Fabrication of novel rosin-based antibacterial nanofibers for particulate matter removal

Fabrication of novel rosin-based antibacterial nanofibers for particulate matter removal | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Fabrication of novel rosin-based antibacterial nanofibers for particulate matter removal Natalia Czerwińska, Bilge Yılmaz, Hilal Fazlı, Serhatcan Berk Akçay, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6550608/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Polymers and the Environment → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In this study, sustainable, biodegradable and eco-friendly filters were prepared via electrospinning technique to obtain fibrous membranes for the filtration of particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) and bacteria removal. For this purpose, natural rosin (R), and modified rosin (MR, pentaerythritol ester rosin) were selected, due to the antibacterial properties and polylactic acid (PLA) was used as a bio-based plasticizing agent to facilitate the fibers formation from rosin samples. Effects of the process parameters such as concentration of the solution, ratio of the polymers, spinning volume of the membranes, voltage and flow rate, on the fiber formation were studied through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis. Under the optimum condition, 40% modified rosin/PLA was selected for fabrication of filters and further analysis. The filtering efficiency was assessed in a real-scale room by measuring the penetration of neutralized aerosol particles (2% NaCl) through selected electrospun filters. The filtration capacity of fibrous membranes prepared with 40% modified rosin/PLA was 97.00% for PM 2.5 and 97.9% for PM 10 . On the other hand, fibrous membranes with 10% PLA, fabricated as a control sample, demonstrated a filtration efficiency of 99.00% for PM 2.5 and 99.2% for PM 10 . Moreover, antibacterial analysis results revealed that PLA-based filters showed no activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis . However, filters prepared with 40% modified rosin/PLA inhibited these bacteria and formed inhibition zones of 9.50±0.50, 8.50±0.50, and 9.83±1.04, effectively preventing bacterial growth. In summary, although the filtration efficiency of fibrous membranes prepared with 40% MR/PLA fibers is slightly lower compared to those with 10% PLA, their strong antibacterial activities highlight the promising potential of natural pine resin-based rosin, a bio-based and sustainable polymer for developing advanced electrospun membranes for air filtration. Electrospinning antibacterial membranes filtration rosin particulate matter bio-based polymers PLA Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Highlights • Rosin based fibers were successfully prepared by electrospinning technique • Electrospun fibers showed high filtration efficiency and bacteria removal • PLA has flexibilized the rigid structure of modified rosin (MR) • An electrospun fiber with high antibacterial activity was fabricated using modified rosin/PLA 1. Introduction Indoor air quality (IAQ) in homes, schools, offices, and other workplaces—is crucial, as individuals spend approximately 80% of their time in enclosed environments. For particularly sensitive groups such as children, the elderly, and individuals with specific health conditions, ensuring a healthy environment becomes even more critical. Among these groups, children are especially affected, as they spend a significant portion of their time at school, where they are continuously exposed to indoor pollutants. Although particles primarily originate from outdoor sources [ 1 ], various pollutants can also accumulate within enclosed spaces. Indoor air pollutants can be generated inside homes or buildings through occupants’ activities, such as cooking, combustion activities (burning candles or incenses, use of fireplaces, smoking), use of electronic machines, use of consumer products, or emissions from building materials. These activities produce emissions such as particulate matter (PM). The permissible level of airborne PM is based on the concentration of PM 2.5 and PM 10 , that respectively represents the fraction of particles that can be collected with a sorting system that has an efficiency of 50% for particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or less and 10 µm or less. Concentrations exceeding the permissible levels (15 µg/m 3 and 45 µg/m 3 for 24-hour, 5 µg/m 3 and 15 µg/m 3 for 1-year averages, respectively for PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) [ 2 ] not only adversely affect human health but also accelerate the airborne transmission of infectious agents [ 3 ]. Particulate matter consist of organic components like elemental carbon and organic carbon, as well as inorganic substances such as SO₄²⁻, NO₃⁻, and SiO₂ [ 4 ] and the behavior of PM particles is affected by their chemical composition, morphology, and mechanical properties [ 5 ]. Exposure to particulate matter, especially those with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or less, has been linked to various adverse health effects, including cardiovascular diseases, asthma, bronchitis, premature deaths, and lung cancer [ 6 ], [ 7 ]. With the increasing health awareness related to staying in closed places, attention is paid to the type of materials used to improve air quality. Cooking emissions are recognized as a significant contributor to indoor particulate matters [ 8 ]. Various cooking techniques produce differing amounts of particulate emissions, and the rates of PMs released during cooking are influenced by several factors, including the type of cooking appliance utilized, the temperature conditions during cooking, and the fat content present in the ingredients. For example, frying can produce peak particle levels of 745 µg/m 3 (2.22 × 10 3 µg/min) [ 9 ], exceeding WHO 24-h 15 µg/m 3 exposure threshold almost 50 times. In another study [ 10 ], the highest emission rates of both PM 10 and PM 2.5 at a single time point were found to be generated by deep-frying with values of 7586 µg/min and 1229 µg/min, respectively. The results showed also that deep-frying and stir-frying had much higher emission rates than boiling and steaming, in line with several previous studies; larger particle production is caused by cooking with oil as opposed to water. S. W. See [ 11 ] conducted experiments by steaming, boiling, stir-frying, pan-frying, and deep-frying 150 grams of tofu. Deep-frying, stir-frying, boiling and steaming generated the largest mass of PM 2.5 , with average concentrations of PM 2.5 at 190, 120, 81 and 66 µg/m 3 , respectively. For instance, other studies [ 12 ] also draw attention to the potential impacts of the building's locality and its administration on IAQ by quantifying the indoor and outdoor PM 2.5 exposure at 40 urban and rural schools. The results demonstrated that concentrations of indoor PM 2.5 (20–180 µg/m 3 , and a mean of 62 µg/m 3 ) showed differences between urban and rural as well as between private and public schools. Some rural schools exhibited greater exposure than urban schools, depending on their immediate surrounding environment and their internal PM 2.5 sources. Nanofibers, with their large surface area, fine fiber diameter, and porous structure, are promising candidates for achieving high particulate matter removal efficiency with minimal pressure drop. The performance of an air filter depends on the type of air pollution, and its pollutant capture mechanism can be tailored accordingly [ 13 ]. Electrospinning is a versatile technique used to produce nanostructured fibers with diameters ranging from the micro to nano scale. These materials offer advantages such as biocompatibility, washability, reusability, and lightweight properties. Over the past few decades, advancements in micro and nanotechnology have significantly contributed to societal progress in various ways [ 14 ]. Nanofiber materials have garnered significant public interest due to their exceptional surface-to-volume ratio and promising applications in air filtration [ 15 ]. Nanofibers are effective materials for capturing PM, and utilizing biodegradable polymers for developing filtration materials can support waste management systems by minimizing waste. In contrast, extensive use of non-biodegradable polymers disrupts waste disposal processes, resulting in environmental challenges. Recently, several polymer compounds have been studied to produce electrospun fibers. However, the non-degradable nature of most nanofiber filters can contribute to additional environmental pollution. Studies conducted before COVID-19 primarily focused on non-biodegradable and non-sustainable polymers. Polystyrene, for example, has been presented as an air filter designed from electrospun patterned nanofibers, offering high transparency and effective PM 2.5 filtration efficiency [ 16 ]. Polyimide nanofiber air filters were designed with high efficiency to operate under high temperatures, effectively capturing PM 2.5 from pollution sources [ 17 ], [ 18 ], [ 19 ] presented a novel air filter based on polybenzimidazole nanofibers designed for PM 2.5 filtration. In these studies, the polymers were non-biodegradable and unsustainable, which makes the filters developed from these materials a clear threat to both the environment and human health. With the rapid spread of COVID-19 worldwide, studies in literature have increasingly focused on biodegradable synthetic polymers that cause minimal environmental harm once disposed of. J. Cui [ 20 ] developed an innovative air filter made from polyvinyl alcohol and tannic acid using green electrospinning and physical cross-linking. This composite achieved a PM 10 filtration efficiency of 99.5% with a low pressure drop of only 35 Pa, making it both highly effective and breathable. M.Pierpaoli et al. [ 21 ] investigated a sustainable air filter created from polylactic acid (PLA) fibers. This filter combines 3D printing and electrospinning, utilizing a PLA-based support structure with PLA fibers. The developed filter showed over 95% efficiency in capturing particulate matter with particle sizes above 0.3 µm, comparable to commercial FFP2 masks. Beyond the current studies, it is essential to focus on ensuring that the developed filters are not only biodegradable but also bio-based and sustainable. The increase in studies on biodegradable synthetic filters has paved the way for the development of bio-based, sustainable and biodegradable filters. C. Ding et al. [ 22 ] investigated a highly breathable, lightweight, and efficient air filter made from a unique protein-based nanofiber structure, specifically using zein. These studies serve as examples for developing biodegradable filters from natural biopolymers. In recent years, studies on the development of priority filters and mask design to minimize the impact of air pollution on humans have increasingly focused not only on the creation of bio-based and sustainable nanofibril membranes but also on exploring additional features that can be incorporated into the designed filters. The European Green Deal aims to make Europe the first carbon-neutral continent by the year 2050. To achieve this goal, eliminating pollution in air, water, and soil and investing in sustainable industry and a circular economy are identified as strategically important areas. Consequently, there has been an increasing focus on evaluating bio-based sustainable materials for the development of air purification technologies. Rosin is produced by distilling the volatile component (turpentine) from natural resin [ 23 ]. It is recognized as the non-volatile fraction of resins [ 24 ]. The development of nanofibrous membranes from rosin began with W. Baek [ 25 ] who first reported preparing rosin in fiber form via electrospinning with various solvent systems. R.Nirmala [ 26 ] created a solution of natural rosin with different antibacterial additives (such as trimethylammonium ethyl methacrylate chloride, silver nitrate, and chitosan) in dimethylformamide, developing nanofibrous membranes through electrospinning and conducting antibacterial testing on these membranes. In a follow-up study, R. Nirmala et al. [ 27 ] prepared nanofibers containing poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and rosin for biomedical applications, suggesting that PCL/rosin nanofibers could function as effective bactericidal filters. C.Pavon [ 28 ] investigated incorporating gum rosin microspheres into polypropylene microfibers used in face masks to enhance hydrophobic properties. When reviewing the literature studies, it is observed that studies involving mostly on natural rosin. Nanofibrillar membranes developed using modified rosin (pentaerythritol ester rosin) through the electrospinning technique represent a novel approach and stand as a first in this field. Pentaerythritol ester of rosin, a quaternary alcohol ester, is recognized for its superior stability due to its enhanced resistance to water, alkalis, and oxidation [ 29 ]. Resin acids are esterified industrially at elevated temperatures (260–300 ℃) using various catalysts, such as metal oxides. Although the literature contains a few studies on the development of rosin as a nanofibrous membrane for air purification technologies and sustainable production, comprehensive research that deeply investigates this material remains scarce. Therefore, this study examined the nanofiber development processes of natural rosin and modified rosin using the electrospinning technique with environmentally friendly chemicals. Additionally, the antibacterial and filtration efficiencies of the developed rosin-based nanofibrous membranes were thoroughly investigated. 2. Experimental section 2.1. Materials In this study, Pinus pinaster rosin (narural rosin - R) was purchased from a local company in Türkiye. Pentaerythritol ester rosin (modified rosin - MR) was synthesized from Pinus pinaster type rosin in the laboratory. The chemicals used for the esterification process included pentaerythritol with a purity of ≥ 99.9% (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA), (1,1-Di-tert-butyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl) methyl) ethylphosphonate (Irganox 1425, BASF, CAS Number: 65140-91-2), and TBM-6 (4,4’-Thiobis(2-tert-butyl-5-methylphenol)) (358.54 g/mol, Sigma-Aldrich). PLA (Luminy LX930) was provided by Total Corbion PLA, Acetone and Ethanol were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Steinheim, Germany). Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 35218, Bacillus cereus , and Staphylococcus epidermidis were used as the model bacteria. All chemical reagents were used as received without further purification. 2.2. Synthesis pentaerythritol ester rosin The synthesis of pentaerythritol ester rosin was carried out with minor modifications based on the authors' previous studies [ 29 ]. 2.3. Electrospinning optimizing parameters Different polymer solutions were prepared for electrospinning. In order to optimize all the parameters, the initial trials have been performed and are listed in Table 1 . Two ecofriendly solvents were selected (acetone and ethanol) and the solutions of MR, R, MR/PLA and R/PLA were prepared in different concentrations (40–85% w/w). The preparation procedure involves the addition of the solvent to the polymer, followed by mixing to obtain homogenous solutions. Following that, an electrospinning apparatus (Spinbox, Fludinatek) was used to electrospun the solutions, which were then placed into plastic 20 mL syringes fitted with stainless steel needles with the outer diameter of 0.7mm (22 gauge). The samples were collected on a grounded flat collector covered by aluminum foil, which was placed in the distance from the needle at 10–16.5 cm, and the syringe pump rate was set at 1–2 mL/h. The measured relative humidity and temperature during electrospinning were equal to 50–59% and 21–24°C, respectively. Table 1 Electrospinning parameters - trial samples. Solution Label Solvent V (kV) Pumping rate (mL/h) Distance (cm) Temp (°C) RH (%) Target volume (mL) 50% R 50% R_E Ethanol 15 1 15 21 58 1 60% R 60% R_E Ethanol 15 1 15 22 53 1 75% R 75% R_E Ethanol 15 1 15 21 58 1 50% R 50% R_A Acetone 15 1 15 23 50 1 60% R 60% R_A Acetone 15 1 15 23 50 1 60% MR 60% MR_E_1 Ethanol 15 1 15 22 58 1 60% MR 60% MR_E_2 Ethanol 15 2 15 22 58 1 50% MR 50% MR_E Ethanol 15 1 15 22 58 1 75% MR 75% MR_E Ethanol 15 1 16.5 21 58 1 60% MR 60% MR_A_1 Acetone 15 1 16.5 22 59 1 60% MR 60% MR_A_2 Acetone 15 2 16.5 22 59 1 50% MR 50% MR_A_1 Acetone 15 1 16.5 22 59 1 50% MR 50% MR_A_2 Acetone 15 2 16.5 22 59 1 75% MR 75% MR_A_1 Acetone 15 1 15 22 53 1 75% MR 75% MR_A_2 Acetone 15 1 10 22 53 1 85% MR 85% MR_A Acetone 15 1 15 24 58 1 20%R + 30% PLA 50% R/PLA_A Acetone 15 1 15 23 51 1 30% R + 10% PLA 40% R/PLA_A Acetone 15 1 15 24 58 1 30% MR + 10% PLA 40% MR/PLA_A Acetone 15 1 15 24 58 1 75% MR + 5% PLA 79% MR/PLA_A Acetone 15 1 15 22 58 1 2.4. Preparation of the filters After optimization of the parameters final solutions were prepared. 30%MR + 10%PLA solution was selected and the conditions for filter production were determined as follows: voltage at 15 kV, the distance between the needle and the collector at 15 cm and flow rate was increased to 4 ml/h. The solutions were electrospun with a target total volume of 19 mL. To compare the results, a filter without addition of MR (10% PLA) was also prepared. Prepared filters from 30%MR + 10%PLA and 10%PLA solutions were labeled as Filter 1 and Filter 2, respectively. Table 2 Solution formulation for filtering media. Solution Label Solvent V (kV) Pumping rate (mL/h) Distance (cm) Temp (°C) RH (%) Target volume (mL) 30% MR + 10% PLA Filter 1 Acetone 15 4 15 24 49 19 10% PLA Filter 2 Acetone 15 4 15 24 58 19 2.5. Nanofibers characterization 2.5.1. Morphology and elemental analysis A scanning electron microscope (Zeiss Supra 40) fitted with an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was used to examine the morphology of the electrospun fibers and to classify the elemental composition of the particulate retained. 2.5.2. Thermogravimetric analyses analysis Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed using a Perkin-Elmer TGA 4000 instrument. During the analysis, 4–10 mg of each sample was carefully placed in the crucible. The measurements were conducted in a nitrogen atmosphere, starting at 30°C with a heating rate of 10°C per minute, continuing up to 800°C. At 800°C, the samples were held at a constant temperature, and mass loss was continuously recorded until the analysis was complete [ 23 ]. 2.5.3. Fourier-transform infrared analysis Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis of the samples was conducted using a Perkin-Elmer Frontier instrument (Waltham, MA, USA). The infrared spectra were acquired using the attenuated total reflection (ATR) technique. Measurements were recorded over a wavelength range of 4000–500 cm⁻¹ with a resolution of 4 cm⁻¹ [ 23 ]. 2.6. Filtration efficiency test The filtration performance was carried out following the modified procedure described in previous studies[ 30 ]. An experimental pilot-scale test room (15 m 3 ) was equipped with an ultrasonic air humidifier (Medisana UHW, Neuss, Germany) that produced monodisperse aerosol of sodium chloride (NaCl) from a 2% w/w water solution. Three fans installed inside the test chamber made sure that the air was circulated and that the NaCl particles were homogenized. A circular hole measuring 5 cm in diameter was provided for the purpose of sampling indoor conditions. A cylindrical tube with the same diameter was inserted into the hole, which was located at a height of 1.05 m above the ground. Electrospun samples were cut in a round shape of a diameter 5 cm and placed in the 3D printed PLA filter holder and positioned in the tube. A fan powered by a variable power source was employed to ensure a controlled flow (200 L/min) through the filter medium after the moisture was first extracted using a commercial sorbent. Two particle counters (Trotect BQ21) were used to measure the PM concentration before the filter (inside the room, upstream concentration) and after the filter (outside, downstream concentration). The device has two channels, which are designed to measure particles of sizes 2.5 µm and 10 µm, respectively. The airflow resistance was evaluated by the pressure drop (ΔP) generated by the airflow through the filter and was measured by Dynamic Pressure Anemometer (Trotec TA400). The filtration efficiency (E) was calculated according to the following equation: $$\:E\:\left(\%\right)=1-\frac{Cdownstream}{Cupstream}$$ 1 Quality factor (QF) is used to reveal the comprehensive filtration performance of a filter, and can be calculated by the following equation: $$\:QF\:(Pa-1)=\frac{-\:\text{l}\text{n}\left[\right(1\:-\:\text{E}\left)\right]}{{\Delta\:}\text{p}\:}$$ 2 Where E and ΔP represent the filtration efficiency and pressure drop, respectively. 2.7. Antibacterial properties The antibacterial activity of the filters was evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 35218, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria using the disk diffusion susceptibility test [ 31 ]. For the analysis, approximately 20 mL of Mueller-Hinton agar medium was poured into sterile petri dishes and allowed to solidify. The bacteria to be used in the study were taken from − 20°C stocks and cultured in Nutrient Broth medium for 24 hours. Suspensions equivalent to 0.5 McFarland turbidity standard were prepared from the fresh cultures using a cell densitometer (Biosan DEN-1). A 100 µL aliquot of the prepared cultures was transferred to petri dishes containing Mueller-Hinton agar and spread evenly using a sterile cell spreader [ 32 ]. After allowing the surface to dry for 3–4 minutes, filters with an average diameter of 0.6 mm were placed on the petri surface and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. At the end of the incubation period, inhibition zones were measured in millimeters. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Morphology The SEM images were recorded to confirm the fabrication of the fibers and to study its morphology and nanostructure. The diameter of the fibers was estimated using the ImageJ tool program. 20 fibers' diameters were randomly measured in each sample at a magnification of 2.00 Kx and the average diameter and diameter distributions were reported. Figure 2 . SEM images of rosin electrospun fibers (a) 50% R_E, (b) 60% R_E, (c) 75% R_E, (d) 50% R_A, (f) 60% R_A. Figure 2 and Fig. 3 reveal the micrograph of rosin and modified rosin trial samples, respectively. Figure 4 and Fig. 5 show the SEM images of fabricated fibers from optimized modified rosin and modified rosin/PLA solutions. The quality of the samples produced is presented in Table 3 . It can be inferred from the SEM images (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 ) that no fibers were fully formed and dispersed across the entire surface of any sample of R or MR. The inefficiency of the parameters selected to control the electrospinning process may be the cause of this. However, while examining the samples that yielded a higher amount and quality of fibers, it was discovered that while beaded fibers were created when the solution concentration of modified rosin was increased to 75% (Fig. 3 i-j) and 80% (Fig. 3 k), the fibers were only partially produced and were short and unfinished. Additionally, it was noted that a polymer percentage of at least 60% is required for the fabrication of fibers. Since no fibers, not even partially, developed in samples made with 50% rosin or a modified rosin when acetone or ethanol were used as a solvent, it can conclude that the concentration of the polymer (and thus its viscosity) was crucial in the formation of the fibers. The rosin and PLA integration was shown to affect the electrospinning process and led to a more uniform product (Fig. 5 ). The fibrous membranes were successfully produced from the 20%R + 30% PLA (Fig. 5 a), 30% MR + 10% PLA (Fig. 5 c) and 75% MR + 5% PLA (Fig. 5 d) solutions and the average fiber diameters were found to be 4.5 ± 1.9 µm, 2.4 ± 0.8 µm, and 1.8 ± 0.9, respectively. It can be observed that the 40%_MR/PLA_A sample (Fig. 5 c) produced from 30% MR + 10% PLA_A solution exhibited smaller fiber, comparing to the 20%R + 30% PLA, while by increasing polymer concentration to 79% by mixing 75% MR and 5% PLA, the average fiber diameter decreased from 2.4 µm to 1.8 µm, however visible dots prove incomplete process of the electrospinning. This suggests that decreasing PLA concentration from 10–5% the viscosity of the solution decreases, and partial electrospraying occurs [ 33 ]. Because the fibers in the 40%_MR/PLA_A appeared to be smooth this solution has been selected for further filter development. Morphology and fiber diameter distributions of produced filters (Filter 1 and Filter 2) are presented on Fig. 5 . Filter 1 made up from 30% MR + 10% PLA solution characterize smooth, breadless fibers with the average fiber diameter of 2.9 ± 0.8 µm, which is higher than the one on Filter 2 (1.9 ± 0.6 µm). This difference can be attributed to different relative humidity values (49% and 58% for Filter 1 and Filter 2, respectively). Lower relative humidity measured during fabrication of Filter 1, caused rapid solvent evaporation, resulting in thicker nanofiber. In contrast, higher humidity inhibits solvent evaporation, resulting in thinner fibers [ 34 ] of Filter 2. Some studies [ 35 ], [ 36 ] reported that pores in electrospun fiber surfaces are generated, and the pore size increased with an increase in relative humidity (RH). In fact, when higher RH is applied, visible pores for the fibers of Filter 2 are present. The fiber diameter distributions were found to be rather broad for Filter 1 (from 1 µm to 5 µm) and narrowing for Filter 2 (from 0.5 to 3.5 µm), which can be related to difference in the solution viscosity and properties such as the surface tension and conductivity [ 37 ]. Table 3 Electrospinning capability and fiber quality. Sample Fiber quality 50% R_E No fibers 60% R_E No fibers 75% R_E No fibers 50% R_A No fibers 60% R_A No fibers 60% MR_E_1 No fibers 60% MR_E_2 No fibers 50% MR_E No fibers 75% MR_E No fibers 60% MR_A_1 No fibers 60% MR_A_2 No fibers 50% MR_A_1 No fibers 50% MR_A_2 No fibers 75% MR_A_1 Thin beaded fibers 75% MR_A_2 Thin beaded fibers 85% MR_A Thin beaded fibers 50% R/PLA_A Average 4.5 ± 1.9 µm 40% R/PLA_A No fibers 40% MR/PLA_A Beaded less fibers with average fiber diameter of 2.4 ± 0.8 µm 79% MR/PLA_A Beaded less fibers with average fiber diameter of 1.8 ± 0.9 µm, visible polymer accumulation Filter 1 Smooth fibers with average fiber diameter of 2.9 ± 0.8 µm Filter 2 Porous fibers with average fiber diameter of 1.9 ± 0.6 µm 3.2. Thermal behavior The TGA and derivative weight curves obtained for the samples coded Filter 1 (40%MR + 10%PLA) and Filter 2 (10% PLA) are shown in Fig. 6 . As observed in Fig. 6 a, the curve corresponding to Filter 2 demonstrates a significant weight loss in the temperature range of approximately 300–400°C, whereas the curve for Filter 1 exhibits a gradual weight loss over a broader temperature range of approximately 275–475°C. Examining both curves reveals that up to approximately 150°C, both samples are thermally stable. However, the weight loss in Filter 2 begins at a higher temperature compared to Filter 1. This indicates that the thermal stability of Filter 2 is higher than that of Filter 1. While the weight loss of Filter 2 occurs more rapidly within a narrow temperature range, the gradual weight loss over a broader range in Filter 1 suggests a different thermal degradation mechanism. Additionally, two distinct peaks are observed, which can be attributed to the degradation of different components in the structure at varying temperatures. For both samples, the temperatures corresponding to 5% weight loss (T 5 ), 10% weight loss (T 10 ), and the char residue (%) values at 450°C (CR 450 ) are presented in Table 4 . As shown in Table 4 , Filter 2 exhibits more stable behavior up to approximately 300–350°C compared to Filter 1. Specifically, the temperature at which 5% weight loss occurs is approximately 307.26°C for Filter 1, whereas it is about 231.79°C for Filter 2. Similarly, the temperature corresponding to 10% weight loss is 327.42°C for Filter 2 and 275.94°C for Filter 1. These results indicate that the components within Filter 1 lead to degradation at lower temperatures Table 4 TGA results of the filters. Sample T 5 (°C) T 10 (°C) CR 450 (%) Filter 1 231.79 275.94 7.56 Filter 2 307.26 327.42 0.13 An important point to note is the temperature difference between the 5% and 10% weight loss for each sample. For Filter 2, this difference is approximately 20°C, whereas for Filter 1, it is about 44°C. This suggests that the addition of MR to the polymer matrix has caused a slight decrease in the decomposition temperature, thereby slightly reducing the thermal stability. This may be attributed to the structural properties of MR and its interaction with the polymer matrix. This observation is further supported by the char residue values at 450°C. As shown in Table 4 , the char residue at 450°C is 0.13% for Filter 2 and 7.56% for Filter 1. This indicates that, despite its initial faster degradation behavior, Filter 1 exhibits higher thermal stability at specific temperatures compared to Filter 2. In conclusion, the TGA analyses of the two composite samples reveal results consistent with literature studies. In one study, it was reported that in PLA composites, the onset of thermal degradation is lower than pure PLA due to the filler (reinforcement) materials present in the structure [ 38 ]. In another study, where pentaerythritol ester rosin was integrated with PLA by melt extrusion and its thermal properties were examined, it was observed that the maximum degradation temperatures slightly increased compared to pure PLA, depending on the amount of reinforcement [ 39 ]. 3.3. FT-IR Analysis The FT-IR analysis results of the filters developed in this study (Filter 1 and Filter 2) are presented in Fig. 7 . Examination of the FT-IR results indicates that the chemical structures of the MR/PLA-based and PLA-based filters are not significantly different. The esterification of rosin with pentaerythritol to thermoplastisize the material suggests that it can serve as a substitute for petroleum-based thermoplastic materials with similar functions. According to the infrared analysis, Filter 1 has a broad transmittance band centered at 3500 cm⁻¹, indicating OH stretching vibrations [ 26 ]. Filter 2 contains carbonyl vibration originating from PLA observed at 1773 cm⁻¹. Moreover, in Filter 1, which contains modified rosin and PLA, the carbonyl (CO) vibration originating from the modified rosin was observed at 1741 cm⁻¹, while the CO vibration from PLA was observed at 1755 cm⁻¹. The FT-IR spectra results validate the successful fabrication of rosin fibers through electrospinning. 3.4. Filtration performance Although membrane filtration has great promises for reducing air pollution, creating new filters that are effective, long-lasting, and possess high quality factor, low pressure drop (ΔP), and superior antibacterial properties is challenging. Three crucial parameters — filtration efficiency, pressure drop, and quality factor — were considered to assess the performance of our electrospun fibrous membranes. Results presented in Fig. 8 a demonstrate PM 2.5 and PM 10 filtration efficiency-as well as the corresponding pressure drop across the filter-average data. Both filters, Filter 1 and Filter 2 characterize excellent filtration efficiency, exceeding 97% and 98% for PM 2.5 and PM 10 respectively. Filter 1 demonstrates slightly lower filtration efficiency (around 2% for PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) than Filter 2, which can be explained in the higher fiber diameter (3.7 ± 1.4 µm for 40% MR/PLA and 1.9 ± 0.6 µm for 10%PLA). This is since a denser network of fibers is produced by a smaller fiber diameter. Smaller pore diameters and a denser nanofiber network would make it more difficult for the particles to get through [ 40 ]. As shown in Fig. 8 c, fibers of Filter 1 were coated with many particles (NaCl) after filtration, which were identified by EDS analysis. Filter 1 characterizes 6 Pa higher pressure drop (111 Pa), than Filter 2 (95 Pa), what indicates slightly higher air resistance. This fact can be explained by possible higher porosity of Filter 2, which can promote the flow of gas on the membrane and thus play a role in reducing the pressure drop [ 41 ]. According to Eq. ( 2 ), greater QF indicates better filtration efficiency and smaller pressure drop. The quality factor values were evaluated at the flow rate equal to 200 L/min. As shown on Fig. 8 (b) the quality factors ranged from 0.031 Pa − 1 to 0.052 Pa − 1 , which are higher than commercial filters [ 37 ],[ 21 ]. 3.5. Antibacterial performance The antibacterial activity results of the filter samples against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus , and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria are presented in Table 5 . When the antibacterial activity of the filter samples was evaluated, it was observed that Filter 2 (10% PLA) did not show activity against the tested microorganisms. Filter 1 (40% MR/PLA) provided inhibition against all microorganisms, showing the highest activity against S. aureus with a zone diameter of 9,83 ± 1,04 mm. Filter 1 also showed activity against B. cereus (9,50 ± 0,50) , E. coli (8,50 ± 0,50) and S. epidermidis. Filter 1 exhibited activity against S. epidermidis , but the zones were not clear enough for precise measurement. Nirmala et al. [ 26 ] reported no antibacterial activity for pristine rosin fibres; however, our results demonstrate an antibacterial effect in the modified rosin fibres prepared with pentaerythritol. This indicates that varying the concentration of the filter components could enhance their activity. This indicates that the presence of modified rosin in the filter compositions has provided antibacterial properties to the filters. Additionally, beyond exhibiting activity, the filters also formed zones to prevent bacterial proximity. The zones demonstrating the effectiveness of the filters against bacteria are shown in Fig. 7 . Upon reviewing studies on the nanoscale reduction of rosin using the electrospinning technique and its application in various fields, our findings align with and support the outcomes of previous research. Table 5 Antibacterial activity results of the filters. Inhibition zone (mm) B. cereus E. coli S. aureus S.epidermis Filter 1 9,50 ± 0,50 8,50 ± 0,50 9,83 ± 1,04 *- Filter 2 - - - - - No inhibition observed *- Inhibition observed, but the exact measurement could not be determined 4. Conclusions In this study, rosin-based fibrous membranes were developed, and their particulate matter removal efficiency and antibacterial properties were investigated. It was concluded that high concentrations are required to reduce the rosin structure to micro scale using electrospinning, particularly for natural rosin which necessitates very high concentrations. Moreover, the morphology of the fibres was shown to be highly correlated to the addition of PLA. The filters developed with a formulation combining pentaerythritol ester rosin and PLA demonstrated filtration efficiency almost equivalent to filters made solely with PLA. However, in antibacterial analysis, filters based on 40% MR + PLA (Filter 1) showed significant inhibition zones against Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , Bacillus cereus , and Staphylococcus epidermidis (9.50 ± 0.50, 8.50 ± 0.50, and 9.83 ± 1.04), effectively preventing bacterial growth. Based on the study findings, modified rosin with different thermoplastic characteristics can be synthesized, and bio-based, sustainable micro-nano scale membranes with high biological activity can be developed using the electrospinning technique. These developed membranes hold great promise for applications in various fields within the materials industry. CRediT authorship contribution statement Natalia Czerwinska: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Bilge Yilmaz: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Hilal Fazlı: Methodology, Writing. Serhatcan Berk Akçay: Methodology, Writing. Gülsüm Merve Boyracı: Methodology, Writing, Oktay Yıldız: Methodology, Maria Letizia Ruello: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Declarations Author Contribution Natalia Czerwinska: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Bilge Yilmaz: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Hilal Fazlı: Methodology, Writing. Serhatcan Berk Akçay: Methodology, Writing. Gülsüm Merve Boyracı: Methodology, Writing, Oktay Yıldız: Methodology, Maria Letizia Ruello: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Acknowledgement This research was carried out (B.Y.) during a STSM (short-term scientific mission) at the Università Politecnica delle Marche, under the supervision of Dr. Maria Letizia Ruello (M.L.R); it was supported by FULLRECO4US Cost Action CA20133 (www.cost.eu). Special thanks are given also to the Fondazione Cariverona for providing the grant for the research fellow activities (N.C.): “FIlrti adsorbenti sostenibiLI – FILI” project. References Pacitto A, Stabile L, Russo S, Buonanno G (2020) Exposure to Submicron Particles and Estimation of the Dose Received by Children in School and Non-School Environments, Atmosphere , vol. 11, no. 5, Art. no. 5, May 10.3390/atmos11050485 9789240034228-eng.pdf. Accessed: Jan. 14, 2025. [Online]. 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Nanomaterials (Basel) 12(7):1077. 10.3390/nano12071077 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files GraphicalAbstract.pptx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Polymers and the Environment → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 03 Jun, 2025 Reviews received at journal 19 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 13 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 06 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 06 May, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 04 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 29 Apr, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 29 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 28 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6550608","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":452964290,"identity":"05a9f0bc-41f0-4dc7-8310-ffd2cd65f44e","order_by":0,"name":"Natalia Czerwińska","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Università Politecnica delle Marche, UdR INSTM","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Natalia","middleName":"","lastName":"Czerwińska","suffix":""},{"id":452964291,"identity":"a64198fd-3566-497c-a99c-fa6a6ddc14b0","order_by":1,"name":"Bilge 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":103940,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning setup for preparation of filters and photograph of Filter 1 (30%MR+10%PLA).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/1c3350741231ffab8182ec68.jpg"},{"id":82286724,"identity":"22a64ddd-e13c-4dbf-8223-d657a2f667d7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 16:31:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":307217,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM images of rosin electrospun fibers (a) 50% R_E, (b) 60% R_E, (c) 75% R_E, (d) 50% R_A, (f) 60% 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4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":278138,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM images of modified rosin electrospun fibers (a) 50% R/PLA_A, (b) 40% R/PLA_A, (c) 40% MR/PLA_A, (d) 79% MR/PLA_A at MAG 2.00Kx and 5.00Kx.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/1803b3f59141a462960d7bc6.jpg"},{"id":82287480,"identity":"122f627d-1f45-48b0-9177-b88a8f3abc3d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 16:39:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":473305,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM images of modified rosin and PLA electrospun fibers (a) Filter 1 and (b) Filter 2.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/441c2451c705f759d3801130.jpg"},{"id":82287482,"identity":"f7457904-db89-4bb9-aa31-ff2717058ece","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 16:39:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":159412,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTGA curves (a) and derivative curves (b) of Filter 1 and Filter 2.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/b9b25bc5ad88b4c71ba52332.jpg"},{"id":82287799,"identity":"45b22ad8-1866-49bb-a341-16ad45875cc0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 16:47:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29222,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFT-IR analysis of the filters.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/7392820f45c86566e3c068a7.jpg"},{"id":82286746,"identity":"5c274dcc-facd-4c96-977e-566cf4428ff7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 16:31:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":203036,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePM filtration test (a) filtration efficiency results, (b) quality factor of the filters and (c) SEM and elemental analysis of Filter 1 after filtration.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/7d4878a41394b89bd0b75be0.jpg"},{"id":82286727,"identity":"d9f0b98a-6af8-4252-878a-a0c901b80516","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 16:31:41","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":75538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAntibacterial performance of Filter 1 and Filter 2 (BC: B. cereus, EC: E. coli and SA: S. epidermidis).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/def3a84daf7e6d663b0f4936.jpg"},{"id":88268167,"identity":"589a0317-ee22-43e0-926a-f083f7676655","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-04 16:49:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3318847,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/99592060-5982-484e-937a-a9e8282a90f0.pdf"},{"id":82286725,"identity":"db2006f6-dbbd-4574-b819-c00fbc7438d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 16:31:41","extension":"pptx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":211673,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"GraphicalAbstract.pptx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6550608/v1/5355342eb5e2c350c7c3d60c.pptx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Fabrication of novel rosin-based antibacterial nanofibers for particulate matter removal","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Rosin based fibers were successfully prepared by electrospinning technique\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Electrospun fibers showed high filtration efficiency and bacteria removal\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; PLA has flexibilized the rigid structure of modified rosin (MR)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; An electrospun fiber with high antibacterial activity was fabricated using modified rosin/PLA\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIndoor air quality (IAQ) in homes, schools, offices, and other workplaces\u0026mdash;is crucial, as individuals spend approximately 80% of their time in enclosed environments. For particularly sensitive groups such as children, the elderly, and individuals with specific health conditions, ensuring a healthy environment becomes even more critical. Among these groups, children are especially affected, as they spend a significant portion of their time at school, where they are continuously exposed to indoor pollutants. Although particles primarily originate from outdoor sources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], various pollutants can also accumulate within enclosed spaces.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndoor air pollutants can be generated inside homes or buildings through occupants\u0026rsquo; activities, such as cooking, combustion activities (burning candles or incenses, use of fireplaces, smoking), use of electronic machines, use of consumer products, or emissions from building materials. These activities produce emissions such as particulate matter (PM). The permissible level of airborne PM is based on the concentration of PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, that respectively represents the fraction of particles that can be collected with a sorting system that has an efficiency of 50% for particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 \u0026micro;m or less and 10 \u0026micro;m or less. Concentrations exceeding the permissible levels (15 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 45 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for 24-hour, 5 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 15 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for 1-year averages, respectively for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] not only adversely affect human health but also accelerate the airborne transmission of infectious agents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Particulate matter consist of organic components like elemental carbon and organic carbon, as well as inorganic substances such as SO₄\u0026sup2;⁻, NO₃⁻, and SiO₂ [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] and the behavior of PM particles is affected by their chemical composition, morphology, and mechanical properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Exposure to particulate matter, especially those with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 \u0026micro;m or less, has been linked to various adverse health effects, including cardiovascular diseases, asthma, bronchitis, premature deaths, and lung cancer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. With the increasing health awareness related to staying in closed places, attention is paid to the type of materials used to improve air quality. Cooking emissions are recognized as a significant contributor to indoor particulate matters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Various cooking techniques produce differing amounts of particulate emissions, and the rates of PMs released during cooking are influenced by several factors, including the type of cooking appliance utilized, the temperature conditions during cooking, and the fat content present in the ingredients. For example, frying can produce peak particle levels of 745 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (2.22 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026micro;g/min) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], exceeding WHO 24-h 15 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e exposure threshold almost 50 times. In another study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], the highest emission rates of both PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e at a single time point were found to be generated by deep-frying with values of 7586 \u0026micro;g/min and 1229 \u0026micro;g/min, respectively. The results showed also that deep-frying and stir-frying had much higher emission rates than boiling and steaming, in line with several previous studies; larger particle production is caused by cooking with oil as opposed to water. S. W. See [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] conducted experiments by steaming, boiling, stir-frying, pan-frying, and deep-frying 150 grams of tofu. Deep-frying, stir-frying, boiling and steaming generated the largest mass of PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, with average concentrations of PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e at 190, 120, 81 and 66 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively. For instance, other studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] also draw attention to the potential impacts of the building's locality and its administration on IAQ by quantifying the indoor and outdoor PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e exposure at 40 urban and rural schools. The results demonstrated that concentrations of indoor PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e (20\u0026ndash;180 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, and a mean of 62 \u0026micro;g/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) showed differences between urban and rural as well as between private and public schools. Some rural schools exhibited greater exposure than urban schools, depending on their immediate surrounding environment and their internal PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e sources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanofibers, with their large surface area, fine fiber diameter, and porous structure, are promising candidates for achieving high particulate matter removal efficiency with minimal pressure drop. The performance of an air filter depends on the type of air pollution, and its pollutant capture mechanism can be tailored accordingly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Electrospinning is a versatile technique used to produce nanostructured fibers with diameters ranging from the micro to nano scale. These materials offer advantages such as biocompatibility, washability, reusability, and lightweight properties. Over the past few decades, advancements in micro and nanotechnology have significantly contributed to societal progress in various ways [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Nanofiber materials have garnered significant public interest due to their exceptional surface-to-volume ratio and promising applications in air filtration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanofibers are effective materials for capturing PM, and utilizing biodegradable polymers for developing filtration materials can support waste management systems by minimizing waste. In contrast, extensive use of non-biodegradable polymers disrupts waste disposal processes, resulting in environmental challenges. Recently, several polymer compounds have been studied to produce electrospun fibers. However, the non-degradable nature of most nanofiber filters can contribute to additional environmental pollution. Studies conducted before COVID-19 primarily focused on non-biodegradable and non-sustainable polymers. Polystyrene, for example, has been presented as an air filter designed from electrospun patterned nanofibers, offering high transparency and effective PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e filtration efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Polyimide nanofiber air filters were designed with high efficiency to operate under high temperatures, effectively capturing PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e from pollution sources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] presented a novel air filter based on polybenzimidazole nanofibers designed for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e filtration. In these studies, the polymers were non-biodegradable and unsustainable, which makes the filters developed from these materials a clear threat to both the environment and human health. With the rapid spread of COVID-19 worldwide, studies in literature have increasingly focused on biodegradable synthetic polymers that cause minimal environmental harm once disposed of.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJ. Cui [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] developed an innovative air filter made from polyvinyl alcohol and tannic acid using green electrospinning and physical cross-linking. This composite achieved a PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e filtration efficiency of 99.5% with a low pressure drop of only 35 Pa, making it both highly effective and breathable. M.Pierpaoli \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] investigated a sustainable air filter created from polylactic acid (PLA) fibers. This filter combines 3D printing and electrospinning, utilizing a PLA-based support structure with PLA fibers. The developed filter showed over 95% efficiency in capturing particulate matter with particle sizes above 0.3 \u0026micro;m, comparable to commercial FFP2 masks. Beyond the current studies, it is essential to focus on ensuring that the developed filters are not only biodegradable but also bio-based and sustainable. The increase in studies on biodegradable synthetic filters has paved the way for the development of bio-based, sustainable and biodegradable filters. C. Ding \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] investigated a highly breathable, lightweight, and efficient air filter made from a unique protein-based nanofiber structure, specifically using zein. These studies serve as examples for developing biodegradable filters from natural biopolymers. In recent years, studies on the development of priority filters and mask design to minimize the impact of air pollution on humans have increasingly focused not only on the creation of bio-based and sustainable nanofibril membranes but also on exploring additional features that can be incorporated into the designed filters. The European Green Deal aims to make Europe the first carbon-neutral continent by the year 2050. To achieve this goal, eliminating pollution in air, water, and soil and investing in sustainable industry and a circular economy are identified as strategically important areas. Consequently, there has been an increasing focus on evaluating bio-based sustainable materials for the development of air purification technologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRosin is produced by distilling the volatile component (turpentine) from natural resin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. It is recognized as the non-volatile fraction of resins [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The development of nanofibrous membranes from rosin began with W. Baek [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] who first reported preparing rosin in fiber form via electrospinning with various solvent systems. R.Nirmala [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] created a solution of natural rosin with different antibacterial additives (such as trimethylammonium ethyl methacrylate chloride, silver nitrate, and chitosan) in dimethylformamide, developing nanofibrous membranes through electrospinning and conducting antibacterial testing on these membranes. In a follow-up study, R. Nirmala \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] prepared nanofibers containing poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and rosin for biomedical applications, suggesting that PCL/rosin nanofibers could function as effective bactericidal filters. C.Pavon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] investigated incorporating gum rosin microspheres into polypropylene microfibers used in face masks to enhance hydrophobic properties. When reviewing the literature studies, it is observed that studies involving mostly on natural rosin. Nanofibrillar membranes developed using modified rosin (pentaerythritol ester rosin) through the electrospinning technique represent a novel approach and stand as a first in this field. Pentaerythritol ester of rosin, a quaternary alcohol ester, is recognized for its superior stability due to its enhanced resistance to water, alkalis, and oxidation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Resin acids are esterified industrially at elevated temperatures (260\u0026ndash;300 ℃) using various catalysts, such as metal oxides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the literature contains a few studies on the development of rosin as a nanofibrous membrane for air purification technologies and sustainable production, comprehensive research that deeply investigates this material remains scarce. Therefore, this study examined the nanofiber development processes of natural rosin and modified rosin using the electrospinning technique with environmentally friendly chemicals. Additionally, the antibacterial and filtration efficiencies of the developed rosin-based nanofibrous membranes were thoroughly investigated.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental section","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, \u003cem\u003ePinus pinaster\u003c/em\u003e rosin (narural rosin - R) was purchased from a local company in T\u0026uuml;rkiye. Pentaerythritol ester rosin (modified rosin - MR) was synthesized from \u003cem\u003ePinus pinaster\u003c/em\u003e type rosin in the laboratory. The chemicals used for the esterification process included pentaerythritol with a purity of \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;99.9% (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA), (1,1-Di-tert-butyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl) methyl) ethylphosphonate (Irganox 1425, BASF, CAS Number: 65140-91-2), and TBM-6 (4,4\u0026rsquo;-Thiobis(2-tert-butyl-5-methylphenol)) (358.54 g/mol, Sigma-Aldrich). PLA (Luminy LX930) was provided by Total Corbion PLA, Acetone and Ethanol were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Steinheim, Germany). \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e ATCC 25923, \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e ATCC 35218, \u003cem\u003eBacillus cereus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus epidermidis\u003c/em\u003e were used as the model bacteria. All chemical reagents were used as received without further purification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Synthesis pentaerythritol ester rosin\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe synthesis of pentaerythritol ester rosin was carried out with minor modifications based on the authors' previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Electrospinning optimizing parameters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferent polymer solutions were prepared for electrospinning. In order to optimize all the parameters, the initial trials have been performed and are listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Two ecofriendly solvents were selected (acetone and ethanol) and the solutions of MR, R, MR/PLA and R/PLA were prepared in different concentrations (40\u0026ndash;85% w/w). The preparation procedure involves the addition of the solvent to the polymer, followed by mixing to obtain homogenous solutions. Following that, an electrospinning apparatus (Spinbox, Fludinatek) was used to electrospun the solutions, which were then placed into plastic 20 mL syringes fitted with stainless steel needles with the outer diameter of 0.7mm (22 gauge). The samples were collected on a grounded flat collector covered by aluminum foil, which was placed in the distance from the needle at 10\u0026ndash;16.5 cm, and the syringe pump rate was set at 1\u0026ndash;2 mL/h. The measured relative humidity and temperature during electrospinning were equal to 50\u0026ndash;59% and 21\u0026ndash;24\u0026deg;C, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrospinning parameters - trial samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLabel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolvent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kV)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePumping rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mL/h)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemp\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRH\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTarget volume\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% R_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% R_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% R_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_E_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_E_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_A_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_A_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR_A_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR_A_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR_A_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR_A_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85% MR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85% MR_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20%R\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;30% PLA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% R\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10% PLA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40% R/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10% PLA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40% MR/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;5% PLA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79% MR/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Preparation of the filters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter optimization of the parameters final solutions were prepared. 30%MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10%PLA solution was selected and the conditions for filter production were determined as follows: voltage at 15 kV, the distance between the needle and the collector at 15 cm and flow rate was increased to 4 ml/h. The solutions were electrospun with a target total volume of 19 mL. To compare the results, a filter without addition of MR (10% PLA) was also prepared. Prepared filters from 30%MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10%PLA and 10%PLA solutions were labeled as Filter 1 and Filter 2, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolution formulation for filtering media.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLabel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolvent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kV)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePumping rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mL/h)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemp\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRH\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTarget volume\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10% PLA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10% PLA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Nanofibers characterization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.1. Morphology and elemental analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA scanning electron microscope (Zeiss Supra 40) fitted with an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was used to examine the morphology of the electrospun fibers and to classify the elemental composition of the particulate retained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.2. Thermogravimetric analyses analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed using a Perkin-Elmer TGA 4000 instrument. During the analysis, 4\u0026ndash;10 mg of each sample was carefully placed in the crucible. The measurements were conducted in a nitrogen atmosphere, starting at 30\u0026deg;C with a heating rate of 10\u0026deg;C per minute, continuing up to 800\u0026deg;C. At 800\u0026deg;C, the samples were held at a constant temperature, and mass loss was continuously recorded until the analysis was complete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.3. Fourier-transform infrared analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis of the samples was conducted using a Perkin-Elmer Frontier instrument (Waltham, MA, USA). The infrared spectra were acquired using the attenuated total reflection (ATR) technique. Measurements were recorded over a wavelength range of 4000\u0026ndash;500 cm⁻\u0026sup1; with a resolution of 4 cm⁻\u0026sup1; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Filtration efficiency test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe filtration performance was carried out following the modified procedure described in previous studies[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. An experimental pilot-scale test room (15 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) was equipped with an ultrasonic air humidifier (Medisana UHW, Neuss, Germany) that produced monodisperse aerosol of sodium chloride (NaCl) from a 2% w/w water solution. Three fans installed inside the test chamber made sure that the air was circulated and that the NaCl particles were homogenized. A circular hole measuring 5 cm in diameter was provided for the purpose of sampling indoor conditions. A cylindrical tube with the same diameter was inserted into the hole, which was located at a height of 1.05 m above the ground. Electrospun samples were cut in a round shape of a diameter 5 cm and placed in the 3D printed PLA filter holder and positioned in the tube. A fan powered by a variable power source was employed to ensure a controlled flow (200 L/min) through the filter medium after the moisture was first extracted using a commercial sorbent. Two particle counters (Trotect BQ21) were used to measure the PM concentration before the filter (inside the room, upstream concentration) and after the filter (outside, downstream concentration). The device has two channels, which are designed to measure particles of sizes 2.5 \u0026micro;m and 10 \u0026micro;m, respectively. The airflow resistance was evaluated by the pressure drop (ΔP) generated by the airflow through the filter and was measured by Dynamic Pressure Anemometer (Trotec TA400). The filtration efficiency (E) was calculated according to the following equation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:E\\:\\left(\\%\\right)=1-\\frac{Cdownstream}{Cupstream}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuality factor (QF) is used to reveal the comprehensive filtration performance of a filter, and can be calculated by the following equation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:QF\\:(Pa-1)=\\frac{-\\:\\text{l}\\text{n}\\left[\\right(1\\:-\\:\\text{E}\\left)\\right]}{{\\Delta\\:}\\text{p}\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere E and ΔP represent the filtration efficiency and pressure drop, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7. Antibacterial properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antibacterial activity of the filters was evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 35218, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria using the disk diffusion susceptibility test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. For the analysis, approximately 20 mL of Mueller-Hinton agar medium was poured into sterile petri dishes and allowed to solidify. The bacteria to be used in the study were taken from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C stocks and cultured in Nutrient Broth medium for 24 hours. Suspensions equivalent to 0.5 McFarland turbidity standard were prepared from the fresh cultures using a cell densitometer (Biosan DEN-1). A 100 \u0026micro;L aliquot of the prepared cultures was transferred to petri dishes containing Mueller-Hinton agar and spread evenly using a sterile cell spreader [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. After allowing the surface to dry for 3\u0026ndash;4 minutes, filters with an average diameter of 0.6 mm were placed on the petri surface and incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hours. At the end of the incubation period, inhibition zones were measured in millimeters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Morphology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SEM images were recorded to confirm the fabrication of the fibers and to study its morphology and nanostructure. The diameter of the fibers was estimated using the ImageJ tool program. 20 fibers' diameters were randomly measured in each sample at a magnification of 2.00 Kx and the average diameter and diameter distributions were reported. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. SEM images of rosin electrospun fibers (a) 50% R_E, (b) 60% R_E, (c) 75% R_E, (d) 50% R_A, (f) 60% R_A. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e reveal the micrograph of rosin and modified rosin trial samples, respectively. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e show the SEM images of fabricated fibers from optimized modified rosin and modified rosin/PLA solutions. The quality of the samples produced is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt can be inferred from the SEM images (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) that no fibers were fully formed and dispersed across the entire surface of any sample of R or MR. The inefficiency of the parameters selected to control the electrospinning process may be the cause of this. However, while examining the samples that yielded a higher amount and quality of fibers, it was discovered that while beaded fibers were created when the solution concentration of modified rosin was increased to 75% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ei-j) and 80% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ek), the fibers were only partially produced and were short and unfinished. Additionally, it was noted that a polymer percentage of at least 60% is required for the fabrication of fibers. Since no fibers, not even partially, developed in samples made with 50% rosin or a modified rosin when acetone or ethanol were used as a solvent, it can conclude that the concentration of the polymer (and thus its viscosity) was crucial in the formation of the fibers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rosin and PLA integration was shown to affect the electrospinning process and led to a more uniform product (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The fibrous membranes were successfully produced from the 20%R\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;30% PLA (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea), 30% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10% PLA (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec) and 75% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;5% PLA (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ed) solutions and the average fiber diameters were found to be 4.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9 \u0026micro;m, 2.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8 \u0026micro;m, and 1.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9, respectively. It can be observed that the 40%_MR/PLA_A sample (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec) produced from 30% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10% PLA_A solution exhibited smaller fiber, comparing to the 20%R\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;30% PLA, while by increasing polymer concentration to 79% by mixing 75% MR and 5% PLA, the average fiber diameter decreased from 2.4 \u0026micro;m to 1.8 \u0026micro;m, however visible dots prove incomplete process of the electrospinning. This suggests that decreasing PLA concentration from 10\u0026ndash;5% the viscosity of the solution decreases, and partial electrospraying occurs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Because the fibers in the 40%_MR/PLA_A appeared to be smooth this solution has been selected for further filter development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMorphology and fiber diameter distributions of produced filters (Filter 1 and Filter 2) are presented on Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Filter 1 made up from 30% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10% PLA solution characterize smooth, breadless fibers with the average fiber diameter of 2.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8 \u0026micro;m, which is higher than the one on Filter 2 (1.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6 \u0026micro;m). This difference can be attributed to different relative humidity values (49% and 58% for Filter 1 and Filter 2, respectively). Lower relative humidity measured during fabrication of Filter 1, caused rapid solvent evaporation, resulting in thicker nanofiber. In contrast, higher humidity inhibits solvent evaporation, resulting in thinner fibers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] of Filter 2. Some studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] reported that pores in electrospun fiber surfaces are generated, and the pore size increased with an increase in relative humidity (RH). In fact, when higher RH is applied, visible pores for the fibers of Filter 2 are present. The fiber diameter distributions were found to be rather broad for Filter 1 (from 1 \u0026micro;m to 5 \u0026micro;m) and narrowing for Filter 2 (from 0.5 to 3.5 \u0026micro;m), which can be related to difference in the solution viscosity and properties such as the surface tension and conductivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrospinning capability and fiber quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFiber quality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% R_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% R_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% R_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_E_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_E_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR_E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_A_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60% MR_A_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR_A_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% MR_A_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR_A_1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThin beaded fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% MR_A_2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThin beaded fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85% MR_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThin beaded fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% R/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage 4.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9 \u0026micro;m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40% R/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo fibers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40% MR/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeaded less fibers with average fiber diameter of 2.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8 \u0026micro;m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79% MR/PLA_A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeaded less fibers with average fiber diameter of 1.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9 \u0026micro;m, visible polymer accumulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmooth fibers with average fiber diameter of 2.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8 \u0026micro;m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorous fibers with average fiber diameter of 1.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6 \u0026micro;m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Thermal behavior\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TGA and derivative weight curves obtained for the samples coded Filter 1 (40%MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10%PLA) and Filter 2 (10% PLA) are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. As observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea, the curve corresponding to Filter 2 demonstrates a significant weight loss in the temperature range of approximately 300\u0026ndash;400\u0026deg;C, whereas the curve for Filter 1 exhibits a gradual weight loss over a broader temperature range of approximately 275\u0026ndash;475\u0026deg;C. Examining both curves reveals that up to approximately 150\u0026deg;C, both samples are thermally stable. However, the weight loss in Filter 2 begins at a higher temperature compared to Filter 1. This indicates that the thermal stability of Filter 2 is higher than that of Filter 1. While the weight loss of Filter 2 occurs more rapidly within a narrow temperature range, the gradual weight loss over a broader range in Filter 1 suggests a different thermal degradation mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, two distinct peaks are observed, which can be attributed to the degradation of different components in the structure at varying temperatures. For both samples, the temperatures corresponding to 5% weight loss (T\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e), 10% weight loss (T\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e), and the char residue (%) values at 450\u0026deg;C (CR\u003csub\u003e450\u003c/sub\u003e) are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Filter 2 exhibits more stable behavior up to approximately 300\u0026ndash;350\u0026deg;C compared to Filter 1. Specifically, the temperature at which 5% weight loss occurs is approximately 307.26\u0026deg;C for Filter 1, whereas it is about 231.79\u0026deg;C for Filter 2. Similarly, the temperature corresponding to 10% weight loss is 327.42\u0026deg;C for Filter 2 and 275.94\u0026deg;C for Filter 1. These results indicate that the components within Filter 1 lead to degradation at lower temperatures\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTGA results of the filters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR\u003csub\u003e450\u003c/sub\u003e (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e231.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e275.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e307.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e327.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn important point to note is the temperature difference between the 5% and 10% weight loss for each sample. For Filter 2, this difference is approximately 20\u0026deg;C, whereas for Filter 1, it is about 44\u0026deg;C. This suggests that the addition of MR to the polymer matrix has caused a slight decrease in the decomposition temperature, thereby slightly reducing the thermal stability. This may be attributed to the structural properties of MR and its interaction with the polymer matrix. This observation is further supported by the char residue values at 450\u0026deg;C. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the char residue at 450\u0026deg;C is 0.13% for Filter 2 and 7.56% for Filter 1. This indicates that, despite its initial faster degradation behavior, Filter 1 exhibits higher thermal stability at specific temperatures compared to Filter 2. In conclusion, the TGA analyses of the two composite samples reveal results consistent with literature studies. In one study, it was reported that in PLA composites, the onset of thermal degradation is lower than pure PLA due to the filler (reinforcement) materials present in the structure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. In another study, where pentaerythritol ester rosin was integrated with PLA by melt extrusion and its thermal properties were examined, it was observed that the maximum degradation temperatures slightly increased compared to pure PLA, depending on the amount of reinforcement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. FT-IR Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FT-IR analysis results of the filters developed in this study (Filter 1 and Filter 2) are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. Examination of the FT-IR results indicates that the chemical structures of the MR/PLA-based and PLA-based filters are not significantly different. The esterification of rosin with pentaerythritol to thermoplastisize the material suggests that it can serve as a substitute for petroleum-based thermoplastic materials with similar functions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the infrared analysis, Filter 1 has a broad transmittance band centered at 3500 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, indicating OH stretching vibrations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Filter 2 contains carbonyl vibration originating from PLA observed at 1773 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. Moreover, in Filter 1, which contains modified rosin and PLA, the carbonyl (CO) vibration originating from the modified rosin was observed at 1741 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, while the CO vibration from PLA was observed at 1755 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. The FT-IR spectra results validate the successful fabrication of rosin fibers through electrospinning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Filtration performance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough membrane filtration has great promises for reducing air pollution, creating new filters that are effective, long-lasting, and possess high quality factor, low pressure drop (ΔP), and superior antibacterial properties is challenging. Three crucial parameters \u0026mdash; filtration efficiency, pressure drop, and quality factor \u0026mdash; were considered to assess the performance of our electrospun fibrous membranes. Results presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ea demonstrate PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e filtration efficiency-as well as the corresponding pressure drop across the filter-average data. Both filters, Filter 1 and Filter 2 characterize excellent filtration efficiency, exceeding 97% and 98% for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e respectively. Filter 1 demonstrates slightly lower filtration efficiency (around 2% for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e) than Filter 2, which can be explained in the higher fiber diameter (3.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4 \u0026micro;m for 40% MR/PLA and 1.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6 \u0026micro;m for 10%PLA). This is since a denser network of fibers is produced by a smaller fiber diameter. Smaller pore diameters and a denser nanofiber network would make it more difficult for the particles to get through [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ec, fibers of Filter 1 were coated with many particles (NaCl) after filtration, which were identified by EDS analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 1 characterizes 6 Pa higher pressure drop (111 Pa), than Filter 2 (95 Pa), what indicates slightly higher air resistance. This fact can be explained by possible higher porosity of Filter 2, which can promote the flow of gas on the membrane and thus play a role in reducing the pressure drop [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), greater QF indicates better filtration efficiency and smaller pressure drop. The quality factor values were evaluated at the flow rate equal to 200 L/min. As shown on Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e (b) the quality factors ranged from 0.031 Pa\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e to 0.052 Pa\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, which are higher than commercial filters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Antibacterial performance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antibacterial activity results of the filter samples against \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus epidermidis\u003c/em\u003e bacteria are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. When the antibacterial activity of the filter samples was evaluated, it was observed that Filter 2 (10% PLA) did not show activity against the tested microorganisms. Filter 1 (40% MR/PLA) provided inhibition against all microorganisms, showing the highest activity against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e with a zone diameter of 9,83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1,04 mm. Filter 1 also showed activity against \u003cem\u003eB. cereus (9,50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,50)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli (8,50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,50)\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. epidermidis.\u003c/em\u003e Filter 1 exhibited activity against \u003cem\u003eS. epidermidis\u003c/em\u003e, but the zones were not clear enough for precise measurement. Nirmala et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] reported no antibacterial activity for pristine rosin fibres; however, our results demonstrate an antibacterial effect in the modified rosin fibres prepared with pentaerythritol. This indicates that varying the concentration of the filter components could enhance their activity. This indicates that the presence of modified rosin in the filter compositions has provided antibacterial properties to the filters. Additionally, beyond exhibiting activity, the filters also formed zones to prevent bacterial proximity. The zones demonstrating the effectiveness of the filters against bacteria are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. Upon reviewing studies on the nanoscale reduction of rosin using the electrospinning technique and its application in various fields, our findings align with and support the outcomes of previous research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAntibacterial activity results of the filters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInhibition zone (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eB. cereus\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eE. coli\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS. aureus\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS.epidermis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1,04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilter 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e- No inhibition observed\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e*- Inhibition observed, but the exact measurement could not be determined\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, rosin-based fibrous membranes were developed, and their particulate matter removal efficiency and antibacterial properties were investigated. It was concluded that high concentrations are required to reduce the rosin structure to micro scale using electrospinning, particularly for natural rosin which necessitates very high concentrations. Moreover, the morphology of the fibres was shown to be highly correlated to the addition of PLA. The filters developed with a formulation combining pentaerythritol ester rosin and PLA demonstrated filtration efficiency almost equivalent to filters made solely with PLA. However, in antibacterial analysis, filters based on 40% MR\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;PLA (Filter 1) showed significant inhibition zones against \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBacillus cereus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus epidermidis\u003c/em\u003e (9.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50, 8.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50, and 9.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.04), effectively preventing bacterial growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the study findings, modified rosin with different thermoplastic characteristics can be synthesized, and bio-based, sustainable micro-nano scale membranes with high biological activity can be developed using the electrospinning technique. These developed membranes hold great promise for applications in various fields within the materials industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNatalia Czerwinska: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Bilge Yilmaz: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Hilal Fazlı: Methodology, Writing. Serhatcan Berk Ak\u0026ccedil;ay: Methodology, Writing. G\u0026uuml;ls\u0026uuml;m Merve Boyracı: Methodology, Writing, Oktay Yıldız: Methodology, Maria Letizia Ruello: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNatalia Czerwinska: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Bilge Yilmaz: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. Hilal Fazlı: Methodology, Writing. Serhatcan Berk Ak\u0026ccedil;ay: Methodology, Writing. G\u0026uuml;ls\u0026uuml;m Merve Boyracı: Methodology, Writing, Oktay Yıldız: Methodology, Maria Letizia Ruello: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was carried out (B.Y.) during a STSM (short-term scientific mission) at the Universit\u0026agrave; Politecnica delle Marche, under the supervision of Dr. Maria Letizia Ruello (M.L.R); it was supported by FULLRECO4US Cost Action CA20133 (www.cost.eu). Special thanks are given also to the Fondazione Cariverona for providing the grant for the research fellow activities (N.C.): \u0026ldquo;FIlrti adsorbenti sostenibiLI \u0026ndash; FILI\u0026rdquo; project.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePacitto A, Stabile L, Russo S, Buonanno G (2020) Exposure to Submicron Particles and Estimation of the Dose Received by Children in School and Non-School Environments, \u003cem\u003eAtmosphere\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 11, no. 5, Art. no. 5, May \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/atmos11050485\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/atmos11050485\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e9789240034228-eng.pdf. Accessed: Jan. 14, 2025. [Online]. 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Nanomaterials (Basel) 12(7):1077. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/nano12071077\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/nano12071077\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-polymers-and-the-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jooe","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Polymers and the Environment](https://www.springer.com/journal/10924)","snPcode":"10924","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10924/3","title":"Journal of Polymers and the Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Electrospinning, antibacterial membranes, filtration, rosin, particulate matter, bio-based polymers, PLA","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6550608/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6550608/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, sustainable, biodegradable and eco-friendly filters were prepared via electrospinning technique to obtain fibrous membranes for the filtration of particulate matter (PM\u003csub\u003e2.5 \u003c/sub\u003eand PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e) and bacteria removal. For this purpose, natural rosin (R), and modified rosin (MR, pentaerythritol ester rosin) were selected, due to the antibacterial properties and polylactic acid (PLA) was used as a bio-based plasticizing agent to facilitate the fibers formation from rosin samples. Effects of the process parameters such as concentration of the solution, ratio of the polymers, spinning volume of the membranes, voltage and flow rate, on the fiber formation were studied through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis. Under the optimum condition, 40% modified rosin/PLA was selected for fabrication of filters and further analysis. The filtering efficiency was assessed in a real-scale room by measuring the penetration of neutralized aerosol particles (2% NaCl) through selected electrospun filters. The filtration capacity of fibrous membranes prepared with 40% modified rosin/PLA was 97.00% for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and 97.9% for PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e. On the other hand, fibrous membranes with 10% PLA, fabricated as a control sample, demonstrated a filtration efficiency of 99.00% for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5 \u003c/sub\u003eand 99.2% for PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e. Moreover, antibacterial analysis results revealed that PLA-based filters showed no activity against \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis\u003c/em\u003e. However, filters prepared with 40% modified rosin/PLA inhibited these bacteria and formed inhibition zones of 9.50±0.50, 8.50±0.50, and 9.83±1.04, effectively preventing bacterial growth. In summary, although the filtration efficiency of fibrous membranes prepared with 40% MR/PLA fibers is slightly lower compared to those with 10% PLA, their strong antibacterial activities highlight the promising potential of natural pine resin-based rosin, a bio-based and sustainable polymer for developing advanced electrospun membranes for air filtration.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Fabrication of novel rosin-based antibacterial nanofibers for particulate matter removal","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-08 16:31:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6550608/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-03T19:20:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-19T23:28:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-13T09:04:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"335174025053996105865411474089581028135","date":"2025-05-09T19:48:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"168988802679810742175915228157578164924","date":"2025-05-07T02:46:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"111162983821040817766402259879365637142","date":"2025-05-07T02:01:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-04T20:29:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-29T11:20:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-29T11:14:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Polymers and the Environment","date":"2025-04-28T19:59:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-polymers-and-the-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jooe","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Polymers and the Environment](https://www.springer.com/journal/10924)","snPcode":"10924","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10924/3","title":"Journal of Polymers and the Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8a235387-27e4-498f-afc7-678c1737afbc","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-04T16:41:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6550608","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-025-03653-x","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-polymers-and-the-environment","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Polymers and the Environment"},"publishedOn":"2025-08-01 16:05:13","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 1st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-08 16:31:36","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10924-025-03653-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-025-03653-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6550608","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6550608","identity":"rs-6550608","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}