Effects of directional takeover request interfaces on drivers’ gaze behaviour during transitions from automation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

During SAE Level 2 and 3 automated driving, drivers must resume control when the vehicle reaches the limits of its Operational Design Domain (ODD). Gaze behaviour plays a critical role during this transition, as effective information processing is essential for safely resuming manual control. Directional Takeover Requests (TORs) have been proposed to guide drivers’ attention towards safety-critical areas, thereby reducing takeover time and improving takeover quality. However, existing research on the effects of directional TORs on gaze behaviour has found inconsistent results. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to clarify effects of directional TORs on drivers’ gaze behaviour compared to non-directional TORs during transitions of control. Meta-analyses revealed that incorporating directionality into the visual interface increased both the number and duration of fixations on the TOR display. Directional TORs effectively guided drivers’ visual attention towards hazards and reduced cognitive demands, although their effects on mirror-checking and road fixations varied with interface modality and location.