property analysis Figure. 5 (E). displays the results of the tensile tests conducted on electroblown nanofibers of PVA/SA and PVA/SA/BCD, with sole PVA serving as the reference material. This investigation aims to assess the effect of adding SA and BCDs on mechanical properties of PVA nanofiber mats. As illustrated in Figure. 5 (E), the pure PVA nanofiber mats had a tensile strength and elongation at break of 7.27 ± 2.85 MPa and 2.38 ± 1.301% respectively. By incorporating SA into the PVA, the electroblown mats showed an increase in both tensile strength and elongation at break. The enhanced mechanical properties were attributed to the existence of specific intermolecular interaction between SA and PVA, and the interaction of hydrogen bonds between the hydrophilic PVA and SA (PAKOLPAKÇIL 2022 ). For the BCD incorporated samples there were an increase the tensile strength increased to 10.34 ± 0.274 MPa, and a slight decrease on the elongation at break. The addition of BCD to polymer structures has been documented to enhance tensile strength. This improvement is attributed to the involvement of nanoparticles in the formation of the semi-crystalline structure of polymers following mechanical alterations (Hezma et al. 2019 ). 3.3.7. Antioxidant activity The antioxidant activity of electroblown nanofibers was examined using the ABTS and DPPH techniques, frequently applied for evaluating the antioxidant functionality of packaging films. Figure 6 (A) illustrates the results of the nanofibers' antioxidant activity. PVA nanofibers displayed noticeable antioxidant activity, displaying 2.6% and 4.3% ABTS and DPPH scavenging capabilities, respectively. Similarly, sodium alginate and PVA mix nanofibers demonstrated low antioxidant ability, registering 4.1% and 5.9% ABTS and DPPH scavenging activities, respectively. The observed antioxidant activity in PVA and PVA/SA samples without active ingredients are attributed to the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups, serving as electron donors and interacting with free radicals. In contrast, nanofibers including BCDs displayed considerably improved antioxidant activity, displaying antioxidant effects within a few minutes of incubation in both ways. The inclusion of BCDs greatly raised the free radical scavenging ability of PVA/SA nanofibers, reaching 53.9% in the DPPH method and 86.2% in the ABTS method. The high antioxidant efficiency displayed by BCDs is related to the active involvement of surface functional groups in the scavenging activities of free radicals. This work convincingly indicates that the integration of BCDs as a functional material inside nanofibers stands out as a strong strategy for increasing the antioxidant features of the coated material. 3.3.8. Antimicrobial activity As predicted, neither PVA nor PVA/SA nanofibers displayed any obvious antibacterial activity against the investigated bacterial strains. In striking contrast, the insertion of BCDs into the nanofibers revealed strong antibacterial action, resulting in the creation of inhibition zones of 22.4 ± 3.8 mm and 17.9 ± 2.7 mm against E. coli and S. aureus , respectively (Fig. 6 (b)). Upon contact with bacteria in the presence of moisture, carbon dots (CDs) formed highly reactive oxygen species, including superoxide and hydroxyl radicals (Moradi et al. 2023 ). These reactive species exhibit the capacity to penetrate bacterial cell walls, resulting to bacterial death (Dong et al. 2020 ). Notably, past uses of carbon dots (CDs) in food packaging predominantly employed solvent casting, with studies showing its extensive antibacterial characteristics against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Deepika et al. 2023; Roy et al. 2021 ). However, issues such as CD agglomeration during the casting process and the restricted dispersion of CDs owing to the two-dimensional structure of the film might impair its overall effectiveness (Das Purkayastha et al. 2014 ). In contrast, the three-dimensional structure and expansive surface area of nanofibers provide an excellent platform for the effective diffusion of CDs from the coating material. This unique structural property enables nanofibers to exercise superior control over microbes. By addressing the restrictions associated with standard casting procedures, electroblown nanofibers offer a new path for enhancing the antibacterial efficacy of CDs in food packaging systems. 3.3.9. Soil degradation of nanofibers The degradability of the produced nanofibers was evaluated for 60 days using the soil burial method, as depicted in Fig. 6 (C). The primary mechanism by which these nanofibers degrade is through the process of hydrolysis, in which the presence of water plays a crucial role. The existence of water molecules in both the soil and on the material surface facilitates the development and multiplication of microorganisms involved in the degradation of polymer films. Concurrently, hydrolysis takes place when the polymer backbone is broken down by breaking the hydrogen bonds with water molecules, leading to the creation of smaller pieces. The presence of hydrophilic chemicals in the coating material accelerates the breakdown process (Kalanidhi K and Nagaraaj P 2022 ). The degradation rates of each manufactured nanofiber varied depending on their composition and intrinsic features. The nanofibers composed only of PVA underwent total disintegration during a period of 28 days, but the PVA/SA sample showed visible degradation slightly later, around day 36. The cause of this delay is ascribed to the hydrogen bonds established between PVA and SA. Significantly, nanofibers with BCDs exhibited an extended deterioration period, concluding on the 57th day. The prolonged degradation duration can be attributed to the significant antibacterial properties of the PVA/SA/BCDs sample, which potentially impede the activities of degrading microorganisms. Consequently, these findings suggest that the synthesized nanofibers could serve as effective alternatives to synthetic packaging materials, giving environmental friendliness through their intrinsic degradability. This attribute presents them as prospective tools for sustainable packaging solutions, contributing to the decrease of environmental effect. 3.4. Challenge tests The bacterial load in meat products normally climbs with contamination and continues to rise during the storage period, resulting in lower nutritional value and poor food quality (Walker et al. 2005 ). An active food packaging technology is projected to play a crucial role in managing microbial proliferation. Figure 7 (a) delineates the impact of nanofibers on the total viable bacteria count (TVC) of chicken flesh across the storage duration. While the TVC values of PVA and PVA/SA samples displayed a minimal reduction compared to the control after storage, they all reached the crucial threshold of 6 log CFU/g after the 6th day, a limit acknowledged for meat products. In striking contrast, the TVC value of the PVA/SA/BCDs sample displayed a marked suppression, attributed to the antibacterial activity inherent in the synthesized carbon dots. Even at the conclusion of the storage period on the 12th day, the TVC value for this sample remained below the stated limit level. These findings substantiate the persistence of the antibacterial efficacy of blood-based carbon dots, not only under controlled in vitro circumstances but also under the dynamic and complicated in situ conditions simulating real-world storage environments. The preservation of antimicrobial activity underlines the potential of blood-based carbon dots as effective agents for restricting bacterial development in meat products, presenting a viable approach for increasing food security and prolonging the shelf life of perishable commodities. The principal non-microbial factor contributing to deterioration in meat is lipid oxidation, a process begun post-slaughter and persisting until consumption. Unsaturated fatty acids, interacting with oxygen via the free radical chain mechanism, give birth to a variety of quality-compromising secondary chemicals, including hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and esters (Tavárez et al. 2011 ). Active food packaging, comprising antioxidant compounds, has promise in delaying oxidation. To determine this, TBARS values of the chicken fillets were tracked during the storage period Fig. 7 (b). The uncoated group demonstrated highest TBARS value at 1.5 ± 0.13 mg/kg after the completion of the storage period. While PVA and PVA/SA samples revealed low antioxidant activity, potentially negligible, they nonetheless generated a considerable reduction in chicken meat oxidation. This reduction could be related to the packaging's ability to build a barrier against air, thereby lowering oxidative reactions. Notably, nanofibers infused with BCDs, proved for their considerable antioxidant effects in previous section, retained the lowest TBARS readings throughout the whole storage term. These data underline that nanofibers containing blood-based carbon dots can serve as an instrument in preventing oxidative degradation, giving a viable option to combat the harmful effects of lipid oxidation in meat products. 4. Conclusion In this work, we applied the electroblowing approach to speedily create active food packaging, imbuing the packaging material with unique features through the integration of Bovine Blood-derived Carbon Dots. Rigorous testing was then undertaken utilizing a real food model. The important conclusions of this study are concisely stated below: • The synergistic combination of PVA and SA and generated a homogeneous fiber structure, free from droplets. Introducing BCDs promoted partial droplet formation but concurrently led to a reduction in fiber diameter. • The inclusion of BCDs did not introduce any noticeable peaks in the FTIR spectra, perfectly integrating them into the nanofiber matrix. • BCDs increased the thermal stability and mechanical strength of PVA/SA nanofibers, reinforcing their overall structural integrity. • While the incorporation of BCDs decreased water contact angles, it heightened water insolubility. • The nanofiber mats, proven efficient for their antioxidative and antibacterial characteristics both in vitro and in meat applications, demonstrated a tangible influence in delaying microbiological and oxidative deterioration in chicken fillets. In closing, our study emphasizes the potential of Carbon Dot-loaded nanofibers, speedily manufactured by electroblown spinning technique, as a promising path for innovating novel food packaging applications. Declarations Contributions: Mehmet Ali ALP: investigation, methodology, data curation, formal analysis; Cemhan DOĞAN: conceptualization, formal analysis, validation, visualization, funding acquisition, writing – original draft, Yasin AKGUL: formal analysis, validation, investigation, writing – original draft, software, methodology Declaration of competing interest Authors declare no conflict of interest in the work presented in manuscript “Versatile blood carbon dots functionalized sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol electroblown nanofibers for rapid fabricated innovative active food packaging” submitted for publication in the Food and Bioprocess Technology. Funding Financial support was given by Yozgat Bozok University/Project Coordination Application and Research Center [grant number FYL-2023-1135]. Acknowledgments We truly appreciate the help of, Nurcan DOĞAN for application studies, and Ali AYDIN for MTT studies. Data availability Data will be made available on request. References Ahmed, S. B., Doğan, N., Doğan, C., & Akgul, Y. (2023). A Novel Approach to Crosslink Gelatin Nanofibers Through Neutralization-Induced Maillard Reaction. Food and Bioprocess Technology , 1–15. Ali, I., Peng, C., Lin, D., Saroj, D. P., Naz, I., Khan, Z. M., et al. (2019). Encapsulated green magnetic nanoparticles for the removal of toxic Pb2+ and Cd2+ from water: Development, characterization and application. Journal of environmental management , 234 , 273–289. Atta, O. M., Manan, S., Shahzad, A., Ul-Islam, M., Ullah, M. W., & Yang, G. (2022). Biobased materials for active food packaging: A review. Food Hydrocolloids , 125 , 107419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107419 Bah, C. S. F., Bekhit, A. E.-D. A., Carne, A., & McConnell, M. A. (2013). Slaughterhouse Blood: An Emerging Source of Bioactive Compounds. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety , 12 (3), 314–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12013 Borzi, F., Torrieri, E., Wrona, M., & Nerín, C. (2019). Polyamide modified with green tea extract for fresh minced meat active packaging applications. Food Chemistry , 300 , 125242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125242 Chalmpes, N., G, A., M, B., D, M., A, A., Ab, B., et al. (2021). Fast and Direct Microwave Synthesis of Carbon from Bovine Blood Waste: A Feedstock Material for Extractive Metallurgy, Carbon Dots Production and Graphite Synthesis. Journal of Nanotechnology Research , 3 (4), 11–28. da Silva Bambirra Alves, F. E., Carpiné, D., Teixeira, G. L., Goedert, A. C., de Paula Scheer, A., & Ribani, R. H. (2021). Valorization of an Abundant Slaughterhouse By-product as a Source of Highly Technofunctional and Antioxidant Protein Hydrolysates. Waste and Biomass Valorization , 12 (1), 263–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-020-00985-8 Dai, Y., Wang, J., Tao, P., & He, R. (2019). Various hydrophilic carbon dots doped high temperature proton exchange composite membranes based on polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyethersulfone. Journal of colloid and interface science , 553 , 503–511. Das, K. P., Sharma, D., & Satapathy, B. K. (2023). Structurally stable polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate-based optimally designed electrospun mats as mechanistically robust controlled-urea-release-systems. Industrial Crops and Products , 193 , 116220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.116220 Das Purkayastha, M., Manhar, A. K., Das, V. K., Borah, A., Mandal, M., Thakur, A. J., & Mahanta, C. L. (2014). Antioxidative, Hemocompatible, Fluorescent Carbon Nanodots from an “End-of-Pipe” Agricultural Waste: Exploring Its New Horizon in the Food-Packaging Domain. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 62 (20), 4509–4520. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf500138f Deepika, Kumar, L., & K. Gaikwad, K. (2023). Carbon dots for food packaging applications. Sustainable Food Technology , 1 (2), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2FB00020B Dodero, A., Donati, I., Scarfì, S., Mirata, S., Alberti, S., Lova, P., et al. (2021). Effect of sodium alginate molecular structure on electrospun membrane cell adhesion. Materials Science and Engineering: C , 124 , 112067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2021.112067 Doğan, N., Doğan, C., Eticha, A. K., Gungor, M., & Akgul, Y. (2022). Centrifugally spun micro-nanofibers based on lemon peel oil/gelatin as novel edible active food packaging: Fabrication, characterization, and application to prevent foodborne pathogens E. coli and S. aureus in cheese. Food Control , 139 , 109081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109081 Dong, X., Liang, W., Meziani, M. J., Sun, Y.-P., & Yang, L. (2020). Carbon Dots as Potent Antimicrobial Agents. Theranostics , 10 (2), 671–686. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.39863 Hezma, A., Rajeh, A., & Mannaa, M. A. (2019). An insight into the effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on the structural, thermal, mechanical properties and antimicrobial activity of Cs/PVA composite. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 581 , 123821. Islam, M. S., & Karim, M. R. (2010a). Fabrication and characterization of poly (vinyl alcohol)/alginate blend nanofibers by electrospinning method. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 366 (1–3), 135–140. Islam, Md. S., & Karim, M. R. (2010b). Fabrication and characterization of poly(vinyl alcohol)/alginate blend nanofibers by electrospinning method. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 366 (1), 135–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2010.05.038 Kalaiselvimary, J., Selvakumar, K., Rajendran, S., Sowmya, G., & Ramesh Prabhu, M. (2019). Effect of surface‐modified montmorillonite incorporated biopolymer membranes for PEM fuel cell applications. Polymer Composites , 40 (S1), E301–E311. Kalanidhi K & Nagaraaj P. (2022). N-doped carbon dots incorporated chitosan/polyvinylpyrrolidone based polymer film for advanced packaging applications. Chemical Physics Letters , 805 , 139960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2022.139960 Khan, A., Priyadarshi, R., Bhattacharya, T., & Rhim, J.-W. (2023). Carrageenan/Alginate-Based Functional Films Incorporated with Allium sativum Carbon Dots for UV-Barrier Food Packaging. Food and Bioprocess Technology , 16 (9), 2001–2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03048-7 Khoshkalampour, A., Ghorbani, M., & Ghasempour, Z. (2023). Cross-linked gelatin film enriched with green carbon quantum dots for bioactive food packaging. Food Chemistry , 404 , 134742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134742 Kuang, T., Jin, M., Lu, X., Liu, T., Vahabi, H., Gu, Z., & Gong, X. (2023). Functional carbon dots derived from biomass and plastic wastes. Green Chemistry , 25 (17), 6581–6602. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3GC01763J Lee, C., Pant, B., Alam, A.-M., An, T., Chung, H.-J., Hong, S.-T., et al. (2016). Biocompatible and photoluminescent keratin/poly(vinyl alcohol)/carbon quantum dot nanofiber: A novel multipurpose electrospun mat. Macromolecular Research , 24 (10), 924–930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13233-016-4124-3 Liu, S., Chen, Z., Zhang, H., Li, Y., Maierhaba, T., An, J., et al. (2023). Comparison of eugenol and dihydromyricetin loaded nanofibers by electro-blowing spinning for active packaging. Food Bioscience , 51 , 102294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2022.102294 Mao, L., Zuo, J., Liu, Y., Zheng, B., Dai, X., Bai, Z., et al. (2023). Alginate based films integrated with nitrogen-functionalized carbon dots and layered clay for active food packaging applications. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 253 , 126653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126653 Marques, B., Nunes, R., Araújo-Rodrigues, H., Pintado, M., Pereira, R. N., Teixeira, J. A., & Rocha, C. M. R. (2023). Solubilization and Hydrolysis of Porcine Coagulated Blood Protein Using Sub-Critical Solvent Extraction. Food and Bioprocess Technology . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03111-3 Moradi, M., Molaei, R., Kousheh, S. A., T. Guimarães, J., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Carbon dots synthesized from microorganisms and food by-products: active and smart food packaging applications. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition , 63 (14), 1943–1959. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.2015283 Mozhiarasi, V., & Natarajan, T. S. (2022). Slaughterhouse and poultry wastes: management practices, feedstocks for renewable energy production, and recovery of value added products. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery . https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02352-0 Nie, H., He, A., Zheng, J., Xu, S., Li, J., & Han, C. C. (2008). Effects of Chain Conformation and Entanglement on the Electrospinning of Pure Alginate. Biomacromolecules , 9 (5), 1362–1365. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm701349j Nigiz, F. U. (2020). Graphene oxide‑sodium alginate membrane for seawater desalination through pervaporation. Desalination , 485 , 114465. PAKOLPAKÇIL, A. (2022). Effect of Glutaraldehyde Crosslinking Parameters on Mechanical and Wetting Properties of PVA/NaAlg Electrospun Mat. Sakarya University Journal of Science , 26 (5), 990–999. Pokorný, M., Bardoňová, L., Kotzianová, A., & Velebný, V. (2023). Chapter 4 - Gas-assisted electrospinning and electroblowing. In A. Kargari, T. Matsuura, & M. M. A. Shirazi (Eds.), Electrospun and Nanofibrous Membranes (pp. 81–103). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823032-9.00021-0 Rafiq, M., Hussain, T., Abid, S., Nazir, A., & Masood, R. (2018). Development of sodium alginate/PVA antibacterial nanofibers by the incorporation of essential oils. Materials Research Express , 5 (3), 035007. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aab0b4 Roy, S., Ezati, P., & Rhim, J.-W. (2021). Gelatin/Carrageenan-Based Functional Films with Carbon Dots from Enoki Mushroom for Active Food Packaging Applications. ACS Applied Polymer Materials , 3 (12), 6437–6445. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.1c01175 Sattariazar, S., Ebrahimi, S. N., & Arsalani, N. (2023). Enhancing the properties of electrospun polyvinyl Alcohol/Oxidized sodium alginate nanofibers with fluorescence carbon Dots: Preparation and characterization. International Journal of Pharmaceutics , 644 , 123358. Sattariazar, S., Nejad Ebrahimi, S., & Arsalani, N. (2023). Enhancing the properties of electrospun polyvinyl Alcohol/Oxidized sodium alginate nanofibers with fluorescence carbon Dots: Preparation and characterization. International Journal of Pharmaceutics , 644 , 123358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123358 Shaari, N., Kamarudin, S., Basri, S., Shyuan, L., Masdar, M., & Nordin, D. (2018). Enhanced proton conductivity and methanol permeability reduction via sodium alginate electrolyte-sulfonated graphene oxide bio-membrane. Nanoscale research letters , 13 , 1–16. Shen, C., Yang, Z., Wu, D., & Chen, K. (2023). The preparation, resources, applications, and future trends of nanofibers in active food packaging: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition , 0 (0), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2214819 Shen, C., Zhong, J., Guo, F., Zhang, C., Zhu, C., Wu, D., & Chen, K. (2023). Curcumin-loaded polycaprolactone/carboxymethyl chitosan nanofibers with photodynamic inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus developed by solution blow spinning. LWT , 186 , 115261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115261 Silva, M. J., Dias, Y. J., & Yarin, A. L. (2023). Electrically-assisted supersonic solution blowing and solution blow spinning of fibrous materials from natural rubber extracted from havea brasilienses. Industrial Crops and Products , 192 , 116101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.116101 Talebi, M., Abbasizadeh, S., & Keshtkar, A. R. (2017). Evaluation of single and simultaneous thorium and uranium sorption from water systems by an electrospun PVA/SA/PEO/HZSM5 nanofiber. Process Safety and Environmental Protection , 109 , 340–356. Tamizi, E., Azizi, M., Seyed Dorraji, M. S., Dusti, Z., & Panahi-Azar, V. (2018). Stabilized core/shell PVA/SA nanofibers as an efficient drug delivery system for dexpanthenol. Polymer Bulletin , 75 , 547–560. Tavárez, M. A., Boler, D. D., Bess, K. N., Zhao, J., Yan, F., Dilger, A. C., et al. (2011). Effect of antioxidant inclusion and oil quality on broiler performance, meat quality, and lipid oxidation. Poultry Science , 90 (4), 922–930. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2010-01180 Tong, W. Y., Ahmad Rafiee, A. R., Leong, C. R., Tan, W.-N., Dailin, D. J., Almarhoon, Z. M., et al. (2023). Development of sodium alginate-pectin biodegradable active food packaging film containing cinnamic acid. Chemosphere , 336 , 139212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139212 Truskewycz, A., Yin, H., Halberg, N., Lai, D. T. H., Ball, A. S., Truong, V. K., et al. (2022). Carbon Dot Therapeutic Platforms: Administration, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, Toxicity, and Therapeutic Potential. Small , 18 (16), 2106342. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202106342 Wagh, R. V., Khan, A., Priyadarshi, R., Ezati, P., & Rhim, J.-W. (2023). Cellulose nanofiber-based multifunctional films integrated with carbon dots and anthocyanins from Brassica oleracea for active and intelligent food packaging applications. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 233 , 123567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123567 Walker, P., Rhubart-Berg, P., McKenzie, S., Kelling, K., & Lawrence, R. S. (2005). Public health implications of meat production and consumption. Public Health Nutrition , 8 (4), 348–356. https://doi.org/10.1079/PHN2005727 Wang, C., Zuo, Q., Wang, L., Long, B., Salleh, K. M., Anuar, N. I. S., & Zakaria, S. (2021). Diameter optimization of polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate fiber membranes using response surface methodology. Materials Chemistry and Physics , 271 , 124969. Wang, Y., Ding, C., Zhao, Y., Zhang, J., Ding, Q., Zhang, S., et al. (2023). Sodium alginate/poly(vinyl alcohol)/taxifolin nanofiber mat promoting diabetic wound healing by modulating the inflammatory response, angiogenesis, and skin flora. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 252 , 126530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126530 Wong, C. Y., Wong, W. Y., Loh, K. S., Daud, W. R. W., Lim, K. L., Khalid, M., & Walvekar, R. (2020). Development of poly (vinyl alcohol)-based polymers as proton exchange membranes and challenges in fuel cell application: a review. Polymer reviews , 60 (1), 171–202. Zhang, J., Li, Q., Zhang, C., Mai, L., Pan, M., & Mu, S. (2015). A N-self-doped carbon catalyst derived from pig blood for oxygen reduction with high activity and stability. Electrochimica Acta , 160 , 139–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.01.200 Zhang, M., Ahmed, A., & Xu, L. (2023). Electrospun Nanofibers for Functional Food Packaging Application. Materials , 16 (17), 5937. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16175937 Zhao, L., Zhang, M., Mujumdar, A. S., Adhikari, B., & Wang, H. (2022). Preparation of a Novel Carbon Dot/Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite Film and Its Application in Food Preservation. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces , 14 (33), 37528–37539. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c10869 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files GA.jpg Graphical Abstract Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4287163","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":298870635,"identity":"3ee620a5-2850-4eab-8a85-a556ef7a3e64","order_by":0,"name":"Mehmet Ali ALP","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bozok Universitesi","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mehmet","middleName":"Ali","lastName":"ALP","suffix":""},{"id":298870637,"identity":"9b98811b-c80c-464d-a229-6ff72e0bc5c9","order_by":1,"name":"Cemhan DOĞAN","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACNhDB2AAiPzAwJIBoCaK1MM5AaDEgTgszDzFa+Nu70x783MEg28+/+Nlj2zabPIMDzAdv8zD8ycelReLM2e2GvWcYjGfOeGZunNuWVmxwgC3ZmofBwLIBhxYDidxtErxtDIkbbhwwk85tO5y44QCPmTRQC06XGci/3Sb5F6zl+DdpS7AW/m/4tUjwbpMG23K+x0yaEWILG14tEmdyt0nLtkkA/cJTJtlzLq1Y8jCbseUcA2OcWvjbz26TfNtmAwyx49skfpTZ5PEdb354402FHN6IYQBHhEQCMHZAccQMdjABDRD7DgCJP8SoHAWjYBSMgpEGAIxJU4hYopY/AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Bozok Universitesi","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cemhan","middleName":"","lastName":"DOĞAN","suffix":""},{"id":298870641,"identity":"d475c309-b670-4ef6-8392-10ac3c34f57e","order_by":2,"name":"Yasin AKGUL","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karabük University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yasin","middleName":"","lastName":"AKGUL","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-18 10:45:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4287163/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4287163/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":56116704,"identity":"f24148f1-6298-4aad-9316-6644ac8f34a1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:10:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":60260,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic illustration of electro-blowing nanofiber production method\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/3e2507750029268066f73e9b.jpg"},{"id":56116706,"identity":"dcde4549-0747-4f70-a78c-dd8da1dd1d0b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:10:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72363,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUV-vis absorption (a) spectra and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of blood carbon dots\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/ced0122244b708bdc375ec0f.jpg"},{"id":56116975,"identity":"09fa0edc-dbb5-4136-ace4-b428ad52b17d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:18:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":80993,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCytotoxicity analysis and cell morphology of the BCDs toward Beas2B normal lung cell line (a-b) and HC normal chondrocytes cell line\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/941333134a69ecd97c6f3626.jpg"},{"id":56116705,"identity":"82a104d8-5428-4483-babd-8401ead098d7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:10:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":188495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM images and fiber diameter distribution of PVA, PVA-SA, and PVA-SA-BCDs nanofiber mats.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/c802d4d2638bdb3357b475b5.jpg"},{"id":56116976,"identity":"583a2487-6ff1-4f9d-aceb-a1eeb15336e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:18:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR spectrum (A), TGA and DTG curves (B), water contact angle (C) water solubility (D) and mechanical properties (E) nanofiber mat samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/9b59679c3388bb59de591955.jpg"},{"id":56116709,"identity":"0461c807-ef17-4e5e-a27d-4067a8864e13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:10:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":84508,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAntioxidant activity (A), antimicrobial activity (B) and, soil degradation (C) of nanofibers.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/8a5774753dceef73ea2743d8.jpg"},{"id":56116977,"identity":"4eea2ded-0d78-49b8-977c-5c71ad52ba82","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:18:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":48625,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTVC (a) and TBARS (b) values of chicken breast during the storage period\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/9596a8b7879af0341fb9cfb0.jpg"},{"id":57030933,"identity":"38fa80ab-d2c3-4877-98ee-a5abe8192e04","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-23 16:52:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1255236,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/30c49061-0fea-4a4a-a808-dd8841277b68.pdf"},{"id":56116708,"identity":"1583d568-8b9c-4245-98a1-6fc26b68e079","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-08 18:10:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":84049,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical Abstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GA.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4287163/v1/37592696591e35eb76ca6399.jpg"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Versatile blood carbon dots functionalized sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol electroblown nanofibers for rapid fabricated innovative active food packaging","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe main purpose of traditional food packaging is to protect food goods from external factors that could potentially harm their quality during transportation and storage. Nonetheless, conventional packaging methods may not consistently provide protection against two significant adversaries: microbial contamination and oxidative deterioration, both of which can transpire between the stages of packaging and consumption. This concern assumes heightened significance in the context of the burgeoning food retail sector, where the need for products with extended shelf lives is on the rise (Atta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In response to this evolving landscape, the concept of active food packaging has arisen as a pioneering solution that transcends the conventional bounds of packaging. Rather than confining its role to the mere containment and physical preservation of food items, active food packaging ventures into the realm of functionality and preservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe incorporation of spinning processes into the creation of nanostructured food packaging materials signifies a critical milestone in the quest for creative solutions in the packaging sector (M. Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). By harnessing spinning methods, especially the robust and rapid capabilities of solution blow spinning (SBS) and its refined counterpart, electroblowing (EB), the realm of food packaging stands to benefit significantly (Pokorn\u0026yacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The utilization of SBS is crucial in ensuring the efficient and prompt production of nanofibers, thanks to its capacity to achieve high production rates (Silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These nanofibers, when incorporated into packaging materials, not only enhance mechanical strength but also elevate the material's barrier properties, making them optimal for maintaining the freshness and integrity of food product (Shen, Zhong, et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the unique attributes of SBS-manufactured nanofibers possess notable characteristics such as elevated porosity and a distinct surface area, pave the way for the creation of high-performance packaging materials tailored to the stringent demands of the food industry (Shen, Yang, et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The transformative potential of EB further amplifies the scope of these innovations. By combining electrical and air-blowing forces, EB not only addresses the challenges associated with processing viscous polymer solutions but also amplifies the efficiency and precision of nanofiber production (Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This simultaneous application of forces, characteristic of EB, ensures a more effective fiberization process, leading to the development of nanofibers with unparalleled properties, a vital characteristic for the creation of next-generation food packaging materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon dots (CDs) are currently acknowledged as an especially promising category of zero-dimensional (0D) carbon nanomaterials(Moradi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Their exceptional properties have recently led to significant recognition, culminating in the award of the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Alexei Ekimov, Louis Brus, and Moungi Bawendi. The bioactive, non-toxic, harmless, and biocompatible nature of CDs renders them highly advantageous (Wagh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These unique attributes have generated significant enthusiasm for exploring their applications across diverse fields. Recently, there has been a considerable trend towards employing biomass waste as a source for making CDs (Kuang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This transformation has been driven by issues such as the increased stringency of environmental rules and the increasing volume of trash generated throughout production operations. This innovative approach not only aligns with sustainable practices but also represents a promising pathway for converting waste materials into valuable nanomaterials with versatile applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood waste, an unavoidable byproduct of the meat industry, poses a significant environmental challenge due to its immense global production, exemplified by the staggering 5\u0026nbsp;billion liters of bovine blood generated annually from slaughterhouses. The direct disposal of this waste into the environment results in rapid and extensive putrefaction, leading to severe pollution issues (Mozhiarasi and Natarajan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, finding practical applications for blood waste has become a crucial endeavour for both scientists and the meat industry. This effort is essential not only for curbing pollution but also for harnessing potentially valuable materials (Chalmpes et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Marques et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In tackling this challenge, the food industry has viewed blood waste from slaughterhouses as a good source of protein (da Silva Bambirra Alves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and bioactive components (Bah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, blood, albeit to a lesser extent, has served as a foundational source in the production of effective carbon materials (Chalmpes et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; J. Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These innovative approaches not only address environmental concerns but also open up new pathways for sustainable resource utilization and the development of valuable materials. There is currently no research on using CDs from blood waste in food packaging, despite the potential benefits. This unexplored area could provide innovative and eco-friendly solutions, making use of the substantial waste generated by slaughterhouses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlginate, a biopolymer derived from marine brown algae, finds extensive use in biological applications due to its biocompatibility, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and gel-forming properties (Rafiq et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Tong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It is composed of (1,4)-linked β-D-mannuronic acid and α-L-guluronic acid blocks connected through glycoside linkages (Dodero et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, spinning sodium alginate (SA) into nanofibrous structures faces challenges due to its rigid molecular chains, limiting proper chain entanglement in aqueous solutions (Nie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Successful spinning of SA has been achieved using various solvent-mixture containing water-soluble polymers like polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (Islam and Karim \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010b\u003c/span\u003e). PVA, a water-soluble synthetic polymer, enhances spinnability of alginate through intermolecular interactions, making it suitable for diverse biomedical applications (Das et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sattariazar, Nejad Ebrahimi, et al. 2023; Y. Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is limited research on utilizing carbon dots synthesis from diverse sources in food packaging films (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Mao et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wagh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Zhao et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and to our knowledge, no study has explored their use in spun nanofibers for food packaging applications. In this study, eco-friendly SA-PVA nanofibers functionalized with CDs sourced from bovine blood (BCDs) were fabricated using the EB method. The resulting packaging material underwent thorough characterization, including morphological, chemical, mechanical, thermal, barrier, and bioactive analyses. Finally, the created food packaging underwent testing with a real food model, representing a noteworthy stride towards innovative and sustainable packaging solutions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBovine blood was obtained from Yozgat, Boğazlıyan Municipality Slaughterhouse (Yozgat, T\u0026uuml;rkiye). The blood, which was filled directly into sterile sample containers during slaughter, was stored at -18 ᵒC until carbon dots synthesis. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), characterized by a purity of 87.8%, a density ranging from 0.4 to 0.6 g/cm3 at 20\u0026deg;C, and a melting point within the range of 160\u0026ndash;240\u0026deg;C, was procured from ZAG Kimya, situated in Istanbul, T\u0026uuml;rkiye. Sodium alginate, the sodium derivative of alginate, is a linear, anionic polysaccharide comprising two forms of 1,4-linked hexuronic acid residues, B-d-mannuronopyranosyl (M), and a-I-glucuronopyranosyl (G) residues. Sodium alginate was acquired from Kimbiotek Chemical Substances in Istanbul, T\u0026uuml;rkiye. Notably, the polymers were employed in their original form without undergoing any additional physical or chemical modifications. The chicken breast used was purchased from butcher shop (Yozgat, T\u0026uuml;rkiye). The fresh samples brought to the laboratory in an insulated bag were immediately taken into packaging applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. BCDs synthesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe synthesis of carbon dots from blood and the characterization of the resulting carbon dots are provided in the supplementary materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Preparation of solutions for electroblown spinning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe composite nanofiber mats were produced from three distinct solutions. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate (PVA/SA), and polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate/blood carbon dots (PVA/SA/ BCDs) dissolved in water and ethanol cosolvent. To ensure the complete dissolution of all components, the solutions were stirred for 6 hours at a temperature of 90℃. The electro-solution blowing process was applied to produce the nanofiber mats. The formulation of three distinct solutions and the detailed composition of each constituent is provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormation of polymer solutions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolution components\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCDs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(wt.% based on polymer)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePVA-SA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePVA-SA-BCDs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Fabrication of nanofibers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe production of nanofiber mats involved the use of the electro-blow spinning (EBS) technique, a method previously elucidated and detailed in our prior study, with slight modifications (Ahmed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The solutions were extruded through a nozzle using a 20-mL syringe connected to a syringe pump. The power supply was connected to both the nozzle and the machine frame. The schematic representation of the EBS process is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Constant air pressure of 1.5 bar, an applied voltage of 15 kV, and a feed rate of 15 mL/hr. were maintained to generate shear force. The resulting nanofibers were collected onto a rotating collector situated 35 cm away from the nozzle. After collection, the nanofibrous mats underwent a drying process for 24 hours at an ambient temperature of 40 ℃. Methods for morphological, chemical, thermal, mechanical, degradation, antioxidant and antimicrobial characterization of the produced nanofibers are given as supplementary material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Characterization of nanofibers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethods for morphological, chemical, thermal, mechanical, degradation, antioxidant and antimicrobial characterization of the produced nanofibers are given as supplementary material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Packaging of chicken fillets and challenge tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chicken fillets were initially cut into dimensions of 1 \u0026times; 2 \u0026times; 6 cm and coated with nanofibers. Subsequently, the coated chicken fillets were individually sealed in sterile polyethylene zipper bags and stored at +\u0026thinsp;4\u0026deg;C under aerobic conditions for the designated storage periods (0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 days). Samples stored without coating were considered as the control group. To assess the impact of nanofibers on the samples, microbiological analyses including total viable bacteria and, as well as oxidation (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were conducted (Doğan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eMicrobiological Analyses\u003c/span\u003e: In this experiment, a microbiological analysis was undertaken on the chicken samples post-separation from nanofibers. To aid accurate assessment, a tenfold dilution of the chicken samples was done using Ringer's solution, followed by aseptic homogenization via a stomacher. Subsequently, 0.1 mL of the resulting homogenate was carefully placed onto 9 cm diameter petri dishes, each containing Plate Count agar (PCA) chosen specifically for total viable count (TVC). Incubation of these petri plates proceeded for a duration of 24 hours at 35\u0026deg;C under aerobic conditions. Following this incubation time, rigorous enumeration of bacterial colony-forming units (CFUs) was done to derive insights regarding the microbial composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTBARS\u003c/span\u003e: TBARS analysis on chicken fillets was performed using the method of Borzi et al. (Borzi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe obtained results were subjected to statistical analysis using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and presented as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. Significance of differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) among the data sets was determined using IBM-SPSS 22.0 statistical package (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Group means were further compared utilizing the Duncan multiple comparison test. All analyses were conducted in triplicate under consistent experimental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Result and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Characterization of BCDs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe resultant solution of BCDs has a characteristic yellowish-brown tint, shifting drastically to a deep green hue when exposed to ultraviolet light (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This apparent color shift is ascribed to the quantum confinement phenomenon caused by the carbon dots, revealing their distinct optical features under specified illumination conditions (Khoshkalampour et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Roy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wagh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). BCDs display a characteristic peak at roughly 280 nm, related with the n\u0026ndash;π* transition of C═O or the C\u0026ndash;OH bond (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This strong peak provides as unequivocal evidence of the successful synthesis of carbon dots through the carbonization procedure applied to bovine blood. The optical properties position these carbon dots as attractive possibilities for active food packaging applications. The absorption peak aligns with the ultraviolet range, suggesting their efficiency as UV absorbers. This feature becomes particularly crucial in limiting the photooxidation of packaged food components, as UV exposure can result in the deterioration of nutritious content and undesired flavor modifications (Wagh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, TEM study verified that the sizes of the generated BCDs were within the nanometric range (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Cell toxicity of BCDs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConducting a comprehensive analysis of the adverse effects associated with substances used in active food packaging systems is a crucial aspect of guaranteeing food safety. In this research, PVA and SA polymers, both of which are recognised as safe under the Generally Recognised as Safe (GRAS) label, were used for the production of nanofibers. Since the nanofibers were activated with carbon dots derived from bovine blood, assessment of cell viability was performed using the MTT assay to examine the in vitro cytotoxic effect of BCDs. This evaluation specifically examined two separate cell lines: Beas2B normal lung cell line and HC normal chondrocyte cell line. Detailed findings are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Significant data arose from this undertaking, indicating a noticeable decrease in cell viability in both cell lines, illustrating a pattern that is depending on the concentration. Remarkably, despite exposure to 3.2 mg/mL, cellular viability remained robust, with levels exceeding 84% for the chondrocytes cell line and 82% for the lung cell line. The detailed observations offered by digital optical microscopy images, depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(b-d), illustrate the cellular structure of chondrocytes and lung cells after being exposed to BCDs. An important aspect of this work is the detailed examination of cellular density, which clearly shows that there are no significant changes in cellular density based on the concentration of BCDs in both cell lines. This absence of noticeable alterations highlights the durability and robustness of cellular structures, further substantiating the benign character of the produced carbon dots. Upon a thorough analysis of these facts, it becomes apparent that the carbon dots being examined demonstrate a notable combination of minimal toxicity and admirable compatibility with living organisms. These characteristics have significant ramifications, particularly when considering their use in food packing. The corroborative weight of earlier investigations (Truskewycz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) fortifies the argument that these carbon dots, designated as BCDs, feature an innately low degree of toxicity, placing them as attractive candidates for use in the area of food packaging with better safety requirements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Characterization of nanofibers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1. SEM\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe morphology of nanofibrous mats made of PVA, PVA blended with sodium alginate (SA), and PVA/SA embedded with BCDs was investigated by SEM. The SEM images, together with the diameter distribution of the samples, are displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The average diameters of the fibers were found to be 887.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.27 nm, 924.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.97 nm, and 893.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.99 nm for PVA, PVA/SA, and PVA/SA/BCDs nanocomposite fibrous mats, respectively. It was also discovered that the addition of SA into a PVA solution resulted in fibrous mats with a smooth, bead-free appearance and enhanced nanofiber diameters. This effect may be linked to the higher amount of SA, resulting to an elevation in stiff components within the spinning solution. This augmentation in polyelectrolytes within the solution relates to alterations in viscosity. The presence of SA may generate a gel-like reaction, making the spinning liquid more viscous and harder to inject during the spinning process (Kalaiselvimary et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This result correlates with comparable results reported by Wang et al. (C. Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), demonstrating a continuous impact of increasing SA content on the solution's rheological characteristics throughout the spinning process. It was investigated that the effect of SA content on fiber diameter and morphology. The first results underline the important significance of altering SA concentration in affecting both the diameter size and shape of PVA/SA fibers. This demonstrates the important influence of SA content on the ensuing features. An increase in SA content is related to a larger proportion of beads in the nanofibers. This is attributable to the heightened presence of stiff compounds in the spinning solution as SA content rises, resulting in an enhanced concentration of polyelectrolytes. The spinning liquid undergoes a gel-like reaction, increasing viscosity and hindering the spinning process. Conversely, a drop in SA concentration leads to an ongoing reduction in spinning solution viscosity, resulting in inadequate chain entanglement. This instability in the jet creates unequal fiber widths, with electrostatic repulsion causing jet splitting and the development of beaded fibers. These results underline the delicate link between SA content, solution rheology, and the final nanofiber shape, giving useful insights for improving the manufacturing process(C. Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dimensions of nanofibers were impacted by the incorporation of BCDs in varying concentrations during the electro-blow spinning process. It was observed that the introduction of BCDs brought about a slight alteration in the distribution diameter of nanofibers, which decreased from 924.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.97 nm to 893.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.99 nm. This finding aligns with prior research suggesting that the addition of CDs to nanofibers can reduce their diameter, attributed to the electrical conductivity of the CDs (Lee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, Sattariazar et al. (Sattariazar, Ebrahimi, et al. 2023), reported that as the concentration of the polyphenol-enriched extract of pomegranate peel carbon dots (CDs) increased, the average diameter of nanofibers exhibited a declining trend. Notably, SEM images of the PVA-Oxided SA scaffold in the group displayed surface fragility, a characteristic that was mitigated after the incorporation of CDs. This implies that CDs serve as an effective additive for enhancing the structural stability of nanofibers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2. FTIR analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e(A), the FT-IR spectra of nanofiber mats are presented. The spectra exhibit distinctive peaks associated with functional groups that significantly influence membrane performance. Across all samples, the stretching of the O-H hydroxyl group is evident within the broad peak range of 3000\u0026ndash;3500 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, suggesting the membrane's ability to facilitate water molecule flow and activate proton conductivity. Furthermore, a comparable peak in the range of 2700\u0026ndash;3000 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e indicates stretching on the C-H group, confirming that all membranes are hydrocarbon-based. (Shaari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the spectrum of pure PVA, distinctive peaks are observed, including \u0026ndash;OH stretching at 3289 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, aliphatic \u0026ndash;CH2 stretching at 2927 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, and \u0026ndash;C-O- stretching at 1099 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The PVA/SA blend-based electro-blow spun nanofibers mats exhibit distinctive peaks corresponding to both PVA and SA. Notably, a broader \u0026ndash;OH band is observed at 3318 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, and symmetric and asymmetric \u0026ndash;C double bond O- groups are identified at 1610 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 1407 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively. The introduction of SA results in a slight shift in the IR band due to carboxylate functionality, coupled with the broader -OH stretching. This shift suggests a potential hydrogen bonding interaction between the \u0026ndash;OH of PVA and the \u0026ndash;OH or \u0026ndash;COO- of SA within the blend, as indicated by Ali et al.(Ali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In the fingerprint region, a discernible change in peak intensity is observed between 1400\u0026ndash;1700 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 700\u0026ndash;1200 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, representing COO- COO-stretching and C-C, C-O, and C-H bending, respectively (Shaari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The bending of functional groups within this composite membrane is evident. The PVA/SA polymer combination distinctly features oxygenated functional groups, including O-H, C-O, C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O, C-O-C, and -COO. The incorporation of PVA into SA further extends the hydroxyl peak, indicating a weaker stretching vibration of the molecules in PVA/SA compared to pure SA nanofiber samples. This condition facilitates the formation of hydrogen bonds between the O-H groups of PVA and SA (Kalaiselvimary et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Whereas when BCDs are added there were not any significance change in the infrared spectra with respect to the PVA-SA blend samples, which proved that no new chemical bond was formed. This might be due to the complete embedment of BCD into PVA-SA fibers mats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3. TGA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TGA analysis was employed to characterize the thermal degradation behaviour of the electro-blow spun PVA, PVA/SA, and PVA/SA fiber mats. The representative outcome is illustrated in Figure. 5 (B), revealing two stages of decomposition for all samples. At the first stage between 51 \u0026ordm;C to 134.5 \u0026ordm;C approx. 3.5% weight loss occurred due to the loss of moisture absorbed by the composite nanofibers for the PVA sample. In the second/final stage, another 70% weight loss occurred for PVA between 200 \u0026ordm;C to 393 \u0026ordm;C due to the degradation of PVA. The same results were reported by Shahidul Islam and Rezaul Karim (Islam and Karim \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010a\u003c/span\u003e). In their study, it was reported that in the absence of oxygen, PVA typically undergoes dehydration and depolymerization at temperatures exceeding 200 and 400\u0026deg;C, respectively. The precise depolymerization temperature is influenced by factors such as the polymer's structure, molecular weight, and conformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the case of PVA/SA samples, the weight loss occurred at a temperature range between 98 to 178\u0026deg;C and 236 to 399\u0026deg;C, respectively for first-stage and second-stage weight losses. This heightened initiation temperature of decomposition observed in the PVA/SA fiber mat, as opposed to pure PVA, underscores the reinforcing effect of incorporating SA into the composite structure. The augmented thermal stability of the PVA/SA composite fibers is attributed to the inherently superior thermal properties of SA. The physical interaction between PVA and SA appears to fortify the overall thermal resilience of the composite, substantiating the advantageous impact of this compositional synergy on the material's thermal characteristics. (Tamizi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; C. Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, the temperature interval of the PVA/SA/BCD composite nanofiber mat in the second stage was significantly higher than that of the other two kinds of nanofiber mats. This may be due to the strong hydrogen bonding between sodium alginate and BCDs, which increases the thermal stability of the PVA/SA/BCD and increases the thermal degradation temperature (Nigiz \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, evident from the TGA graphs, the inclusion of blending and integrating carbon dots significantly influences the reduction in weight losses of PVA nanofibers and plays a pivotal role in enhancing their thermal stability characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.4. Water contact angle\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure. 5 (C) illustrates the water contact angle outcomes, serving as a measure of the nanofiber mats' surface hydrophobicity. The results disclosed that both PVA/SA and PVA/SA/BCD samples displayed water contact angles below 90\u0026deg;, indicative of their hydrophilic nature. The incorporation of SA into PVA notably decreased the water contact angle, emphasizing heightened hydrophilicity. This phenomenon may be attributed to the significant hydrophilic \u0026ndash;OH groups in PVA and \u0026ndash;COOH groups in SA, as indicated by the FTIR results. These functional groups shows a strong affinity with water molecules, enhancing the nanofibers' moisture absorption capacity (Talebi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In the same fashion, the inclusion of BCDs did show noticeable impact on the water contact angle of PVA/SA/BCD samples. This was potentially due to the inherent robust hydrophilic properties of SA and carbon dots. The findings suggest that the hydrophilicity of the doped carbon dots (CDs) has the capacity to alter the surface properties of the composite membranes. The introduction of carbon dots is identified as a contributing factor with the potential to modify the surface characteristics of the composite membranes (Dai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.5. Water solubility\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater sensitivity stands out as a crucial aspect in the realm of biodegradable or edible and films. This characteristic encompasses both water resistance during the application of the film on the surface of food products and its impact on the nanofiber's biodegradability when utilized as a packaging material. The ability of these films to resist water during their use is vital for maintaining their integrity and effectiveness in preserving and protecting food items. Simultaneously, the level of water sensitivity is a key factor influencing the biodegradation process when these nanofibers are eventually employed as packaging materials. Striking the right balance in water sensitivity is essential to ensure optimal functionality during usage and adherence to sustainability goals during the end-of-life phase [15]. The same principle is applicable for nanofiber mats too. Here in the water sensitivity was measured in terms of water solubility results. The water solubility of PVA, PVA/SA, and PVA/SA/BCDs nanofiber mats is depicted in Figure. 5 (D).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results showed a decrease in water solubility with the introduction of SA into PVA, further reduced with the incorporation of nanoparticles such as BCDs. This trend aligns with findings reported by Borregales et al.[16] in their study on Black Tea Extracts/Polyvinyl Alcohol active nanofibers. The observed consistency in outcomes across different studies underscores the influence of blending and nanoparticle incorporation on the water solubility of polymer nanocomposites. The decrease in water solubility observed in the nanofiber mats can be attributed primarily to the robust hydrogen bonds established between PVA and SA [17]. The introduction of SA enables the carboxyl and hydroxyl groups of SA to engage with an increased number of hydroxyl groups from PVA, resulting in the formation of new hydrogen bonds. This enhanced intermolecular interaction serves to strengthen the overall structure, reducing the likelihood of water molecules binding to the polymer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimultaneously, the introduction of SA makes it challenging for water molecules to penetrate the interior of the polymer molecules by disrupting the hydrogen bonds between them. This phenomenon contributes to the reduction in water solubility. A similar trend of reduced water solubility with an increased nanoparticle content has been observed in other alginate nanocomposite films, such as PVA/SA blend filled with hybrid nanoparticles (Ag and TiO2 NPs) [18] and the polycaprolactone (PCL) incorporated with phycocyanin-containing nanoparticles [19]. The findings suggest a consistent influence of nanoparticle incorporation on water solubility in various polymer nanocomposite systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.6. Mechanical property analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure. 5 (E). displays the results of the tensile tests conducted on electroblown nanofibers of PVA/SA and PVA/SA/BCD, with sole PVA serving as the reference material. This investigation aims to assess the effect of adding SA and BCDs on mechanical properties of PVA nanofiber mats. As illustrated in Figure. 5 (E), the pure PVA nanofiber mats had a tensile strength and elongation at break of 7.27\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;2.85 MPa and 2.38\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;1.301% respectively. By incorporating SA into the PVA, the electroblown mats showed an increase in both tensile strength and elongation at break. The enhanced mechanical properties were attributed to the existence of specific intermolecular interaction between SA and PVA, and the interaction of hydrogen bonds between the hydrophilic PVA and SA (PAKOLPAK\u0026Ccedil;IL \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). For the BCD incorporated samples there were an increase the tensile strength increased to 10.34\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.274 MPa, and a slight decrease on the elongation at break. The addition of BCD to polymer structures has been documented to enhance tensile strength. This improvement is attributed to the involvement of nanoparticles in the formation of the semi-crystalline structure of polymers following mechanical alterations (Hezma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.7. Antioxidant activity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antioxidant activity of electroblown nanofibers was examined using the ABTS and DPPH techniques, frequently applied for evaluating the antioxidant functionality of packaging films. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e (A) illustrates the results of the nanofibers' antioxidant activity. PVA nanofibers displayed noticeable antioxidant activity, displaying 2.6% and 4.3% ABTS and DPPH scavenging capabilities, respectively. Similarly, sodium alginate and PVA mix nanofibers demonstrated low antioxidant ability, registering 4.1% and 5.9% ABTS and DPPH scavenging activities, respectively. The observed antioxidant activity in PVA and PVA/SA samples without active ingredients are attributed to the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups, serving as electron donors and interacting with free radicals. In contrast, nanofibers including BCDs displayed considerably improved antioxidant activity, displaying antioxidant effects within a few minutes of incubation in both ways. The inclusion of BCDs greatly raised the free radical scavenging ability of PVA/SA nanofibers, reaching 53.9% in the DPPH method and 86.2% in the ABTS method. The high antioxidant efficiency displayed by BCDs is related to the active involvement of surface functional groups in the scavenging activities of free radicals. This work convincingly indicates that the integration of BCDs as a functional material inside nanofibers stands out as a strong strategy for increasing the antioxidant features of the coated material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.8. Antimicrobial activity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs predicted, neither PVA nor PVA/SA nanofibers displayed any obvious antibacterial activity against the investigated bacterial strains. In striking contrast, the insertion of BCDs into the nanofibers revealed strong antibacterial action, resulting in the creation of inhibition zones of 22.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.8 mm and 17.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.7 mm against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(b)). Upon contact with bacteria in the presence of moisture, carbon dots (CDs) formed highly reactive oxygen species, including superoxide and hydroxyl radicals (Moradi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These reactive species exhibit the capacity to penetrate bacterial cell walls, resulting to bacterial death (Dong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, past uses of carbon dots (CDs) in food packaging predominantly employed solvent casting, with studies showing its extensive antibacterial characteristics against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Deepika et al. 2023; Roy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, issues such as CD agglomeration during the casting process and the restricted dispersion of CDs owing to the two-dimensional structure of the film might impair its overall effectiveness (Das Purkayastha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the three-dimensional structure and expansive surface area of nanofibers provide an excellent platform for the effective diffusion of CDs from the coating material. This unique structural property enables nanofibers to exercise superior control over microbes. By addressing the restrictions associated with standard casting procedures, electroblown nanofibers offer a new path for enhancing the antibacterial efficacy of CDs in food packaging systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.9. Soil degradation of nanofibers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe degradability of the produced nanofibers was evaluated for 60 days using the soil burial method, as depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(C). The primary mechanism by which these nanofibers degrade is through the process of hydrolysis, in which the presence of water plays a crucial role. The existence of water molecules in both the soil and on the material surface facilitates the development and multiplication of microorganisms involved in the degradation of polymer films. Concurrently, hydrolysis takes place when the polymer backbone is broken down by breaking the hydrogen bonds with water molecules, leading to the creation of smaller pieces. The presence of hydrophilic chemicals in the coating material accelerates the breakdown process (Kalanidhi K and Nagaraaj P \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The degradation rates of each manufactured nanofiber varied depending on their composition and intrinsic features. The nanofibers composed only of PVA underwent total disintegration during a period of 28 days, but the PVA/SA sample showed visible degradation slightly later, around day 36. The cause of this delay is ascribed to the hydrogen bonds established between PVA and SA. Significantly, nanofibers with BCDs exhibited an extended deterioration period, concluding on the 57th day. The prolonged degradation duration can be attributed to the significant antibacterial properties of the PVA/SA/BCDs sample, which potentially impede the activities of degrading microorganisms. Consequently, these findings suggest that the synthesized nanofibers could serve as effective alternatives to synthetic packaging materials, giving environmental friendliness through their intrinsic degradability. This attribute presents them as prospective tools for sustainable packaging solutions, contributing to the decrease of environmental effect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Challenge tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bacterial load in meat products normally climbs with contamination and continues to rise during the storage period, resulting in lower nutritional value and poor food quality (Walker et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). An active food packaging technology is projected to play a crucial role in managing microbial proliferation. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e(a) delineates the impact of nanofibers on the total viable bacteria count (TVC) of chicken flesh across the storage duration. While the TVC values of PVA and PVA/SA samples displayed a minimal reduction compared to the control after storage, they all reached the crucial threshold of 6 log CFU/g after the 6th day, a limit acknowledged for meat products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn striking contrast, the TVC value of the PVA/SA/BCDs sample displayed a marked suppression, attributed to the antibacterial activity inherent in the synthesized carbon dots. Even at the conclusion of the storage period on the 12th day, the TVC value for this sample remained below the stated limit level. These findings substantiate the persistence of the antibacterial efficacy of blood-based carbon dots, not only under controlled in vitro circumstances but also under the dynamic and complicated in situ conditions simulating real-world storage environments. The preservation of antimicrobial activity underlines the potential of blood-based carbon dots as effective agents for restricting bacterial development in meat products, presenting a viable approach for increasing food security and prolonging the shelf life of perishable commodities. The principal non-microbial factor contributing to deterioration in meat is lipid oxidation, a process begun post-slaughter and persisting until consumption. Unsaturated fatty acids, interacting with oxygen via the free radical chain mechanism, give birth to a variety of quality-compromising secondary chemicals, including hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and esters (Tav\u0026aacute;rez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Active food packaging, comprising antioxidant compounds, has promise in delaying oxidation. To determine this, TBARS values of the chicken fillets were tracked during the storage period Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e(b). The uncoated group demonstrated highest TBARS value at 1.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13 mg/kg after the completion of the storage period. While PVA and PVA/SA samples revealed low antioxidant activity, potentially negligible, they nonetheless generated a considerable reduction in chicken meat oxidation. This reduction could be related to the packaging's ability to build a barrier against air, thereby lowering oxidative reactions. Notably, nanofibers infused with BCDs, proved for their considerable antioxidant effects in previous section, retained the lowest TBARS readings throughout the whole storage term. These data underline that nanofibers containing blood-based carbon dots can serve as an instrument in preventing oxidative degradation, giving a viable option to combat the harmful effects of lipid oxidation in meat products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this work, we applied the electroblowing approach to speedily create active food packaging, imbuing the packaging material with unique features through the integration of Bovine Blood-derived Carbon Dots. Rigorous testing was then undertaken utilizing a real food model. The important conclusions of this study are concisely stated below:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The synergistic combination of PVA and SA and generated a homogeneous fiber structure, free from droplets. Introducing BCDs promoted partial droplet formation but concurrently led to a reduction in fiber diameter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The inclusion of BCDs did not introduce any noticeable peaks in the FTIR spectra, perfectly integrating them into the nanofiber matrix.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; BCDs increased the thermal stability and mechanical strength of PVA/SA nanofibers, reinforcing their overall structural integrity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; While the incorporation of BCDs decreased water contact angles, it heightened water insolubility.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The nanofiber mats, proven efficient for their antioxidative and antibacterial characteristics both in vitro and in meat applications, demonstrated a tangible influence in delaying microbiological and oxidative deterioration in chicken fillets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn closing, our study emphasizes the potential of Carbon Dot-loaded nanofibers, speedily manufactured by electroblown spinning technique, as a promising path for innovating novel food packaging applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContributions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMehmet Ali ALP: investigation, methodology,\u0026nbsp;data curation, formal analysis; Cemhan DOĞAN: conceptualization, formal analysis, validation, visualization, funding acquisition, writing – original draft, Yasin AKGUL: formal analysis, validation, investigation, writing – original draft,\u0026nbsp;software,\u0026nbsp;methodology\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors declare no conflict of interest in the work presented in manuscript “Versatile blood carbon dots functionalized sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol electroblown nanofibers for rapid fabricated innovative active food packaging” submitted for publication in the Food and Bioprocess Technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinancial support was given by\u0026nbsp;Yozgat Bozok University/Project Coordination Application and Research Center [grant number FYL-2023-1135].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe truly appreciate the help of, Nurcan DOĞAN for application studies, and Ali AYDIN for MTT studies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available on request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhmed, S. B., Doğan, N., Doğan, C., \u0026amp; Akgul, Y. (2023). A Novel Approach to Crosslink Gelatin Nanofibers Through Neutralization-Induced Maillard Reaction. \u003cem\u003eFood and Bioprocess Technology\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;15.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAli, I., Peng, C., Lin, D., Saroj, D. P., Naz, I., Khan, Z. M., et al. (2019). Encapsulated green magnetic nanoparticles for the removal of toxic Pb2+ and Cd2+ from water: Development, characterization and application. \u003cem\u003eJournal of environmental management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e234\u003c/em\u003e, 273\u0026ndash;289.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAtta, O. M., Manan, S., Shahzad, A., Ul-Islam, M., Ullah, M. W., \u0026amp; Yang, G. (2022). Biobased materials for active food packaging: A review. \u003cem\u003eFood Hydrocolloids\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e125\u003c/em\u003e, 107419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107419\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBah, C. S. F., Bekhit, A. E.-D. A., Carne, A., \u0026amp; McConnell, M. A. (2013). Slaughterhouse Blood: An Emerging Source of Bioactive Compounds. \u003cem\u003eComprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(3), 314\u0026ndash;331. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12013\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBorzi, F., Torrieri, E., Wrona, M., \u0026amp; Ner\u0026iacute;n, C. (2019). Polyamide modified with green tea extract for fresh minced meat active packaging applications. \u003cem\u003eFood Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e300\u003c/em\u003e, 125242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125242\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChalmpes, N., G, A., M, B., D, M., A, A., Ab, B., et al. (2021). Fast and Direct Microwave Synthesis of Carbon from Bovine Blood Waste: A Feedstock Material for Extractive Metallurgy, Carbon Dots Production and Graphite Synthesis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Nanotechnology Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(4), 11\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eda Silva Bambirra Alves, F. E., Carpin\u0026eacute;, D., Teixeira, G. L., Goedert, A. C., de Paula Scheer, A., \u0026amp; Ribani, R. H. (2021). Valorization of an Abundant Slaughterhouse By-product as a Source of Highly Technofunctional and Antioxidant Protein Hydrolysates. \u003cem\u003eWaste and Biomass Valorization\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(1), 263\u0026ndash;279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-020-00985-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDai, Y., Wang, J., Tao, P., \u0026amp; He, R. (2019). Various hydrophilic carbon dots doped high temperature proton exchange composite membranes based on polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyethersulfone. \u003cem\u003eJournal of colloid and interface science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e553\u003c/em\u003e, 503\u0026ndash;511.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDas, K. P., Sharma, D., \u0026amp; Satapathy, B. K. (2023). Structurally stable polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate-based optimally designed electrospun mats as mechanistically robust controlled-urea-release-systems. \u003cem\u003eIndustrial Crops and Products\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e193\u003c/em\u003e, 116220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.116220\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDas Purkayastha, M., Manhar, A. K., Das, V. K., Borah, A., Mandal, M., Thakur, A. J., \u0026amp; Mahanta, C. L. (2014). Antioxidative, Hemocompatible, Fluorescent Carbon Nanodots from an \u0026ldquo;End-of-Pipe\u0026rdquo; Agricultural Waste: Exploring Its New Horizon in the Food-Packaging Domain. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e62\u003c/em\u003e(20), 4509\u0026ndash;4520. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf500138f\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDeepika, Kumar, L., \u0026amp; K. Gaikwad, K. (2023). Carbon dots for food packaging applications. \u003cem\u003eSustainable Food Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(2), 185\u0026ndash;199. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2FB00020B\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDodero, A., Donati, I., Scarf\u0026igrave;, S., Mirata, S., Alberti, S., Lova, P., et al. (2021). Effect of sodium alginate molecular structure on electrospun membrane cell adhesion. \u003cem\u003eMaterials Science and Engineering: C\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e124\u003c/em\u003e, 112067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2021.112067\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDoğan, N., Doğan, C., Eticha, A. K., Gungor, M., \u0026amp; Akgul, Y. (2022). Centrifugally spun micro-nanofibers based on lemon peel oil/gelatin as novel edible active food packaging: Fabrication, characterization, and application to prevent foodborne pathogens E. coli and S. aureus in cheese. \u003cem\u003eFood Control\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e139\u003c/em\u003e, 109081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109081\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDong, X., Liang, W., Meziani, M. J., Sun, Y.-P., \u0026amp; Yang, L. (2020). Carbon Dots as Potent Antimicrobial Agents. \u003cem\u003eTheranostics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(2), 671\u0026ndash;686. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.39863\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHezma, A., Rajeh, A., \u0026amp; Mannaa, M. A. (2019). An insight into the effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on the structural, thermal, mechanical properties and antimicrobial activity of Cs/PVA composite. \u003cem\u003eColloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e581\u003c/em\u003e, 123821.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIslam, M. S., \u0026amp; Karim, M. R. (2010a). Fabrication and characterization of poly (vinyl alcohol)/alginate blend nanofibers by electrospinning method. \u003cem\u003eColloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e366\u003c/em\u003e(1\u0026ndash;3), 135\u0026ndash;140.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIslam, Md. S., \u0026amp; Karim, M. R. (2010b). Fabrication and characterization of poly(vinyl alcohol)/alginate blend nanofibers by electrospinning method. \u003cem\u003eColloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e366\u003c/em\u003e(1), 135\u0026ndash;140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2010.05.038\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKalaiselvimary, J., Selvakumar, K., Rajendran, S., Sowmya, G., \u0026amp; Ramesh Prabhu, M. (2019). Effect of surface‐modified montmorillonite incorporated biopolymer membranes for PEM fuel cell applications. \u003cem\u003ePolymer Composites\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e(S1), E301\u0026ndash;E311.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKalanidhi K \u0026amp; Nagaraaj P. (2022). N-doped carbon dots incorporated chitosan/polyvinylpyrrolidone based polymer film for advanced packaging applications. \u003cem\u003eChemical Physics Letters\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e805\u003c/em\u003e, 139960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2022.139960\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhan, A., Priyadarshi, R., Bhattacharya, T., \u0026amp; Rhim, J.-W. (2023). Carrageenan/Alginate-Based Functional Films Incorporated with Allium sativum Carbon Dots for UV-Barrier Food Packaging. \u003cem\u003eFood and Bioprocess Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(9), 2001\u0026ndash;2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03048-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhoshkalampour, A., Ghorbani, M., \u0026amp; Ghasempour, Z. (2023). Cross-linked gelatin film enriched with green carbon quantum dots for bioactive food packaging. \u003cem\u003eFood Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e404\u003c/em\u003e, 134742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134742\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKuang, T., Jin, M., Lu, X., Liu, T., Vahabi, H., Gu, Z., \u0026amp; Gong, X. (2023). Functional carbon dots derived from biomass and plastic wastes. \u003cem\u003eGreen Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e25\u003c/em\u003e(17), 6581\u0026ndash;6602. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3GC01763J\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLee, C., Pant, B., Alam, A.-M., An, T., Chung, H.-J., Hong, S.-T., et al. (2016). Biocompatible and photoluminescent keratin/poly(vinyl alcohol)/carbon quantum dot nanofiber: A novel multipurpose electrospun mat. \u003cem\u003eMacromolecular Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e24\u003c/em\u003e(10), 924\u0026ndash;930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13233-016-4124-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, S., Chen, Z., Zhang, H., Li, Y., Maierhaba, T., An, J., et al. (2023). Comparison of eugenol and dihydromyricetin loaded nanofibers by electro-blowing spinning for active packaging. \u003cem\u003eFood Bioscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e51\u003c/em\u003e, 102294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2022.102294\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMao, L., Zuo, J., Liu, Y., Zheng, B., Dai, X., Bai, Z., et al. (2023). Alginate based films integrated with nitrogen-functionalized carbon dots and layered clay for active food packaging applications. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Biological Macromolecules\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e253\u003c/em\u003e, 126653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126653\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarques, B., Nunes, R., Ara\u0026uacute;jo-Rodrigues, H., Pintado, M., Pereira, R. N., Teixeira, J. A., \u0026amp; Rocha, C. M. R. (2023). Solubilization and Hydrolysis of Porcine Coagulated Blood Protein Using Sub-Critical Solvent Extraction. \u003cem\u003eFood and Bioprocess Technology\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03111-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoradi, M., Molaei, R., Kousheh, S. A., T. Guimar\u0026atilde;es, J., \u0026amp; McClements, D. J. (2023). Carbon dots synthesized from microorganisms and food by-products: active and smart food packaging applications. \u003cem\u003eCritical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e63\u003c/em\u003e(14), 1943\u0026ndash;1959. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.2015283\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMozhiarasi, V., \u0026amp; Natarajan, T. S. (2022). Slaughterhouse and poultry wastes: management practices, feedstocks for renewable energy production, and recovery of value added products. \u003cem\u003eBiomass Conversion and Biorefinery\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02352-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNie, H., He, A., Zheng, J., Xu, S., Li, J., \u0026amp; Han, C. C. (2008). Effects of Chain Conformation and Entanglement on the Electrospinning of Pure Alginate. \u003cem\u003eBiomacromolecules\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1362\u0026ndash;1365. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm701349j\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNigiz, F. U. (2020). Graphene oxide‑sodium alginate membrane for seawater desalination through pervaporation. \u003cem\u003eDesalination\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e485\u003c/em\u003e, 114465.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePAKOLPAK\u0026Ccedil;IL, A. (2022). Effect of Glutaraldehyde Crosslinking Parameters on Mechanical and Wetting Properties of PVA/NaAlg Electrospun Mat. \u003cem\u003eSakarya University Journal of Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e(5), 990\u0026ndash;999.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePokorn\u0026yacute;, M., Bardoňov\u0026aacute;, L., Kotzianov\u0026aacute;, A., \u0026amp; Velebn\u0026yacute;, V. (2023). Chapter 4 - Gas-assisted electrospinning and electroblowing. In A. Kargari, T. Matsuura, \u0026amp; M. M. A. Shirazi (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eElectrospun and Nanofibrous Membranes\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 81\u0026ndash;103). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823032-9.00021-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRafiq, M., Hussain, T., Abid, S., Nazir, A., \u0026amp; Masood, R. (2018). Development of sodium alginate/PVA antibacterial nanofibers by the incorporation of essential oils. \u003cem\u003eMaterials Research Express\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(3), 035007. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aab0b4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoy, S., Ezati, P., \u0026amp; Rhim, J.-W. (2021). Gelatin/Carrageenan-Based Functional Films with Carbon Dots from Enoki Mushroom for Active Food Packaging Applications. \u003cem\u003eACS Applied Polymer Materials\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(12), 6437\u0026ndash;6445. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.1c01175\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSattariazar, S., Ebrahimi, S. N., \u0026amp; Arsalani, N. (2023). Enhancing the properties of electrospun polyvinyl Alcohol/Oxidized sodium alginate nanofibers with fluorescence carbon Dots: Preparation and characterization. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Pharmaceutics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e644\u003c/em\u003e, 123358.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSattariazar, S., Nejad Ebrahimi, S., \u0026amp; Arsalani, N. (2023). Enhancing the properties of electrospun polyvinyl Alcohol/Oxidized sodium alginate nanofibers with fluorescence carbon Dots: Preparation and characterization. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Pharmaceutics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e644\u003c/em\u003e, 123358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123358\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShaari, N., Kamarudin, S., Basri, S., Shyuan, L., Masdar, M., \u0026amp; Nordin, D. (2018). Enhanced proton conductivity and methanol permeability reduction via sodium alginate electrolyte-sulfonated graphene oxide bio-membrane. \u003cem\u003eNanoscale research letters\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;16.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShen, C., Yang, Z., Wu, D., \u0026amp; Chen, K. (2023). The preparation, resources, applications, and future trends of nanofibers in active food packaging: a review. \u003cem\u003eCritical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e0\u003c/em\u003e(0), 1\u0026ndash;16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2214819\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShen, C., Zhong, J., Guo, F., Zhang, C., Zhu, C., Wu, D., \u0026amp; Chen, K. (2023). Curcumin-loaded polycaprolactone/carboxymethyl chitosan nanofibers with photodynamic inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus developed by solution blow spinning. \u003cem\u003eLWT\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e186\u003c/em\u003e, 115261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115261\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSilva, M. J., Dias, Y. J., \u0026amp; Yarin, A. L. (2023). Electrically-assisted supersonic solution blowing and solution blow spinning of fibrous materials from natural rubber extracted from havea brasilienses. \u003cem\u003eIndustrial Crops and Products\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e192\u003c/em\u003e, 116101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.116101\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTalebi, M., Abbasizadeh, S., \u0026amp; Keshtkar, A. R. (2017). Evaluation of single and simultaneous thorium and uranium sorption from water systems by an electrospun PVA/SA/PEO/HZSM5 nanofiber. \u003cem\u003eProcess Safety and Environmental Protection\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e109\u003c/em\u003e, 340\u0026ndash;356.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTamizi, E., Azizi, M., Seyed Dorraji, M. S., Dusti, Z., \u0026amp; Panahi-Azar, V. (2018). Stabilized core/shell PVA/SA nanofibers as an efficient drug delivery system for dexpanthenol. \u003cem\u003ePolymer Bulletin\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e75\u003c/em\u003e, 547\u0026ndash;560.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTav\u0026aacute;rez, M. A., Boler, D. D., Bess, K. N., Zhao, J., Yan, F., Dilger, A. C., et al. (2011). Effect of antioxidant inclusion and oil quality on broiler performance, meat quality, and lipid oxidation. \u003cem\u003ePoultry Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e90\u003c/em\u003e(4), 922\u0026ndash;930. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2010-01180\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTong, W. Y., Ahmad Rafiee, A. R., Leong, C. R., Tan, W.-N., Dailin, D. J., Almarhoon, Z. M., et al. (2023). Development of sodium alginate-pectin biodegradable active food packaging film containing cinnamic acid. \u003cem\u003eChemosphere\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e336\u003c/em\u003e, 139212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139212\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTruskewycz, A., Yin, H., Halberg, N., Lai, D. T. H., Ball, A. S., Truong, V. K., et al. (2022). Carbon Dot Therapeutic Platforms: Administration, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, Toxicity, and Therapeutic Potential. \u003cem\u003eSmall\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e18\u003c/em\u003e(16), 2106342. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202106342\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWagh, R. V., Khan, A., Priyadarshi, R., Ezati, P., \u0026amp; Rhim, J.-W. (2023). Cellulose nanofiber-based multifunctional films integrated with carbon dots and anthocyanins from Brassica oleracea for active and intelligent food packaging applications. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Biological Macromolecules\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e233\u003c/em\u003e, 123567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123567\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWalker, P., Rhubart-Berg, P., McKenzie, S., Kelling, K., \u0026amp; Lawrence, R. S. (2005). Public health implications of meat production and consumption. \u003cem\u003ePublic Health Nutrition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(4), 348\u0026ndash;356. https://doi.org/10.1079/PHN2005727\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, C., Zuo, Q., Wang, L., Long, B., Salleh, K. M., Anuar, N. I. S., \u0026amp; Zakaria, S. (2021). Diameter optimization of polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate fiber membranes using response surface methodology. \u003cem\u003eMaterials Chemistry and Physics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e271\u003c/em\u003e, 124969.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, Y., Ding, C., Zhao, Y., Zhang, J., Ding, Q., Zhang, S., et al. (2023). Sodium alginate/poly(vinyl alcohol)/taxifolin nanofiber mat promoting diabetic wound healing by modulating the inflammatory response, angiogenesis, and skin flora. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Biological Macromolecules\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e252\u003c/em\u003e, 126530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126530\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWong, C. Y., Wong, W. Y., Loh, K. S., Daud, W. R. W., Lim, K. L., Khalid, M., \u0026amp; Walvekar, R. (2020). Development of poly (vinyl alcohol)-based polymers as proton exchange membranes and challenges in fuel cell application: a review. \u003cem\u003ePolymer reviews\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e(1), 171\u0026ndash;202.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, J., Li, Q., Zhang, C., Mai, L., Pan, M., \u0026amp; Mu, S. (2015). A N-self-doped carbon catalyst derived from pig blood for oxygen reduction with high activity and stability. \u003cem\u003eElectrochimica Acta\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e160\u003c/em\u003e, 139\u0026ndash;144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.01.200\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, M., Ahmed, A., \u0026amp; Xu, L. (2023). Electrospun Nanofibers for Functional Food Packaging Application. \u003cem\u003eMaterials\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(17), 5937. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16175937\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, L., Zhang, M., Mujumdar, A. S., Adhikari, B., \u0026amp; Wang, H. (2022). Preparation of a Novel Carbon Dot/Polyvinyl Alcohol Composite Film and Its Application in Food Preservation. \u003cem\u003eACS Applied Materials \u0026amp; Interfaces\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(33), 37528\u0026ndash;37539. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c10869\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Active packaging, Electroblowing, Carbon dots, Polyvinyl alcohol, Sodium alginate, Nanofibers","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4287163/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4287163/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research used electroblown nanofibers made from a blend of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate (SA), activated by carbon dots obtained from bovine blood (BCDs), to create a new solution for active food packaging. The nanoscale size of BCDs revealed low toxicity on chondrocyte and lung cell types, ensuring safety in biomedical applications. The insertion of BCDs into the nanofiber matrix lowered surface hydrophobicity but strengthened water solubility and mechanical strength. These nanofibers demonstrated exceptional antioxidant activities and exhibited inhibitory effects against both \u003cem\u003eE. coli \u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e S. aureus\u003c/em\u003e. Conducting real food trials on chicken fillets disclosed the large reduction in viable bacteria count and lipid oxidation, consequently extending the durability of the product. Noteworthy is the eco-conscious element of these nanofibers; in soil burial experiments, the packing material disintegrated within a mere 57 days, underlining its negligible environmental impact. These environmentally friendly electroblown nanofibers, supplemented with BCDs, represent a viable future for sustainable food packaging. In seamlessly coupling food safety with eco-friendly methods, this methodology offers a comprehensive and practical answer for the packaging industry.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Versatile blood carbon dots functionalized sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol electroblown nanofibers for rapid fabricated innovative active food packaging","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-08 18:10:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4287163/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0672c77c-07a6-4200-9e6c-d04ecc8dbe93","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 8th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-23T16:44:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-08 18:10:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4287163","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4287163","identity":"rs-4287163","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}