Association Between Urban Green Space Use and Physical, Mental, and Social Well-being Among Adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico

Association Between Urban Green Space Use and Physical, Mental, and Social Well-being Among Adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Association Between Urban Green Space Use and Physical, Mental, and Social Well-being Among Adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico Jorge Lopez-Haro, Adriana Isabel Andrade-Sanchez, Francisco Jacobo Gomez-Chavez, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7077438/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Discover Public Health → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Urban green spaces (UGS) play a crucial role in promoting healthy lifestyles in cities. This study aimed to characterize the habits of UGS use among adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, and to analyze their association with physical, mental, and social well-being. A quantitative, cross-sectional, descriptive, and exploratory study was conducted using a multivariate approach. The sample included 676 adults aged 18 to 65 years. Data collection instruments included a sociodemographic questionnaire and a UGS usage habits questionnaire, along with validated measures of physical well-being (self-rated general health), mental well-being (depression), and social well-being (social cohesion). The results revealed that 26.6% of participants reported not visiting UGS in the past month. Among users, physical exercisewas the most common activity (32.3%). A positive associationwas found between regular UGS use and higher levels of physical and social well-being. These findings highlight the importance of UGS as supportive environments for health promotionin urban populations. Urban green spaces physical well-being mental well-being social well-being health promotion Puerto Vallarta Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Urbanization and the rapid expansion of cities in recent decades have led to a growing demand for urban green spaces (UGS), which are widely recognized for their potential to enhance public health and well-being ( 1 ). UGS not only provide areas for recreation and relaxation, but also play a crucial role in promoting physical activity, reducing psychological stress, and strengthening social cohesion ( 2 , 3 ). As cities continue to grow, understanding how urban populations interact with these spaces and how such interactions affect quality of life has become increasingly important. Public health challenges in the 21st century are closely linked to lifestyle changes, particularly the rise in physical inactivity and mental health burdens. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, and mental disorders, account for approximately 71% of all global deaths (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018). In Mexico, 19.2% of adults do not meet recommended physical activity levels ( 5 ), and global projections estimate that by 2030, the prevalence of insufficient physical activity may reach 34%, making it unlikely to achieve the global target of a 15% relative reduction ( 6 ). In terms of mental health, depression affected an estimated 4.4% of the global population in 2017, with a growing trend (WHO, 2017). In Mexico, 16.7% of adults report depressive symptoms ( 8 ). Evidence shows that UGS use varies considerably across populations and urban settings. A recent systematic review synthesizing findings from 31 international studies found consistent evidence that regular and active use of UGS is positively associated with multiple dimensions of adult well-being. Specifically, UGS use was linked to increased physical activity, improved cardiovascular health, reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression, and enhanced social cohesion through community interaction and support networks ( 9 ). These findings underscore the multifaceted health benefits of UGS and support their promotion as key elements of healthy urban environments. However, the use and accessibility of UGS are shaped by multiple factors, including infrastructure quality, maintenance, safety perception, proximity, and user demographics. These elements must be considered in urban planning to promote equitable access and maximize their health benefits ( 10 ). Puerto Vallarta, a coastal city in western Mexico undergoing rapid urban growth and tourism-driven economic development( 11 ), has limited research examining the use of UGS and their impact on the well-being of local residents ( 12 ). Reports indicate that 35.1% of adults in the city are physically inactive, with men generally showing lower inactivity rates than women. Psychological distress is also prevalent, with 26.2% of adults reporting high levels and 19.9% reporting very high levels of distress, disproportionately affecting women ( 13 ). Although Puerto Vallarta offers a variety of parks, gardens, and natural areas ( 12 , 14 ), little is known about how these spaces are used by adults or how their use relates to well-being outcomes. Therefore, this study aims to characterize the usage habits of UGS among adults in Puerto Vallarta and to analyze the relationship between their use and physical, mental, and social well-being. Methods Study Design This was a quantitative, cross-sectional, descriptive, and exploratory study with a multivariate analytical approach. This design allowed for a broad and detailed examination of urban green space (UGS) usage habits among adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, and for the analysis of how these habits relate to physical, mental, and social well-being. A multivariate approach was used to explore the relationships among several variables simultaneously. Participants A non-probabilistic convenience sample was used, consisting of adult residents of Puerto Vallarta aged 18 to 65 years. The minimum sample size was calculated using the formula for an infinite population, with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, resulting in a minimum of 384 participants. However, due to the non-random sampling, the sample is not representative of the entire population of Puerto Vallarta. Inclusion criteria were: permanent residence in Puerto Vallarta and age between 18 and 65 years. Non-inclusion criteria were: tourists, temporary residents, individuals with less than six months of residence in Puerto Vallarta, and individuals under 18 or over 65 years of age. Exclusion criteria included incomplete questionnaires, inconsistent or false responses, and responses deemed unserious or incoherent by the interviewer. Instruments Data were collected using a combination of validated scales and custom-designed questionnaires developed specifically for this study. These instruments assessed sociodemographic characteristics, urban green space (UGS) usage habits, and dimensions of physical, mental, and social well-being. Sociodemographic variables : Participants reported their gender, age, marital status, education level, income level, and primary economic activity. This information was used to characterize the sample and explore how sociodemographic factors might influence UGS use and well-being. UGS usage habits : A set of study-specific questions was used to assess how participants interacted with UGS. Items addressed whether participants visited UGS alone or accompanied, the mode of transportation used, visit frequency over the past four weeks, duration of visits, and reasons for visiting. Visit frequency : “How often did you intentionally visit urban green spaces in the past four weeks?” (6-point scale: None, Once in the last month, 2–3 times in the last month, 1–2 times per week, 4–5 times per week, Almost daily). Visit duration : “How long did you typically spend in UGS per visit over the past four weeks?” (6-point scale: Less than 20 minutes, 30 minutes, 1–2 hours, 2–3 hours, 3–4 hours, More than 5 hours). Motivations : Response options included physical activity (walking, running, cycling), sports (football, basketball, volleyball), dog walking, nature observation, and spending time with others (family, partner, or friends). Physical well-being : Assessed via a single-item self-rated general health question, using a five-point Likert scale (excellent to poor). For analysis, responses were dichotomized into good health (excellent, very good, good) and poor health (fair, poor) ( 15 , 16 ). Mental well-being : Measured using the validated WHO-5 Well-Being Index, which includes five items rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Raw scores were multiplied by 4, resulting in a score range from 0 to 100. Scores below 50 indicate poor mental well-being ( 17 ). Social well-being : Assessed with the Social Cohesion and Trust Scale ( 18 ), which captures sense of community, trust, shared values, and belonging. The scale uses a 5-point Likert scale (0 to 4), with total scores ranging from 0 to 16; higher scores reflect greater social cohesion. Procedure Data collection was conducted from November 12 to December 8, 2023. Participants were recruited in public spaces, particularly shopping centers, selected for their high foot traffic and neutral setting. This strategy minimized sampling bias that might occur in green spaces or sports facilities. Before completing the questionnaire, participants were informed about the study’s objectives, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the voluntary and anonymous nature of their participation. Trained interviewers administered the questionnaires in person, reading questions aloud and recording responses. Each interview lasted approximately 10 to 15 minutes. Data Analysis Frequencies and percentages were calculated to describe sociodemographic characteristics and UGS usage habits. Multivariate analysis was performed using the HJ-Biplot method, which graphically represents a data matrix X(n × p) by projecting both individuals (points) and variables (vectors) in a shared coordinate system ( 19 , 20 ). This technique, based on singular value decomposition, does not require normal distribution assumptions and is well-suited for exploratory analysis of heterogeneous data, such as usage patterns of UGS ( 21 ). Interpretation of the HJ-Biplot includes: Distance between points : Indicates similarity among individuals Angle between vectors : Reflects correlation between variables (smaller angles = stronger positive correlations; obtuse angles = negative correlations) Proximity between point and vector : Indicates the strength of association between an individual and a variable Vector length : Represents the variance explained by that variable Analyses were performed using the MultBiplot software developed by Vicente-Villardón ( 22 ). Ethical Considerations The study followed national and international ethical guidelines, including the Mexican General Health Law on Health Research ( 23 ) and the Declaration of Helsinki ( 24 ). Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained prior to data collection. Anonymity and confidentiality were ensured, and results were reported in aggregate form. Results Sociodemographic Characteristics The final sample consisted of 676 adult residents of Puerto Vallarta. Of these, 55.6% were women, 44.1% were men, and 0.3% preferred not to disclose their gender. Regarding age, 38.5% were between 18 and 25 years old, 22.9% between 26 and 35, 20.4% between 36 and 45, 10.7% between 46 and 55, and 7.5% between 56 and 65. In terms of marital status, 59.2% reported being single, 32.4% married, 6.2% separated or divorced, and 2.2% widowed. Regarding education, 53.6% had a bachelor’s degree, 30.8% completed high school, 10.8% completed middle school, 2.1% had completed elementary school, 1.8% reported no formal education, and 1.0% held a postgraduate degree. Regarding employment status, 59.6% were employed, 21.3% both worked and studied, 9.2% were students, 6.2% worked in the home, and 3.7% were retired or pensioned. In terms of income, 35.8% earned between 5,000 and 9,999 pesos per month, 33.9% between 0 and 4,999 pesos, 24.6% between 10,000 and 14,999 pesos, 3.7% between 15,000 and 20,000 pesos, and 2.1% reported earning more than 20,000 pesos. (See Table 1 .) Table 1 Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Sample. Variable Category Frecuency (n) Percentage (%) Gender Female 376 55.6 Male 298 44.1 Prefer not to say 2 0.3 Age group 18–25 years 260 38.5 26–35 years 155 22.9 36–45 years 138 20.4 46–55 years 72 10.7 56–65 years 51 7.5 Marital status Single 400 59.2 Married 219 32.4 Separated or Divorced 42 6.2 Widowed 15 2.2 Education Level No formal education 12 1.8 Primary school 14 2.1 Middle school 73 10.8 High school 208 30.8 Bachelor´s degree 362 53.6 Postgraduate degree 7 1 Occupation Working 403 59.6 Studying 62 9.2 Working and studying 144 21.3 Home-based work 42 6.2 Retired/Pensioned 25 3.7 Monthly income 0–4.999 pesos 229 33.9 5.000 a 9.999 pesos 242 35.8 10.000 a 14.999 pesos 166 24.6 15.000 a 20.000 pesos 25 3.7 More than 20.000 pesos 14 2.1 Note : Values are expressed as absolute frequency (n) and percentage (%). Urban Green Space Use Habits Regarding the frequency of urban green space (UGS) use, 26.6% of participants reported not visiting any UGS in the past month. Among those who did, 19.2% visited once, 20.3% two to three times, 20.4% once or twice per week, 5.3% four to five times per week, and 8.1% almost daily. Among those who frequented UGS (73.3% of the sample), 37.5% reported staying between 1 and 2 hours per visit, 33.7% between 30 minutes and 1 hour, 13.9% less than 30 minutes, 10.9% between 2 and 3 hours, 2.4% between 3 and 4 hours, and 1.6% more than 4 hours. The most common reasons for visiting UGS were physical exercise (e.g., walking, running, cycling), cited by 32.3% of participants, followed by spending time with others (23.4%), dog walking (20.4%), sports activities (13.7%), and nature observation (10.3%). (See Fig. 1 .) Association Between Well-being and UGS Use Habits Figure 2 presents the first two dimensions of the HJ-Biplot, which explained 36% of the total inertia. Points represent participants, color-coded by age group, while vectors represent the analyzed variables. The results showed that age was not associated with visit frequency, duration, or type of UGS activity (e.g., physical exercise, dog walking, nature observation, social interaction, or sports). Similarly, no association was found between age and physical, mental, or social well-being. Analyzing variable relationships, visit frequency appeared independent from both visit duration and activity type. However, a positive association was observed between engaging in physical exercise and higher levels of physical and social well-being. Additionally, participants who visited UGS more frequently reported higher mental well-being, regardless of activity type. (See Fig. 2 .) Figure 3 displays a second HJ-Biplot with UGS visit frequency dichotomized based on whether participants had visited a green space in the past month. This analysis explained 25% of the inertia. The visualization again confirmed that age did not influence UGS use, as all age groups were present among both users and non-users. Physical, mental, and social well-being appeared independent from time spent in UGS or visiting for dog walking. However, physical activity was associated with higher physical and social well-being, while mental well-being was weakly associated with visiting UGS two to three times per month. Mental well-being was negatively associated with not visiting UGS, suggesting that those who had not visited any green space in the past month reported lower levels of mental well-being. (See Fig. 3 .) Discussion This study aimed to characterize the habits of urban green space (UGS) use among adults in Puerto Vallarta and to explore the associations between UGS use and physical, mental, and social well-being. The findings suggest that a considerable portion of the adult population does not use these spaces (26.6%), while among users, physical exercise was the most commonly reported activity (32.3%). Positive associations were observed between engaging in physical activity in UGS and higher levels of physical and social well-being, although no clear relationship was identified between the type of activity and mental well-being. However, a weak association was found between visiting UGS two or three times per month and improved mental well-being, with users reporting better outcomes than non-users. In terms of UGS visitation, the proportion of non-users in Puerto Vallarta (26.6%) falls within the mid-range when compared to international studies. For instance, Hong et al. ( 25 ) reported that 47.5% of participants in South Korea had not visited a UGS in the previous two weeks. In contrast, Grigoletto et al. ( 26 ) reported that only 0.61% of individuals in several European cities never visited green spaces. Regarding motivations for UGS use, this study’s findings align with those of Hong et al. ( 25 ) and Gong et al. ( 27 ), who also identified physical activity as a primary reason for park visitation. However, motivations can vary across cultural settings. For example, Addas ( 28 ) found that in Saudi Arabia, spending time with family and friends and mental relaxation were more common reasons for park use. In Europe, Grigoletto et al. ( 26 ) reported sports as the most frequent response, with walking or exercising also commonly cited in other urban contexts The frequency and nature of UGS use may also be influenced by the quality and condition of these spaces. While previous analyses indicate that parks in Puerto Vallarta are widely available and accessible across neighborhoods, they are often of low quality due to limited infrastructure and services, and high levels of incivility ( 12 , 14 ). These factors may act as barriers to more frequent and sustained use. This study also found that individuals who engage in physical activity in UGS tend to report higher levels of physical well-being, as measured by self-rated general health. These results are consistent with prior research highlighting the benefits of green exercise for physical health ( 29 – 31 ). UGS use was also positively associated with higher social well-being, particularly in terms of social cohesion. This finding is in line with studies such as Shanahan et al. ( 32 ), who reported that walking for more than 30 minutes in green spaces was associated with greater social cohesion. Activities such as walking, exercising, or attending events can help foster interpersonal connections. Moreover, the systematic review by Wan, Shen, and Choi ( 33 ) emphasizes that physical characteristics, environmental perceptions, and usage patterns of green spaces are interrelated and contribute to social cohesion. Designing UGS that are safe, accessible, and inclusive can support not only physical activity but also community interaction. In this regard, our findings reinforce the potential of UGS as important public settings for promoting both physical and social well-being in urban environments like Puerto Vallarta. Regarding mental well-being, no significant association was found between specific types of activities in UGS and levels of depressive symptoms. However, a weak positive relationship was observed between visit frequency and mental well-being. These results partially align with previous studies. For instance, Rajoo et al. ( 34 ) reported reductions in depressive symptoms through physical activity in green environments. In contrast, Van den Berg et al. ( 35 ) reported only small positive associations between UGS visit frequency and mental health. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of promoting more frequent visits to urban green spaces as a potential strategy to enhance mental well-being among urban populations, regardless of the specific type of activity performed. This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, its cross-sectional design prevents establishing causal relationships between UGS use and physical, mental, or social well-being; only associations can be identified. Second, all data were self-reported, which may introduce information bias. Participants may have provided socially desirable answers or had difficulty recalling their behaviors or evaluating their well-being accurately. This subjective nature of the data may affect the precision of the reported associations. Conclusion This study characterized the habits of urban green space use among adults in Puerto Vallarta and analyzed their association with physical, mental, and social well-being. Findings showed that a significant portion of the population does not use green spaces, and among users, physical exercise was the most common activity. Regular UGS use was associated with better self-rated health and higher social cohesion. While no strong association was found between activity type and mental well-being, higher visit frequency was weakly linked to improved mental health. These findings highlight the role of urban green spaces as supportive environments for promoting public health and well-being and contribute to the goals of the Sustainable Development Agenda. Efforts to increase green space usage—particularly among non-users—through community-based strategies and physical activity promotion may help maximize their public health benefits. Overall, this study underscores the importance of integrating urban green space development into local health and planning policies. Declarations Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Funding The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article. Acknowledgments We thank the Centro Universitario de la Costa, University of Guadalajara, and the National Council of Humanities, Sciences, and Technologies (CONAHCYT) for their support. References Wolch JR, Byrne J, Newell JP. Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities “just green enough.” Landsc Urban Plan. 2014;125:234–44. Maas J, Verheij RA, Groenewegen PP, de Vries S, Spreeuwenberg P. Green space, urbanity, and health: how strong is the relation? J Epidemiol Community Health (1978). 2006 Jul 1;60(7):587 LP – 592. Kondo MC, South EC, Branas CC. Nature-Based Strategies for Improving Urban Health and Safety. Journal of Urban Health. 2015;92(5):800–14. World Health Organization. Noncommunicable diseases [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases Medina C, Jáuregui A, Hernández C, González C, G Olvera A, Blas N, et al. Prevalencia de comportamientos del movimiento en población mexicana. Salud Publica Mex. 2023 Jun 14;65(SE-):s259–67. Strain T, Flaxman S, Guthold R, Semenova E, Cowan M, Riley LM, et al. National, regional, and global trends in insufficient physical activity among adults from 2000 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 507 population-based surveys with 5·7 million participants. Lancet Glob Health. 2024 Aug 1;12(8):e1232–43. World Health Organization. Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates. World Health Organization; 2017. Vázquez-Salas A, Hubert C, Portillo-Romero A, Valdez-Santiago R, Barrientos-Gutiérrez T, Villalobos A. Sintomatología depresiva en adolescentes y adultos mexicanos: Ensanut 2022. Salud Publica Mex. 2023 Jun 12;65(SE-):s117–25. Lopez-Haro J, Gómez-Chávez JLF, Pelayo-Zavalza RA, Gómez-Varela FJ. Association between Active Use of Urban Green Spaces and Well-Being in Adults Aged 18–65 Years: A Systematic Review. J Health Pollut. 2024;12(1–4):16002. Endalew Terefe A, Hou Y. Determinants influencing the accessibility and use of urban green spaces: A review of empirical evidence. City and Environment Interactions. 2024;24:100159. Huízar Sanchéz MA, López Ramos JL, Baños Francia JA. La modernización de Puerto Vallarta ¿Renovación urbana o turistificación asistida? Pasos Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. 2020;18(5):831–42. Soltero EG, Mama SK, Pacheco AM, Lee RE. Physical Activity Resource and User Characteristics in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico (Recursos para la actividad física y características de los usuarios en Puerto Vallarta, México). Retos. 2015 Jul 1;28:203–6. Gómez Chávez LFJ, Cortés Almanzar P, Moedano Oliva NI, Arteaga Ochoa YA, Aguirre Rodríguez LE. Malestar psicológico y actividad física en adultos de Puerto Vallarta, México: Análisis local 2021. Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte. 2022 Jul 14;11:121–33. López-Haro J, Gómez-Varela JF, Pelayo-Zavalza AR, Gómez-Chávez LFJ. Espacios verdes urbanos en Puerto Vallarta: análisis de disponibilidad y tamaño a través de sistema de información geográfica. Dilemas contemporáneos: Educación, Política y Valores. 2024;3. Manor O, Matthews S, Power C. Dichotomous or categorical response? Analysing self-rated health and lifetime social class. Int J Epidemiol. 2000 Apr 1;29(1):149–57. Schnittker J, Bacak V. The Increasing Predictive Validity of Self-Rated Health. PLoS One. 2014 Jan 22;9(1):e84933. Sischka PE, Costa AP, Steffgen G, Schmidt AF. The WHO-5 well-being index–validation based on item response theory and the analysis of measurement invariance across 35 countries. J Affect Disord Rep. 2020;1:100020. Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science (1979). 1997;277(5328):918–24. Gabriel KR. The biplot graphic display of matrices with application to principal component analysis. Biometrika. 1971;58(3):453–67. Galindo MP. Una alternativa de representación simultánea: HJ-Biplot. Qüestiió: quaderns d’estadística i investigació operativa. 1986;13–23. Cárdenas O, Galindo P, Vicente-Villardón JL. Los métodos Biplot: evolución y aplicaciones. Revista Venezolana de Análisis de Coyuntura. 2007;13(1):279–303. Vicente-Villardón JL. MULTBIPLOT: A packaged for Multivariante Analysis using Biplots. [Computer Software] [Internet]. Departamento de estadística. Universidad de Salamanca; 2010. Available from: http://biplot.usal.es/multbiplot Cámara de Diputados. Reglamento de la Ley General de Salud en Ma-teria de Investigación para la Salud [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/regley/Reg_LGS_MIS.pdf Declaración de Helsinki de la AMM. Principios éticos para las investiga-ciones médicas en seres humano [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.wma.net/es/policies-post/declaracion-de-helsinki-de-la-amm-principios-eticos-para-las-investigaciones-medicas-en-seres-humanos/ Hong SK, Lee SW, Jo HK, Yoo M. Impact of Frequency of Visits and Time Spent in Urban Green Space on Subjective Well-Being. Sustainability. 2019;11(15). Grigoletto A, Toselli S, Zijlema W, Marquez S, Triguero-Mas M, Gidlow C, et al. Restoration in mental health after visiting urban green spaces, who is most affected? Comparison between good/poor mental health in four European cities. Environ Res. 2023;223. Gong Y, Mamat Z, Shi L, Liu F. Restorative Effects of Park Visiting on Physiology, Psychology, and Society and the Factors Influencing Park Visiting. Sustainability (Switzerland). 2023;15(1). Addas A. Exploring the pattern of use and accessibility of urban green spaces: evidence from a coastal desert megacity in Saudi Arabia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2022; Romagosa F. Physical health in green spaces: Visitors’ perceptions and activities in protected areas around Barcelona. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism. 2018;23:26–32. Holt EW, Lombard QK, Best N, Smiley-Smith S, Quinn JE. Active and Passive Use of Green Space, Health, and Well-Being amongst University Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(3):424. Hakman A, Andrieieva O, Kashuba V, Dutchak M, Tomenko O, Cherednichenko S, et al. Effect of recreational activities in urban parks on the overall condition of sedentary older adults. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2021;21:2864–71. Shanahan DF, Bush R, Gaston KJ, Lin BB, Dean J, Barber E, et al. Health Benefits from Nature Experiences Depend on Dose. Sci Rep. 2016;6:28551. Wan C, Shen GQ, Choi S. Underlying relationships between public urban green spaces and social cohesion: A systematic literature review. City, Culture and Society. 2021;24:100383. Rajoo K, Karam D, Abdu A, Rosli Z, Gerusu G. Addressing psychosocial issues caused by the COVID-19 lockdown: Can urban greeneries help? Urban For Urban Green. 2021;65. Van den Berg M, Van Poppel M, Van Kamp I, Andrusaityte S, Balseviciene B, Cirach M, et al. Visiting green space is associated with mental health and vitality: A cross-sectional study in four european cities. Health Place. 2016;38:8–15. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Discover Public Health → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7077438","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":483155314,"identity":"72099ecd-3486-44b4-b670-54beef5d64c3","order_by":0,"name":"Jorge Lopez-Haro","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9986-7496","institution":"Universidad de Guadalajara - Centro Universitario de la Costa Puerto Vallarta","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jorge","middleName":"","lastName":"Lopez-Haro","suffix":""},{"id":483155315,"identity":"21853d47-01ff-440d-8e0a-197a6ad382d0","order_by":1,"name":"Adriana Isabel Andrade-Sanchez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Colima","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adriana","middleName":"Isabel","lastName":"Andrade-Sanchez","suffix":""},{"id":483155316,"identity":"73a3ebfd-7615-484d-afd8-c12cdf15690a","order_by":2,"name":"Francisco Jacobo Gomez-Chavez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Guadalajara - Centro Universitario de la Costa Puerto Vallarta","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Francisco","middleName":"Jacobo","lastName":"Gomez-Chavez","suffix":""},{"id":483155317,"identity":"49ba8ee9-2e2e-4074-a212-b1fe9b575368","order_by":3,"name":"Adrian Ricardo Pelayo-Zavalza","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Guadalajara - Centro Universitario de la Costa Puerto Vallarta","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adrian","middleName":"Ricardo","lastName":"Pelayo-Zavalza","suffix":""},{"id":483155318,"identity":"0631e187-415e-4aaa-aebd-0a089563583d","order_by":4,"name":"Joaquín Fernando Gomez-Varela","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1621-6266","institution":"Universidade da Coruna Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte y la Educacion Fisica","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joaquín","middleName":"Fernando","lastName":"Gomez-Varela","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-08 18:27:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7077438/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7077438/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-025-01104-5","type":"published","date":"2025-11-17T00:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86671201,"identity":"a3da445f-ce0e-4095-a3f1-2787754b5c46","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 11:35:52","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":602982,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of urban green space (UGS) use among participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBar charts illustrating the frequency of visits, duration of stay, and main reasons for using urban green spaces. Data are based on self-reported responses from 676 adults in Puerto Vallarta.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.tiff.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7077438/v1/321dc292ae1aa3b3c92fc8bb.jpg"},{"id":86671206,"identity":"6516ca64-9ac8-47b2-91f4-38d8f23d88e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 11:35:52","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":818185,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHJ-Biplot Showing Associations Between Green Space Use Habits and Well-being Dimensions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHJ-Biplot projection (dimensions 1 and 2; 36% inertia) showing associations between urban green space use habits and physical, mental, and social well-being. Vectors represent variables (e.g., frequency, duration, activity type, well-being dimensions); points represent participants, color-coded by age group. Age shows no association with UGS use or well-being. Physical exercise is positively associated with physical and social well-being, while greater visit frequency is linked to higher mental well-being.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7077438/v1/2d6a09d48ce21d0a05ae3f58.jpg"},{"id":86671203,"identity":"34404317-76ab-4745-8c95-c03c21bf0581","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 11:35:52","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":772075,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHJ-Biplot of Green Space Use Motivations and Perceived Well-being\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHJ-Biplot projection (dimensions 1 and 2; 25% inertia) showing the relationship between UGS use and well-being by visit frequency (users vs. non-users in the past month). Participants from all age groups are present in both user and non-user categories. Physical exercise is associated with higher physical and social well-being, while mental well-being is inversely associated with non-use of UGS.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7077438/v1/04990d588ff9c016b61edf59.jpg"},{"id":96709018,"identity":"07b7d59f-f484-4cb3-a2c9-d27813bd489c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 10:07:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2867921,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7077438/v1/cd51c4e7-2c24-447f-90c1-f04b20963eed.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eAssociation Between Urban Green Space Use and Physical, Mental, and Social Well-being Among Adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUrbanization and the rapid expansion of cities in recent decades have led to a growing demand for urban green spaces (UGS), which are widely recognized for their potential to enhance public health and well-being (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). UGS not only provide areas for recreation and relaxation, but also play a crucial role in promoting physical activity, reducing psychological stress, and strengthening social cohesion (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). As cities continue to grow, understanding how urban populations interact with these spaces and how such interactions affect quality of life has become increasingly important.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePublic health challenges in the 21st century are closely linked to lifestyle changes, particularly the rise in physical inactivity and mental health burdens. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, and mental disorders, account for approximately 71% of all global deaths (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018). In Mexico, 19.2% of adults do not meet recommended physical activity levels (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), and global projections estimate that by 2030, the prevalence of insufficient physical activity may reach 34%, making it unlikely to achieve the global target of a 15% relative reduction (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). In terms of mental health, depression affected an estimated 4.4% of the global population in 2017, with a growing trend (WHO, 2017). In Mexico, 16.7% of adults report depressive symptoms (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvidence shows that UGS use varies considerably across populations and urban settings. A recent systematic review synthesizing findings from 31 international studies found consistent evidence that regular and active use of UGS is positively associated with multiple dimensions of adult well-being. Specifically, UGS use was linked to increased physical activity, improved cardiovascular health, reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression, and enhanced social cohesion through community interaction and support networks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). These findings underscore the multifaceted health benefits of UGS and support their promotion as key elements of healthy urban environments. However, the use and accessibility of UGS are shaped by multiple factors, including infrastructure quality, maintenance, safety perception, proximity, and user demographics. These elements must be considered in urban planning to promote equitable access and maximize their health benefits (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePuerto Vallarta, a coastal city in western Mexico undergoing rapid urban growth and tourism-driven economic development(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e), has limited research examining the use of UGS and their impact on the well-being of local residents (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Reports indicate that 35.1% of adults in the city are physically inactive, with men generally showing lower inactivity rates than women. Psychological distress is also prevalent, with 26.2% of adults reporting high levels and 19.9% reporting very high levels of distress, disproportionately affecting women (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Although Puerto Vallarta offers a variety of parks, gardens, and natural areas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e), little is known about how these spaces are used by adults or how their use relates to well-being outcomes. Therefore, this study aims to characterize the usage habits of UGS among adults in Puerto Vallarta and to analyze the relationship between their use and physical, mental, and social well-being.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy Design\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis was a quantitative, cross-sectional, descriptive, and exploratory study with a multivariate analytical approach. This design allowed for a broad and detailed examination of urban green space (UGS) usage habits among adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, and for the analysis of how these habits relate to physical, mental, and social well-being. A multivariate approach was used to explore the relationships among several variables simultaneously.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParticipants\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA non-probabilistic convenience sample was used, consisting of adult residents of Puerto Vallarta aged 18 to 65 years. The minimum sample size was calculated using the formula for an infinite population, with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, resulting in a minimum of 384 participants. However, due to the non-random sampling, the sample is not representative of the entire population of Puerto Vallarta.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInclusion criteria were: permanent residence in Puerto Vallarta and age between 18 and 65 years. Non-inclusion criteria were: tourists, temporary residents, individuals with less than six months of residence in Puerto Vallarta, and individuals under 18 or over 65 years of age. Exclusion criteria included incomplete questionnaires, inconsistent or false responses, and responses deemed unserious or incoherent by the interviewer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInstruments\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were collected using a combination of validated scales and custom-designed questionnaires developed specifically for this study. These instruments assessed sociodemographic characteristics, urban green space (UGS) usage habits, and dimensions of physical, mental, and social well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSociodemographic variables\u003c/b\u003e: Participants reported their gender, age, marital status, education level, income level, and primary economic activity. This information was used to characterize the sample and explore how sociodemographic factors might influence UGS use and well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUGS usage habits\u003c/b\u003e: A set of study-specific questions was used to assess how participants interacted with UGS. Items addressed whether participants visited UGS alone or accompanied, the mode of transportation used, visit frequency over the past four weeks, duration of visits, and reasons for visiting.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVisit frequency\u003c/em\u003e: “How often did you intentionally visit urban green spaces in the past four weeks?” (6-point scale: None, Once in the last month, 2–3 times in the last month, 1–2 times per week, 4–5 times per week, Almost daily).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVisit duration\u003c/em\u003e: “How long did you typically spend in UGS per visit over the past four weeks?” (6-point scale: Less than 20 minutes, 30 minutes, 1–2 hours, 2–3 hours, 3–4 hours, More than 5 hours).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMotivations\u003c/em\u003e: Response options included physical activity (walking, running, cycling), sports (football, basketball, volleyball), dog walking, nature observation, and spending time with others (family, partner, or friends).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhysical well-being\u003c/b\u003e: Assessed via a single-item self-rated general health question, using a five-point Likert scale (excellent to poor). For analysis, responses were dichotomized into good health (excellent, very good, good) and poor health (fair, poor) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMental well-being\u003c/b\u003e: Measured using the validated WHO-5 Well-Being Index, which includes five items rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Raw scores were multiplied by 4, resulting in a score range from 0 to 100. Scores below 50 indicate poor mental well-being (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocial well-being\u003c/b\u003e: Assessed with the Social Cohesion and Trust Scale (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e), which captures sense of community, trust, shared values, and belonging. The scale uses a 5-point Likert scale (0 to 4), with total scores ranging from 0 to 16; higher scores reflect greater social cohesion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProcedure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData collection was conducted from November 12 to December 8, 2023. Participants were recruited in public spaces, particularly shopping centers, selected for their high foot traffic and neutral setting. This strategy minimized sampling bias that might occur in green spaces or sports facilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore completing the questionnaire, participants were informed about the study’s objectives, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the voluntary and anonymous nature of their participation. Trained interviewers administered the questionnaires in person, reading questions aloud and recording responses. Each interview lasted approximately 10 to 15 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequencies and percentages were calculated to describe sociodemographic characteristics and UGS usage habits. Multivariate analysis was performed using the HJ-Biplot method, which graphically represents a data matrix X(n × p) by projecting both individuals (points) and variables (vectors) in a shared coordinate system (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). This technique, based on singular value decomposition, does not require normal distribution assumptions and is well-suited for exploratory analysis of heterogeneous data, such as usage patterns of UGS (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterpretation of the HJ-Biplot includes:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDistance between points\u003c/b\u003e: Indicates similarity among individuals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAngle between vectors\u003c/b\u003e: Reflects correlation between variables (smaller angles = stronger positive correlations; obtuse angles = negative correlations)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProximity between point and vector\u003c/b\u003e: Indicates the strength of association between an individual and a variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVector length\u003c/b\u003e: Represents the variance explained by that variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalyses were performed using the \u003cb\u003eMultBiplot\u003c/b\u003e software developed by Vicente-Villardón (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study followed national and international ethical guidelines, including the Mexican General Health Law on Health Research (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e) and the Declaration of Helsinki (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e). Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained prior to data collection. Anonymity and confidentiality were ensured, and results were reported in aggregate form.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSociodemographic Characteristics\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe final sample consisted of 676 adult residents of Puerto Vallarta. Of these, 55.6% were women, 44.1% were men, and 0.3% preferred not to disclose their gender. Regarding age, 38.5% were between 18 and 25 years old, 22.9% between 26 and 35, 20.4% between 36 and 45, 10.7% between 46 and 55, and 7.5% between 56 and 65. In terms of marital status, 59.2% reported being single, 32.4% married, 6.2% separated or divorced, and 2.2% widowed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding education, 53.6% had a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree, 30.8% completed high school, 10.8% completed middle school, 2.1% had completed elementary school, 1.8% reported no formal education, and 1.0% held a postgraduate degree. Regarding employment status, 59.6% were employed, 21.3% both worked and studied, 9.2% were students, 6.2% worked in the home, and 3.7% were retired or pensioned. In terms of income, 35.8% earned between 5,000 and 9,999 pesos per month, 33.9% between 0 and 4,999 pesos, 24.6% between 10,000 and 14,999 pesos, 3.7% between 15,000 and 20,000 pesos, and 2.1% reported earning more than 20,000 pesos. (See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSociodemographic Characteristics of the Sample.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrecuency (n)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e376\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e298\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrefer not to say\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge group\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;25 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;35 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u0026ndash;45 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u0026ndash;55 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u0026ndash;65 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e219\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeparated or Divorced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWidowed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation Level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo formal education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary school\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiddle school\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh school\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor\u0026acute;s degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e362\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostgraduate degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOccupation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e403\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking and studying\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHome-based work\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRetired/Pensioned\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMonthly income\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;4.999 pesos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e229\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.000 a 9.999 pesos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e242\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.000 a 14.999 pesos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.000 a 20.000 pesos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMore than 20.000 pesos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote\u003c/b\u003e: Values are expressed as absolute frequency (n) and percentage (%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eUrban Green Space Use Habits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the frequency of urban green space (UGS) use, 26.6% of participants reported not visiting any UGS in the past month. Among those who did, 19.2% visited once, 20.3% two to three times, 20.4% once or twice per week, 5.3% four to five times per week, and 8.1% almost daily.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong those who frequented UGS (73.3% of the sample), 37.5% reported staying between 1 and 2 hours per visit, 33.7% between 30 minutes and 1 hour, 13.9% less than 30 minutes, 10.9% between 2 and 3 hours, 2.4% between 3 and 4 hours, and 1.6% more than 4 hours.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe most common reasons for visiting UGS were physical exercise (e.g., walking, running, cycling), cited by 32.3% of participants, followed by spending time with others (23.4%), dog walking (20.4%), sports activities (13.7%), and nature observation (10.3%). (See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAssociation Between Well-being and UGS Use Habits\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the first two dimensions of the HJ-Biplot, which explained 36% of the total inertia. Points represent participants, color-coded by age group, while vectors represent the analyzed variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results showed that age was not associated with visit frequency, duration, or type of UGS activity (e.g., physical exercise, dog walking, nature observation, social interaction, or sports). Similarly, no association was found between age and physical, mental, or social well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalyzing variable relationships, visit frequency appeared independent from both visit duration and activity type. However, a positive association was observed between engaging in physical exercise and higher levels of physical and social well-being. Additionally, participants who visited UGS more frequently reported higher mental well-being, regardless of activity type. (See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e displays a second HJ-Biplot with UGS visit frequency dichotomized based on whether participants had visited a green space in the past month. This analysis explained 25% of the inertia. The visualization again confirmed that age did not influence UGS use, as all age groups were present among both users and non-users.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysical, mental, and social well-being appeared independent from time spent in UGS or visiting for dog walking. However, physical activity was associated with higher physical and social well-being, while mental well-being was weakly associated with visiting UGS two to three times per month. Mental well-being was negatively associated with not visiting UGS, suggesting that those who had not visited any green space in the past month reported lower levels of mental well-being. (See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to characterize the habits of urban green space (UGS) use among adults in Puerto Vallarta and to explore the associations between UGS use and physical, mental, and social well-being. The findings suggest that a considerable portion of the adult population does not use these spaces (26.6%), while among users, physical exercise was the most commonly reported activity (32.3%). Positive associations were observed between engaging in physical activity in UGS and higher levels of physical and social well-being, although no clear relationship was identified between the type of activity and mental well-being. However, a weak association was found between visiting UGS two or three times per month and improved mental well-being, with users reporting better outcomes than non-users.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of UGS visitation, the proportion of non-users in Puerto Vallarta (26.6%) falls within the mid-range when compared to international studies. For instance, Hong et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e) reported that 47.5% of participants in South Korea had not visited a UGS in the previous two weeks. In contrast, Grigoletto et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e) reported that only 0.61% of individuals in several European cities never visited green spaces.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding motivations for UGS use, this study\u0026rsquo;s findings align with those of Hong et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e) and Gong et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e), who also identified physical activity as a primary reason for park visitation. However, motivations can vary across cultural settings. For example, Addas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) found that in Saudi Arabia, spending time with family and friends and mental relaxation were more common reasons for park use. In Europe, Grigoletto et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e) reported sports as the most frequent response, with walking or exercising also commonly cited in other urban contexts\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe frequency and nature of UGS use may also be influenced by the quality and condition of these spaces. While previous analyses indicate that parks in Puerto Vallarta are widely available and accessible across neighborhoods, they are often of low quality due to limited infrastructure and services, and high levels of incivility (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). These factors may act as barriers to more frequent and sustained use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study also found that individuals who engage in physical activity in UGS tend to report higher levels of physical well-being, as measured by self-rated general health. These results are consistent with prior research highlighting the benefits of green exercise for physical health (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUGS use was also positively associated with higher social well-being, particularly in terms of social cohesion. This finding is in line with studies such as Shanahan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that walking for more than 30 minutes in green spaces was associated with greater social cohesion. Activities such as walking, exercising, or attending events can help foster interpersonal connections.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the systematic review by Wan, Shen, and Choi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes that physical characteristics, environmental perceptions, and usage patterns of green spaces are interrelated and contribute to social cohesion. Designing UGS that are safe, accessible, and inclusive can support not only physical activity but also community interaction. In this regard, our findings reinforce the potential of UGS as important public settings for promoting both physical and social well-being in urban environments like Puerto Vallarta.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding mental well-being, no significant association was found between specific types of activities in UGS and levels of depressive symptoms. However, a weak positive relationship was observed between visit frequency and mental well-being. These results partially align with previous studies. For instance, Rajoo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e) reported reductions in depressive symptoms through physical activity in green environments. In contrast, Van den Berg et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e) reported only small positive associations between UGS visit frequency and mental health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, these findings underscore the importance of promoting more frequent visits to urban green spaces as a potential strategy to enhance mental well-being among urban populations, regardless of the specific type of activity performed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, its cross-sectional design prevents establishing causal relationships between UGS use and physical, mental, or social well-being; only associations can be identified. Second, all data were self-reported, which may introduce information bias. Participants may have provided socially desirable answers or had difficulty recalling their behaviors or evaluating their well-being accurately. This subjective nature of the data may affect the precision of the reported associations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study characterized the habits of urban green space use among adults in Puerto Vallarta and analyzed their association with physical, mental, and social well-being. Findings showed that a significant portion of the population does not use green spaces, and among users, physical exercise was the most common activity. Regular UGS use was associated with better self-rated health and higher social cohesion. While no strong association was found between activity type and mental well-being, higher visit frequency was weakly linked to improved mental health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings highlight the role of urban green spaces as supportive environments for promoting public health and well-being and contribute to the goals of the Sustainable Development Agenda. Efforts to increase green space usage\u0026mdash;particularly among non-users\u0026mdash;through community-based strategies and physical activity promotion may help maximize their public health benefits. Overall, this study underscores the importance of integrating urban green space development into local health and planning policies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank the Centro Universitario de la Costa, University of Guadalajara, and the National Council of Humanities, Sciences, and Technologies (CONAHCYT) for their support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWolch JR, Byrne J, Newell JP. Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities \u0026ldquo;just green enough.\u0026rdquo; Landsc Urban Plan. 2014;125:234\u0026ndash;44. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaas J, Verheij RA, Groenewegen PP, de Vries S, Spreeuwenberg P. Green space, urbanity, and health: how strong is the relation? J Epidemiol Community Health (1978). 2006 Jul 1;60(7):587 LP \u0026ndash; 592. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKondo MC, South EC, Branas CC. Nature-Based Strategies for Improving Urban Health and Safety. Journal of Urban Health. 2015;92(5):800\u0026ndash;14. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. Noncommunicable diseases [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMedina C, J\u0026aacute;uregui A, Hern\u0026aacute;ndez C, Gonz\u0026aacute;lez C, G Olvera A, Blas N, et al. Prevalencia de comportamientos del movimiento en poblaci\u0026oacute;n mexicana. Salud Publica Mex. 2023 Jun 14;65(SE-):s259\u0026ndash;67. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStrain T, Flaxman S, Guthold R, Semenova E, Cowan M, Riley LM, et al. National, regional, and global trends in insufficient physical activity among adults from 2000 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 507 population-based surveys with 5\u0026middot;7 million participants. Lancet Glob Health. 2024 Aug 1;12(8):e1232\u0026ndash;43. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates. World Health Organization; 2017. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eV\u0026aacute;zquez-Salas A, Hubert C, Portillo-Romero A, Valdez-Santiago R, Barrientos-Guti\u0026eacute;rrez T, Villalobos A. Sintomatolog\u0026iacute;a depresiva en adolescentes y adultos mexicanos: Ensanut 2022. Salud Publica Mex. 2023 Jun 12;65(SE-):s117\u0026ndash;25. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLopez-Haro J, G\u0026oacute;mez-Ch\u0026aacute;vez JLF, Pelayo-Zavalza RA, G\u0026oacute;mez-Varela FJ. Association between Active Use of Urban Green Spaces and Well-Being in Adults Aged 18\u0026ndash;65 Years: A Systematic Review. J Health Pollut. 2024;12(1\u0026ndash;4):16002. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEndalew Terefe A, Hou Y. Determinants influencing the accessibility and use of urban green spaces: A review of empirical evidence. City and Environment Interactions. 2024;24:100159. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHu\u0026iacute;zar Sanch\u0026eacute;z MA, L\u0026oacute;pez Ramos JL, Ba\u0026ntilde;os Francia JA. La modernizaci\u0026oacute;n de Puerto Vallarta \u0026iquest;Renovaci\u0026oacute;n urbana o turistificaci\u0026oacute;n asistida? Pasos Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. 2020;18(5):831\u0026ndash;42. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSoltero EG, Mama SK, Pacheco AM, Lee RE. Physical Activity Resource and User Characteristics in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico (Recursos para la actividad f\u0026iacute;sica y caracter\u0026iacute;sticas de los usuarios en Puerto Vallarta, M\u0026eacute;xico). Retos. 2015 Jul 1;28:203\u0026ndash;6. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eG\u0026oacute;mez Ch\u0026aacute;vez LFJ, Cort\u0026eacute;s Almanzar P, Moedano Oliva NI, Arteaga Ochoa YA, Aguirre Rodr\u0026iacute;guez LE. Malestar psicol\u0026oacute;gico y actividad f\u0026iacute;sica en adultos de Puerto Vallarta, M\u0026eacute;xico: An\u0026aacute;lisis local 2021. Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencias de la Actividad F\u0026iacute;sica y el Deporte. 2022 Jul 14;11:121\u0026ndash;33. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eL\u0026oacute;pez-Haro J, G\u0026oacute;mez-Varela JF, Pelayo-Zavalza AR, G\u0026oacute;mez-Ch\u0026aacute;vez LFJ. Espacios verdes urbanos en Puerto Vallarta: an\u0026aacute;lisis de disponibilidad y tama\u0026ntilde;o a trav\u0026eacute;s de sistema de informaci\u0026oacute;n geogr\u0026aacute;fica. Dilemas contempor\u0026aacute;neos: Educaci\u0026oacute;n, Pol\u0026iacute;tica y Valores. 2024;3. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eManor O, Matthews S, Power C. Dichotomous or categorical response? Analysing self-rated health and lifetime social class. Int J Epidemiol. 2000 Apr 1;29(1):149\u0026ndash;57. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchnittker J, Bacak V. The Increasing Predictive Validity of Self-Rated Health. PLoS One. 2014 Jan 22;9(1):e84933. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSischka PE, Costa AP, Steffgen G, Schmidt AF. The WHO-5 well-being index\u0026ndash;validation based on item response theory and the analysis of measurement invariance across 35 countries. J Affect Disord Rep. 2020;1:100020. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science (1979). 1997;277(5328):918\u0026ndash;24. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGabriel KR. The biplot graphic display of matrices with application to principal component analysis. Biometrika. 1971;58(3):453\u0026ndash;67. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGalindo MP. Una alternativa de representaci\u0026oacute;n simult\u0026aacute;nea: HJ-Biplot. Q\u0026uuml;estii\u0026oacute;: quaderns d\u0026rsquo;estad\u0026iacute;stica i investigaci\u0026oacute; operativa. 1986;13\u0026ndash;23. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eC\u0026aacute;rdenas O, Galindo P, Vicente-Villard\u0026oacute;n JL. Los m\u0026eacute;todos Biplot: evoluci\u0026oacute;n y aplicaciones. Revista Venezolana de An\u0026aacute;lisis de Coyuntura. 2007;13(1):279\u0026ndash;303. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVicente-Villard\u0026oacute;n JL. MULTBIPLOT: A packaged for Multivariante Analysis using Biplots. [Computer Software] [Internet]. Departamento de estad\u0026iacute;stica. Universidad de Salamanca; 2010. Available from: http://biplot.usal.es/multbiplot\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eC\u0026aacute;mara de Diputados. Reglamento de la Ley General de Salud en Ma-teria de Investigaci\u0026oacute;n para la Salud [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/regley/Reg_LGS_MIS.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDeclaraci\u0026oacute;n de Helsinki de la AMM. Principios \u0026eacute;ticos para las investiga-ciones m\u0026eacute;dicas en seres humano [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.wma.net/es/policies-post/declaracion-de-helsinki-de-la-amm-principios-eticos-para-las-investigaciones-medicas-en-seres-humanos/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHong SK, Lee SW, Jo HK, Yoo M. Impact of Frequency of Visits and Time Spent in Urban Green Space on Subjective Well-Being. Sustainability. 2019;11(15). \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrigoletto A, Toselli S, Zijlema W, Marquez S, Triguero-Mas M, Gidlow C, et al. Restoration in mental health after visiting urban green spaces, who is most affected? Comparison between good/poor mental health in four European cities. Environ Res. 2023;223. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGong Y, Mamat Z, Shi L, Liu F. Restorative Effects of Park Visiting on Physiology, Psychology, and Society and the Factors Influencing Park Visiting. Sustainability (Switzerland). 2023;15(1). \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAddas A. Exploring the pattern of use and accessibility of urban green spaces: evidence from a coastal desert megacity in Saudi Arabia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2022; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRomagosa F. Physical health in green spaces: Visitors\u0026rsquo; perceptions and activities in protected areas around Barcelona. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism. 2018;23:26\u0026ndash;32. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHolt EW, Lombard QK, Best N, Smiley-Smith S, Quinn JE. Active and Passive Use of Green Space, Health, and Well-Being amongst University Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(3):424. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHakman A, Andrieieva O, Kashuba V, Dutchak M, Tomenko O, Cherednichenko S, et al. Effect of recreational activities in urban parks on the overall condition of sedentary older adults. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2021;21:2864\u0026ndash;71. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShanahan DF, Bush R, Gaston KJ, Lin BB, Dean J, Barber E, et al. Health Benefits from Nature Experiences Depend on Dose. Sci Rep. 2016;6:28551. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWan C, Shen GQ, Choi S. Underlying relationships between public urban green spaces and social cohesion: A systematic literature review. City, Culture and Society. 2021;24:100383. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRajoo K, Karam D, Abdu A, Rosli Z, Gerusu G. Addressing psychosocial issues caused by the COVID-19 lockdown: Can urban greeneries help? Urban For Urban Green. 2021;65. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVan den Berg M, Van Poppel M, Van Kamp I, Andrusaityte S, Balseviciene B, Cirach M, et al. Visiting green space is associated with mental health and vitality: A cross-sectional study in four european cities. Health Place. 2016;38:8\u0026ndash;15. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Urban green spaces, physical well-being, mental well-being, social well-being, health promotion, Puerto Vallarta","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7077438/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7077438/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUrban green spaces (UGS) play a crucial role in promoting healthy lifestyles in cities. This study aimed to characterize the habits of UGS use among adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, and to analyze their association with physical, mental, and social well-being. A quantitative, cross-sectional, descriptive, and exploratory study was conducted using a multivariate approach. The sample included 676 adults aged 18 to 65 years. Data collection instruments included a sociodemographic questionnaire and a UGS usage habits questionnaire, along with validated measures of physical well-being (self-rated general health), mental well-being (depression), and social well-being (social cohesion). The results revealed that 26.6% of participants reported not visiting UGS in the past month. Among users, physical exercisewas the most common activity (32.3%). A positive associationwas found between regular UGS use and higher levels of physical and social well-being. These findings highlight the importance of UGS as supportive environments for health promotionin urban populations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Association Between Urban Green Space Use and Physical, Mental, and Social Well-being Among Adults in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-14 11:35:47","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7077438/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7d696afe-51b4-4c85-bc2f-5c4383d24c69","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 14th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-21T15:49:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7077438","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-025-01104-5","journal":{"identity":"discover-public-health","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Discover Public Health"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-17 00:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 17th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-14 11:35:47","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12982-025-01104-5","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-025-01104-5","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7077438","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7077438","identity":"rs-7077438","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}