Climate change impacts on food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh

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Monirul Islam Chowdhury, Syed Masiur Rahman, Md Iqram Uddin Al Amran, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1673139/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Climate change threatens the security and sustainability of the global food system. In Bangladesh, the fragile food system is strongly being impacted by climate variability and extreme weather events. Estimates indicate that the agricultural sector could lose about USD7.7 billion per annum due to climate change. The average annual rice production could decline by 33% within two decades. However, a few studies investigated the impacts of fluctuating temperature and rainfall, flash floods, drought, and saline water intrusion on the food system and security in an integrated manner. This study examines climate change impacts on food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh. It reviews the country’s food system, the climatic conditions that threaten food security, and impacts climate change on the food systems and the associated vulnerabilities. The study then assesses the existing adaptation initiatives and the extent of their integration among pertinent stakeholders. It concludes that local climate change adaptation strategies and stakeholder collaboration are necessary for reducing climate change impacts on food system security. Agriculture climate change policy food system vulnerabilities food insecurity adaptation and mitigation strategies Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction Climate change is increasingly undermining food system security worldwide. Food security is the ability of every human to consistently have “physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food” (Food and Agricultural Organization [FAO], 1996). However, one in nine people worldwide (805 million) faces food shortages (Roy et al., 2019 ). Extreme climatic events, such as increased temperature, salinity intrusion, droughts, cyclones, floods, and prolonged and shorten rainy seasons, significantly contribute to food insecurity by lowing agricultural productivity and threatening rural livelihoods (AlQahtany and Abubakar, 2020 ; Dano et al., 2019 ; Biswas et al., 2015 ; Irfanullah, 2009 ). Globally, climate change contributes to a 1–5% reduction in crop production per decade compared to the baseline situation of no climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2014 ). Even if global green house gas (GHG) emissions cease, it will take more than a millennium to return to pre-industrial climatic conditions (Rahman and Anik, 2020 ). A rapid increase in global warming has been observed since 1950 (IPCC, 2007). Moreover, Global South countries are the most susceptible to climate change impacts and with minimum adaptation capacity (Abubakar and Dano, 2020 ; Ayers et al., 2014 ; Hasan et al., 2020 ; Hossain et al., 2019 ). Bangladesh is among nations highly susceptible to climate change impacts worldwide. About 40 million people are food insecure, while an additional 11 million experience acute hunger, plus other risks to climate change impacts (WFP, 2016 ). The Global Climate Risk Index 2019, ranked the nation as the 9th most climate-vulnerable worldwide, having experienced 190 climatic events between 1997 and 2017 (Germanwatch, 2018). Annually, the country receives about 1,073 million acre-feet (MAF) of surface water and 203 MAF of rainfall, intensified between July to September (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics [BBS], 2017). It has the world’s longest delta intertwined with approximately 7,000 rivers, canals, and streams totaling about 22,155km (Smith and Frankenberger, 2018 ; Alam et al., 2018 ). Floods and soil erosion are commonplace in these disaster-prone areas, thereby disrupting the food system, the environment, and other socioeconomic activities (Alam et al., 2019 ; Ayers et al., 2014 ). The climatic events lead to low crop yields that result in increases in food prices, malnutrition, starvation, and migration (Mondal, 2014 ). About 17% of cultivated land, forest, and aquatic resources can be inundated by only a one-meter sea-level rise, affecting about 17 million people relying on agriculture for livelihoods (Hasan et al., 2020 ; Hoque et al., 2019 ). In southern Bangladesh, 40% of fertile land could be submerged by a 0.65-meter sea-level rise (World Bank, 2013 ). Thus, the climatic change has a serious impact on the country’s overall agriculture and food security. Agriculture contributes 12.1% of Bangladeshi’s GDP and employs 39.71% of its workforce (World Bank, 2020 ). The sector is expected to ensure food security according to the Government’s Vision 2021 (Planning Commission, 2010 ). However, climate change threatens food security by actively interacting with the local environment that supports the food systems. The country’s adaptive capacity is limited by its low GDP per capita of USD1788, an adult literacy rate of 72.9%, and a life expectancy of 72.3 years (UNDP, 2019 ). As of 20215, about 31.5% of the total population lives below the poverty line and the the population density is over 1,000 persons/km 2 (WFP, 2016 ). A study in 2018 reported that nearly 34.2% of children below the age of five were underweight, and 27% of mothers had chronic energy deficiency (BBS, 2019 ). Sustaining food production at the moment of climate crises is important. Appropriate adaptation actions are required to counteract the increasing urbanization, land scarcity, and soil degradation (Abubakar, 2021 ; Alauddin and Sarker, 2014 ). The present study reviews the impacts of climate change on the food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh. Prior studies mostly investigated the impacts of changing rainfall, temperature, and humidity on agriculture, rather than the effects of overall climatic events on agricultural production and the entire food system and security (Hossain et al., 2018 ). Similar studies also paid little attention to adaptation strategies Therefore, this review article fills this knowledge gap by analyzing the: (a) challenges to food system and security in Bangladesh, (b) direct and indirect climate change impacts on the food system and security, (c), existing adaptation strategies, and (d) contribution of stakeholder collaboration in climate change adaptation and enhancing food security. 2. Food System And Challenges To Food Security In Bangladesh A food system refers to “the entire range of actors and their interlinked value-adding activities involved in the production, aggregation, processing, distribution, consumption, and disposal of food products” (Nguyen, 2018 , p. 1). The production, processing, accessibility (distribution and sufficiency), and consumption of crops, fisheries, and meat are strongly related to food security (Gregory et al., 2005 ). Food security ensures that a food system always satisfies four key conditions: (a) physical and economic access to all people, i.e., universal coverage; (b) adequate supply; (c) food safety; and (d) nutrition (FAO, 1996). In Bangladesh, the food system mainly relies on domestic agricultural production using 8.74 million hectares, or about three-fifths of its total landmass. Rice is the main staple food, cultivated in about two-thirds of the gross cultivated area, which provides 74% of total calorie intake (Hossain et al., 2004 ). The country is the second-largest per capita consumer (200 kg/year) of rice globally, with Aman, Aus, and Boro rice as the highest consumed varieties (CIAT - World Bank, 2017 ). Although rice and maize demand is met locally, wheat, fruits, onions, and cotton are largely imported (CIAT - World Bank, 2017 ). In 2018, about 41,574,000 metric tons (MT) of crops were produced, consisting of 36,459,000 MT of rice, 1,287,000 MT of wheat, and 3,828,000 MT of Maize (BBS, 2019 ). The country produced 4,981,000 MT of fish in the same year, 75% from inland (BBS, 2019 ), making it the third-largest producer of inland fisheries worldwide (DoF, 2019 ). The aquatic ecosystem is enriched with 293 varieties of freshwater fish, 475 marine fish, 24 exotic fish, and various vertebrates and invertebrates species. (IUCN, 2015 ). Fish supplies at least 60% of the nation’s entire protein consumption (DoF, 2019 ). Also, 55.40 million livestock (Cattle, Buffalo, Goat, Sheep) and 344.02 million poultry (Chicken, Duck) were in 2019 (MoF, 2020 ). The dominance of rice and fish in the nation’s food system succinctly captures the local proverbs “Mache Bhate Bangali,” which means fish and rice produce a Bangladeshi. The major challenges to Bangladeshfood system are climate-related and frequent. They include floods, tropical storms, droughts, landslides, and riverbank erosion that cause colossal damage to life and property (Fig. 1 ). Other challenges, not the focus of the present study, are poverty, gender-based discrimination, access to the market, low education, and cultural practices (BARI, 2006; IFID, 2013). Areas disproportionately affected by climate change include the Barind Tract (locally known as Barendro Bhumi), covering 7,728 km 2 and located in the center and west of Rajshahi Division (MoEF, 2002). This drought-prone area have low rainfall, high temperature, and a thick clayey topsoil that undermines food production (Islam et al., 2010 ). Soil salinity caused by inundation or seepage also affects southern Bangladesh’s coastal region (Dasgupta et al., 2014 ). Other parts of the country also face irregular rainfall, increased evaporation, saline water intrusion, inundation due to storm surges, and brackish shrimp farming (SRDI, 2010). Soil salinity affects about 1.2 million hectares (42.1%) of arable land in this area (NAPA, 2009 ). Similarly, Haor wetland, a mosaic of different aquatic habitats, such as rivers, canals, floodplains, and a combination of interconnecting beaches located in the northeastern region and housing 19.37 million people, is being threatened by climate change (Chakraborty, 2005 ). In this local ecosystem, the natural and anthropogenic threats to the fishery and dry season farming include rising temperature, water regulating structures on fish migration paths, sedimentation in rivers, soil and water pollution from overuse of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, sand and stone mining, land conversion (Uddin et al., 2013 ). By 2030, climate change could reduce arable land efficiency at a cumulative rate of 5.0%, 13.0%, and 17.0%, respectively, for rice, wheat, and cereal grain output (Bandara and Cai 2014 ). Similarly, by 2050, land productivity is anticipated to decline, thereby reducing rice production by 8–17% and wheat by 32% (World Bank, 2020 ). According to a biophysical simulation model based on field experimental data from 2000–2008, the country’s average rice production could decline by 33% by 2046–2065 (Karim et al., 2012 ). Climate change also reduces the groundwater level in the northwest regions, thereby decreasing rice irrigation frequency by about 13 days (Shahid 2011 ). Climate change is also changing the fodder composition and reducing the nutritional value of grass species, and the eventual effect on the livestock population (Kabir et al., 2019 ). It also directly impacts the forestry sector as alien species are invading the land instead of the native indigenous plants at an alarming rate, with an ultimate impact on the price of forest products (Al-Amin, 2019 ). The nation is also among the top ten vulnerable countries to climate change impacts on the aquatic ecosystem, (Hossain et al., 2018 ). Being surrounded by the largest delta, the agriculture and fisheries in the coastal of the region of the country are more prone to both human and artificial disaster, including floods, cyclones, drought, saltwater intrusion, sea-level rise, sedimentation, erosion, and landslides (Hoque et al., 2019 ). 3. Climate Change Impacts On Food Production In Bangladesh Agriculture is a sector greatly affected by climate change globally (Thornton et al., 2011 ; Misra 2014 ). In Bangladesh, every year about one-third to half of the country is affected by climatic events killing hundreds of people, injuring thousands, and damaging vast hectares of crops, properties, and infrastructure (WFP, 2020 ). Although agriculture and its allied industries are the foundation of the economy, between 2009–2014, the estimated economic losses triggered by climate change are USD833.73 million from crops, USD133.92 million from fisheries, and USD137.46 million from livestock (Biswas & Maniruzzaman, 2019 ). The GPD from the sector has been declining by 3.1% annually, resulting in an estimated loss of USD36 billion from 2005–2050 (World Bank, 2020 ). The migration of displaced farmers to towns also causes population pressure because most of them do settle in slums, pathways, and bus stations that lack basic services, including safe drinking water and sanitation (Chowdhury and Moore, 2017 ). According to Gornall et al. ( 2010 ), there are two broad impacts of the changing climate on food systems: direct and indirect impacts. Figure 2 shows that temperature fluctuations, changing rainfall patterns, cyclones, tropical storms, flash floods, and drought directly impact food production in Bangladesh. The indirect impacts include saline water intrusion and pests and diseases. The next subsections review the details of these climate changes and their impacts on the national food system. 3.1 Direct Impacts (a) Temperature fluctuations Food production is inextricably connected to temperature and atmospheric CO 2 concentration. Bangladesh is a humid country with an average temperature of 260C, which fluctuates between 150C to 370C throughout the year (Fig. 3 ). The mean temperature is anticipated to rise by 1.40C and 2.40C by 2050 and 2100, respectively. From 1970–2013, Maniruzzaman et al. ( 2019 ) reported a 4.00C variation in the national average of maximum temperature. A rising trend in temperatures has been detected between 1950–2010, particularly during the south-west monsoon and post-monsoon seasons (Khan and Awal, 2009 ). Temperature and precipitation fluctuations considerably impact crop yield (Biswas and Maniruzzaman, 2019 ), undermining food security and rural livelihoods (Chowdhury and Khan, 2015 ). For example, in the northwestern region of Bangladesh, fluctuations in temperature, daylight, and CO 2 level resulted in low yield of some rice species: BRRI 28 (16.4–21.3%), BRRI 29 (12.2–15.4%), and BRRI 58 (14.8–22.3%) (Maniruzzaman et al., 2019 ). Yields of crops such as wheat, potato, and lentils heavily depend on cool weather are gradually decreasing in high temperatures during winter (Pender, 2010 ). Thick winter fog also causes potato blight, destruction of flowers of fruits like mango and low yield of onion, potato, mustard oil, and chili (Char Campaign Group, 2009 ; Ghani, 2009 ). Heat stress and higher evapotranspiration have been associated with lower rice, wheat, and potato yields (Biswas et al., 2015 ). (b) Changing rainfall patterns In Bangladesh, rainfall ranges from 1500mm to 5800 mm during monsoon rain along the Indian Ocean and transmits warm, humid, and unstable air, continued around June to October. Runoff, duration of rainy days, and rainfall intensity are anticipated to increase. Mean yearly rainfall could increase by 53.66 by 2050 (World Bank, 2020 ). The fifth IPCC assessment predicted that peak intensity might increase by 5% and 10%, and rainfall rates may increase by 20–30% (IPCC, 2014 ). Fluctuating ranfall patterns and prolong dry season that eventually increases the frequency of flood and drought (Amin et al., 2015 ). Changing rainfall and seasonal patterns have been threatening yields due to less frequent rain in the rainy season and excessive rainfall in later months (Lonnqvist, 2010 ). Heavy rainfall is linked to low grain quality and undermining grain storage and preservation facilities (Kettlewell et al., 1999). Also, extremely wet soil caused by heavy rainfall makes the use of agricultural machinery difficult. Because of irregular rainfall patterns, farmers in the northwestern part of the country could not determine the suitable time for planting and harvesting, thereby causing harvest yields to lose as high as 17–18% for rice and 31–68% for wheat (Karim et al.1999). By 2050, the country could lose 8–17% rice yield and 32% wheat yield (World Bank, 2020 ). (c) Tropical cyclone The country’s 700 km coastline is the most vulnerable area to a tropical cyclone, especially south and southeast regions that experience cyclones during the mid-year and early harvesting time, around May–November (Gornall et al., 2010 ). The severest cyclone rate was 1.3 per annum with speeds as high as 275 km/hr (Chowdhury, 2002 ). The two most severe cyclones were recorded on 29 April 1991 and 15 November 2007 with 225 km/hr, and 250 km/hr wind speeds, respectively, which caused not only loss of lives and properties, but also caused severe damage to the entire agriculture sector (Tanner et al., 2007 ). For example, the 2007 Cyclone ‘Sidr’ (Category IV) completely damaged almost 113,000 ha of crops and partially damaged 1,400,000 ha with a total estimated loss of about 1.3 million tons of crops (ECRRP, 2010), basic infrastructure like roads, bridge, highways, educational institute. The cyclone caused nearly equivalent to USD 2.3 billion worth of damage (Hasan et al., 2020 ). An IPCC report indicates that tropical cyclones’ impacts will become more intense in the upcoming years (Alley et al., 2007). Since 1970, Bangladesh has faced 36 cyclones, including Sidr, Rashma, Alia, and Bijli, which killed about half a million people and caused immense economic loss (UNDP, 2010 ). (d) Flash floods Climate changes are responsible for heavy rainfall that cause flash floods in cultivated land as nearly 60% of Bangladesh’s total land area is located 6 meters below sea level (Pender, 2010 ). From April to May, flash floods damage crops and properties in northeastern and western hilly regions (Choudhury et al., 2004 ). As shown in Fig. 4 , the severe floods of 1988, 1998, 2007, and 2014, respectively, flooded around 61%, 68%, 42%, and 25% agricultural lands in the country. Annually, flood and riverbank erosion affect around 8700 ha of residential and agricultural land and render over 200,000 people homeless, which increases their food insecurity and vulnerability to diseases (IFAD, 2013; Alam et al., 2018 ). In the southern part of the country, about 40% of the land could be flooded by a 0.65-meter sea-level rise (World Bank, 2013 ). Moreover, riverbank erosion and silt deposits destroy homes, farmlands and dislocate several residents (Khan and Islam, 2013; WFP, 2015 ). Estimates show that a 32cm rise in sea level could reduce Aman rice production by 60–88%, and flash floods negatively affect Boro rice cultivation, especially during harvesting season (CEGIS, 2005). Extreme precipitation during the summer monsoon season has been predicted, increasing the fall season by approximately 2–7% increase by 2050 (Tanner et al., 2007 ). Intensive rainfall leading to elevated water levels in streams and floods can wipe out wide crop areas with other indirect impacts such as soil waterlogging, delayed farming operation, anaerobicity, and condensed plant development (Gornall et al., 2010 ). About 18% of low land areas and 12–16% of other areas are estimated to inundate per annum (Mirza, 2002 ). Large biodiversity (17%), including cultivated land, forest, and aquatic resources, can be inundated by only a one-meter sea-level rise, affecting about 17 million people relying on agriculture for livelihoods (Hasan et al., 2020 ; Hoque et al., 2019 ). In recent years, landslides have occurred more frequently in the southern part of the country, especially the hilly region, caused by excessive rainfall. (e) Drought Drought caused by a prolonged shortage of rainfall and a high evaporation rate (Rahman and Lateh 2016 ) is globally regarded as the second most occurring natural calamities after floods (Nagarajan, 2009 ). In Bangladesh, food production, especially the Barind tract in the northwest regions, is severely impacted by drought (Rahman and Lateh 2016 ). Cultivating rain-fed crops could be impeded when the drier areas become more parched in the winter season (Hussain, 2011 ). Severe droughts that have negatively impact food production in the country are shown in Table 1 . Notable among the devastating droughts had happened in 1999 and 2006 in the northwestern part that caused a 25–30% reduction in average agriculture production (Habiba et al. 2013 ). Table 1 Major droughts and their impacts in Bangladesh, 1973–2006 (compiled from FAO 2007; Habiba et al. 2013 ; Rahman and Lateh 2016 ) Year Affected region Impacts 1973 Northern, south-western A severe droughts that triggered the 1974 famine in the norther region 1974 Northern, south-western It caused starvation, shortage of food grain stock, smuggling to neighboring countries, mismanagement, endemic diseases, etc. 1975 Northern, central, south-western It affected 47% of agricultural land and over half of the regions’ populations. 1978 North-western, northern, western Destroyed 42% of the cultivated of crops, including 2 million tons of rice. Affected the livelihoods of 44% of local farmers. 1981 North-eastern, southern, south-eastern Acute drought that significantly reduce crop yields 1982 Almost the whole nation The loss of 53000 tons of rice more than twice the damage caused by floods in the same year. 1989 North-western, northern, western Several rivers in Northwest region dried up. Dust storms affected Thakurgaon, Nawabganj, Naogaon, and Nilpahamari districts 1995 North-western, western, southern Crops, especially rice, jute, and leading cash crops, were immensely damaged. 1996 South-western, western The most incessant drought that led to enormous crop damage, especially rice, jute, wheat, etc. 1997 South-western, central, north-eastern Damaged almost 2.6 million hectares of paddy fields 1999 The country One of the worst droughts that effected mostly the eastern region 2006 Almost the whole nation A reduction of Aman rice by about 25–30 percent in the northwestern region 3.2 Indirect impacts of extreme climatic events (a) Saline water intrusion In Bangladesh, the increasing sea-level rise also results in salinity intrusion on cropland and freshwater, which poses a great risk to the country’s 710 km coastline (Mohal et al., 2006 ). Between 1948 and 2004, climate change caused a 2cm sea-level rise along the coast (Quadir, 2009 ). With a 62cm sea-level rise, the country could lose 16% of its landmass to salinity intrusion along the coastal zone by 2080 (Pender 2010 ). A study indicated that around 1 million hectares of land within the coastal zone have already been degraded by saline water intrusion (Mondal 2010 ), which is also reaching groundwater (Christian Aid, 2007 ). Within a decade, settlements inhabited by about 6.0 million people have been affected by “high saltiness” (> 5ppt), which might increase to 14.8 million people by 2080 (Mohal and Hossain, 2007 ). It is reported that about 36.5% of land in the Khulna and Barisal divisions is undermined by various soil salinity levels (SRDI, 2010). Saltwater intrusion increases soil salinity along coastline, thereby damaging crops, causing irrigation with saline water, decreasing fish stock, and brackish shrimp farming (Haque et al., 2008 ; Rasel et al., 2013 ). Estimates indicate that between 60–88% of Aman rice yield could decline in the event of a 32cm sea-level rise (CEGIS 2005). Also, about 40km of boundary area in the north is facing saline water intrusion and reduced rice yields (Mohal et al., 2006 ). Annually, saline water intrusion is responsible for the loss of about 659,000mt of rice (Habibullah et al., 1999), decreasing vegetables, betel nuts, fruits, and coconut trees yields (Lonnqvist 2010 ). The effect of saltwater intrusion on habitat and freshwater change is exacerbated by sea-level rise, landslide, and low flow river conditions, leading to low income and migration (Karim, 2019 ). Salinity intrusion significantly affects locals’ livelihoods, requiring adaptive actions in production practices and livelihood choices (Ayers et al., 2014 ). (b) Insects, pests, and diseases The mode of pest and disease infestation will also change and mutate under climate change. The changing temperature and rainfall conditions significantly increase the incidences of various insects, pests, and diseases in the local ecosystems (IPCC, 2007). In Bangladesh, insects, pests, and diseases, and the environmental condition in their favor are negatively impacting crop production (Table 2 ) and animal husbandry (Salam et al., 2019 ). Increased winter temperatures reduce the mortality of pests such as aphids and facilitate their far-reaching dispersion (Zhou et al., 1995 ). Crop resistance to pathogen and disease is also weakened by climate change, especially increased temperature and drought (Gregory et al., 2009 ). At least 100 crop varieties are infested by 454 different diseases that cause an annual loss of around USD947,240 (BARI 2006). A study on rice diseases revealed that bacterial leaf blight and nematode are a great threat to rice production throughout the country, and about 4–14% of rice yield is lost to bug pests annually (Mondal, 2010 ). Moreover, several other crop yields are also undermined by pests and diseases because of climate change, as shown in Table 2 . Global warming has also increase the outbreak of new plant diseases and farm invasion by alien pests (Salam et al., 2019 ). Table 2 Estimated yield loss from insects, pests, and diseases by major crops in Bangladesh Crop Insect/pest Estimated yield loss (percent) Prevalence status Dominant season Reference Rice Insects and pests 16.0 Whole year (MoA, 2002 ) Blast 16.4 (Amon)*, 34.7 (Boro)* Major Kharif-2, Rabi (Hossain & Hossain, 2017) Sheath blight 31.0* Major Kharif-1, 2 (Shahjahan et al., 1986 ) False smut 1.8* Emerging Kharif-2, Rabi (Sarker et al., 2016 ) 13.5* (Nessa et al., 2017 ) Sheath rot 47.4 Emerging Kharif-2, Rabi (Shahjahan et al., 1994) Wheat Insects and pests 11.0 Whole Year (MoA, 2002 ) Blast 51.0* Emerging Rabi (Islam et al., 2016 ) Leaf spot/blast 15.0* Major Rabi (Alam et al., 2016) Potato Late blight 35.8* Major Rabi (Dey et al., 2010 ) Mustard Alternaria blight 60* Major Rabi (Meah & Hossain 1988 ) Lentil Satemphylium blight 92.3* Major Rabi (Bakr & Ahmed 1992 ) Collar rot 44* Major Rabi (Uddin et al., 2008 ) Pulses Insects and pests 25* (MoA, 2002 ) Sugarcane Insects and pests 20.0* Major Kharif-1, 2 (MoA, 2002 ) Jute Insects and pests 15.0* Major Kharif-1 (MoA, 2002 ) *maximum reported yield loss. All insect-pest are estimated loss on an annual basis Kharif-1: March to June, Kharif-2: July to October, Rabi: November to February 4. Adaptation To Climate Change Impacts On The Food System In Bangladesh Adaptation refers to managing the negative effects of environmental change to improve resilience and reduce vulnerability (Alam et al., 2017 ). It is a key element of climate policy, especially in highly susceptible countries like Bangladesh (Vij et al., 2018 ). In Bangladesh, initiatives for climate change adaption related to agriculture can be classified into those being implemented at national and community levels. 4.1 National level adaptation initiatives and policies Climate change mitigation and adaptation in the agricultural sector are the priority of Bangladesh’s government, as demonstrated by the existing policies and pledges for climate-resilient agriculture (CIAT - World Bank, 2017 ). The National Adaptation Programme Action (NAPA) was established with the United Nations Development Programme’s support in 2005 to address the negative impacts of climate change with four cardinal functions: security of food, livelihoods, vitality, and water supply (Islam and Nursey-Bray, 2017 ; MoEF, 2005). Also, both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management implement climate change adaptation through capacity building at the community level. Similarly, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change initiated a coastal plantation program to minimize the climate change vulnerabilities of coastal communities (Islam and Nursey-Bray 2017 ). The Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) was developed in 2009 with support from donor organizations to mitigate climate change impacts on the people and their environs (MoEF, 2009). This Action Plan is based on these programs: (i) food security and quality of life; (ii) natural hazard management and mitigation; (iii) strengthening public institutions; (iv) farmer’s capacity building; (v) relief and low carbon improvement; and (vi) research and education (MoEF, 2009). Under the umbrella of these two national programs, the government’s climate change adaption initiatives focus on introducing new crop varieties that mature early and are resistant to stress, salt, pest, and diseases, which have effectively adapted to changing climate (Moniruzzaman, 2015 ). The plan has also been building the capacity of farmers and raising awareness on improved irrigation and water management, integrated pest management, research and development on innovative coastal zone management, post- and pre-disaster preparedness, market infrastructure development, value chain development, and modernization of agricultural techniques and machinery (Karim, 2012). As of December 2018, the Government-funded Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) has executed 687 climate adaptation projects through various ministries and NGOs (MoF, 2020 ; Rai et al., 2014 ). Various adaptation policies and plans have been promulgated to address climate change impacts under various implementing agencies (Table 4 ). For example, the government is supporting160 million Delta people’s livelihoods. Also, Vision 2021 and the National Perspective Plan address climate change under general development planning (Ayers et al., 2014 ). A long-term integrated mega plan, ‘Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100’, has been prepared to mitigate and adapt to climate change impact, help eliminate extreme poverty by 2030 and reach a developed country beyond 2041 (Chowdhury et al., 2021 ). The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 2016–2020, has been developed based on the “UN Biodiversity Strategic Plan 2016–2020” (MoF, 2020 ). The country is also a signatory to the Paris climate agreement and has submitted its first Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in September 2017 (Hasan et al., 2020 ). The National Planning Commission is also tasked with implementing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), monitored by a special unit under the Prime Minister’s Office (Huq and Khan 2017 ). Table 3 Major policy-level initiatives to address climate change and food security in Bangladesh Area Plan/Policy/Act (promulgation year) Implementing agency Environment National Environment Management and Action Plan (1995) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (1995) The Environment Policy (2018) Disaster Management National Disaster Management Act (2012) Disaster Management Council National Plan for Disaster Management (2010) Disaster Management Bureau, Disaster Management & Relief Division Standing Orders on Disaster (2010) Climate Change The Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2009) MEFCC NDCs (2017) National Adaptation Program of Action (2009) Sectoral Bangladesh Water Act (2013) Ministry of Water Resources National Water Management Plan (2001) National Water Policy (1999) Coastal Zone Policy (2005) The National Food Policy (2006) Ministry of Food National Agricultural Policy (2018) Ministry of Agriculture National Integrated Pest Management Policy (2002) National Fisheries Policy (1998) Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries National Forestry Policy (1994) MEFCC Haor Master Plan (2012) Ministry of Water Resources Comprehensive Seventh Five Year Plan (2016–2020) General Economics Division, Planning Commission Perspective Plan of Bangladesh (2010–2021) Bangladesh Delta Plan (2015–2100) Planning Commission Similarly, several research institutes have developed seed varieties adaptable to climate change. The Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture and Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) have established salt-tolerant (e.g., BRRI dhan7) and flood-tolerant rice species (e.g., BRRI dhan21). Besides, the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) has developed several types of pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits adapted to the coastal areas (Mondal et al., 2009 ). The central Bangladesh Bank supports farmers by opening free bank accounts and credit subsidies (Bangladesh Bank, 2012 ). The government has provided a 30% rebate for importers of agricultural equipments and a 20% rebate on the electricity bills of agro-based trade and irrigation systems (Nadiruzzaman et al., 2019 ). Concerning agricultural policies, Table 4 compares the three policies that focus on climate adaptation. The 2018 agricultural policy has the updated, relevant policies formulated by different ministries and places them under the agriculture ministry’s coordination (Chowdhury et al., 2021 ). The key difference of this policy from the previous two (1999, 2013) is that it focuses on location-specific programs rather than using generic terms for the whole country. It has specifically mentioned what needs to be done in hilly, coastal, haor and wetlands, Barind and char land areas. It can be treated as guidelines for both researchers and farmers at the field level for location- and problem-specific problems and solution approaches. Table 4 Comparison of national agriculture policies focusing on climate adaptation, 1999–2018 (adopted from: MoA ( 1999 , 2013 , 2018 ) Topic 1999 2013 2018 Area-specific policy Special focus on hill tracts agriculture Supports adaptation agriculture in adverse climatic zones (e.g., Hill tracts, drought-prone, Barind, Char, Haor-Baor, water-logged, coastal areas) Boosted the cultivation of locally grown adaptive crops Identify crops suitable for each region through technological and economic parameters, and develop appropriate strategies for cultivating those crops – Develop guidelines on crop types, irrigation, sustainable use of local water sources, soil preservation, pest management for adverse climatic zones Climate Change did not address climate change issues Promote self-sufficient, sustainable agricultural practices adaptable to climate change Research on climate change tolerant crops, training programs for capacity building, and agricultural management. Research Research in climate adaptation Research on “bottom-up” local technique Research on salinity- and drought-resistant rice, wheat, and jute. – Encourage research by the public and private sectors Encourage research by the private sector – – Research on crop production technology for less emission of GHG Irrigation efficiency Building infrastructure to capture runoff water using Khals, Beels, and small rivers, increasing irrigation systems’ efficiency. Expanding water reservoirs for irrigation and fish production. Tree plantation alongside water reservoirs Multipurpose use of irrigated water, irrigation efficiency initiatives for adverse climatic zones and using force mode pump instead of a suction mode pump in water-stressed areas Research and development of new mechanisms to increase irrigation efficiency and the use of the pipeline instead of irrigation canal Salinity problems Research and development of salinity tolerant crops Research and development of irrigation mechanisms to resist salinity intrusion Research on salinity-tolerant crops, capacity development on salinity management, and guidelines for agriculture in salinity affected zones Salinity tolerant crops Develop salt-tolerant crop varieties and measures to resist salinity Research on salinity-tolerant crops Increase the cultivation of salinity-tolerant crops Rainwater harvesting – – Guidelines and actions to increase rainwater harvesting Solar energy – Promote the use of renewable energy for effective irrigation. Encouraged use of solar energy for irrigation and in households 4.2 Community-based adaptation programs Communities that are largely reliant on nature are enormously susceptible to climate change impacts. In Bangladesh, local farmers implement some coping techniques to lessen and adapt to climate change risks on their farming (Islam and Nursey-Bray 2017 ). In total, 85 different local adaptation techniques exist in the coastal regions where 53 areas infrastructure-based and 31 are socioeconomic strategies (Mondal et al. 2009 ). Examples of successful adaptation techniques include rainwater harvesting, ditch and dyke schemes for year-round cultivation, floating agriculture in the waterlogged area, coastal habitat, and wetland restoration (Rahman 2014 ). These community-based adaption efforts, which center on local coping approaches, are more effective than some of the government’s centralized and uniform strategies (Chowdhury and Moore, 2017 ). The FAO also initiated community-based adaptation methods executed by farmers, such as digging ponds and deep tube-well for irrigation, extending ephemeral and drought-tolerant crop varieties, and yard gardening (FAO 2006). Other techniques are a new integrated aquaculture system with rice and livestock in the same field in Southern regions and ridging and furrowing methods that have been practiced traditionally for a long time in low-lying waterlogged areas (Aravindakshan et al. 2020 ). Another integrated method for fish and crop farming, known as Sorjan, where high beds are used for crop cultivation, and the submerged area is used for fish production (Hossain et al., 2015 ). In the ‘Hari’ method, fish are grown in ponded water during the rainy season, but the water is drained out later in the dry season to grow Boro rice (FAO, 2015). Islam et al. ( 2015 ) surveyed three coastal villages of Shyamnagar Upazilla. They found that the local adaptation choices are effective in the following ways: (i) control of saline water interruption into agrarian land, (ii) beachfront afforestation, (iii) development of salt-tolerant crops, (iv) homestead planting, and (v) wages improvement. Similarly, mixed cropping, floating gardens, duck raising, confine aquaculture, wave assurance dividers, waterway recovery, and embankment are climate adaption measures identified in the low-lying ranges of Northeast (Anik and Khan 2012 ). In the flood-prone areas, the “floating agriculture” is a climate-adaptive native cultivation method for over 100 years (Irfanullah, 2009 ; Chowdhury and Moore, 2017 ). Other key climate adaptation strategies for enhancing food security are safeguarding land and water resources, creating and receiving versatile atmosphere assortments, modernizing the irrigation system, improving international food trade (Hanjra and Qureshi, 2010 ). Another adaptation measure supplements the existing dietary habit of overreliance on rice with crops less susceptible to climate change impacts (Moniruzzaman, 2015 ). The factors that influence whether farmers employ adaptation practices include gender, age, education of family heads, household wealth, farm size, residency status, access to credit, and the conviction to implement adaptation strategies (Sarker et al., 2013 ). Thus, climate change adaptation for food security can only be achieved by simultaneously balancing the physical and social factors (Ayers et al., 2014 ). 5. Discussion: Enhancing Food Security Through Stakeholder Collaboration In Bangladesh Collaboration among stakeholders such as the communities, governments, the private sector, non-government organizations (NGOs), researchers, and climate experts is also needed for adequate adaptation to climate change impacts (Hasan et al., 2018 ; Islam and Nursey-Bray, 2017 ). In Bangladesh, the government has engaged multiple stakeholders, including the communities, international organizations, and local NGOs, in several projects such as Community Based Adaptation to Climate Change through Coastal Afforestation and the Climate Resilient Participatory Afforestation and Reforestation Project (Chow et al., 2009 ). The tidal river management program also promotes stakeholder collaboration in information collection and dissemination, consciousness development, publishing, mobilization, advocacy, demonstration, negotiation, training, and participatory planning related to climate change adaptation (Haque et al., 2015 ). In the ‘char’ areas, collaborative initiatives have increased food security through various programs, including (i) climate change awareness campaigns, (ii) provision for soft loans, (iii) dissemination of new cropping techniques, (iv) introduction of different saving schemes, and (v) tailor-made training on various alternative livelihood options (Islam et al., 2018 ). In 2005, CARE Bangladesh NGO initiated a partnership-based project named ‘Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change.’ Here individual households receive financial support and training in alternative livelihood options such as crab fattening, livestock and poultry rearing, fish farming, homestead gardens, floating gardens, water filtering system, and mat making (Lopa and Ahmad 2016 ). Another NGO called Shushilan and Uttaran contributed to building a 27-kilometer embankment in the southern part of the country, incorporating local saline water intrusion in the national water policy and implementing community-oriented local initiatives such as eco-club, student water forum, water committee, and local level workshops to build awareness among the stakeholders regarding the benefits of protecting the embankment (Lopa and Ahmad, 2016 ). The Centre for Coastal Environmental Conservation (CCEC) is another NGO that planted around 100,000 saplings in collaboration with local communities and the government to protect the southern coastal area from cyclones and tidal surges. A mangrove protection society responsible for planting, regenerating, and protecting coastal mangrove forests has also been formed (Lopa and Ahmad, 2016 ). Other NGOs such as Building Resources Across Communities (BRAC), World Vision, Caritas, Sangstha, Gono Shahajjo, Society for Social Service (SSS), NGO Forum, UNDP, WFP, and IUCN work across the country to reduce climate vulnerability and ensure better food security. They offer financial supports at a reasonable interest rate to farmers and technical training on climate-responsive farming, livestock and poultry rearing, and fisheries. For example, BRAC and SSS offer post-harvest services to ensure better marketing and selling of agro-products (Akhi et al., 2015 ). The BRAC fisheries program trained 138,090 farmers on pond-aquaculture and disbursed USD 10 million loans to 109,002 farmers for pond-fish culture between 1998 and 2015 (BRAC, 2016 ). Similarly, the SSS supports fish farmers through micro-credits, technical training, monitoring, and marketing (Akhi et al., 2015 ). These stakeholder collaborations at every stage of the adaptation strategies focusing on the most vulnerable stakeholders, such as poor local farmers, make the strategies successful (Ahmed and Roy, 2015 ; Wheeler et al., 2013 ). 6. Conclusion Bangladesh is faced with significant climate change challenges, specifically on its fragile food system’s security and sustainability. Extreme climatic events such as frequent floods, sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, drought, pests, and diseases. They also significantly endanger the country’s food security, destroy the coastline, and vital infrastructure, leading to low crop yields, increasing food prices, malnutrition, starvation, and migration. More than half of rural people that rely on agriculture for livelihoods are most severely affected by these climatic events in addition to poverty, poor access to health facilities, and low education. Without adequate adaptation measures, the impacts of climate change will undermine food security and increase the burden of the hardships faced by local farmers in the country. The government and other stakeholders are involved in several programs and projects to reduce climate change impacts on the food system and sustainability. The local adaptation efforts are increasingly building local farmers’ resilient capacity to adapt to expanding climate risk (IPCC 2014 ; Alam et al. 2018 ). However, there are some challenges to the existing adaptation efforts, including lack of subsidies, inadequate technical know-how on climate change issues, and institutional limitations (Masud et al., 2017 ). Other challenges are limited access to climate databases and scientific studies, proper irrigation facilities (Alauddin and Sarker 2014 ). The NGOs are also working on a very small scale that needs to be scaled up nationwide through the government, private sector, and international communities, including donor agencies. Therefore, the government should develop appropriate programs to improve and expand the local initiatives to enhance their adaptation capacity and lessen the vulnerable effects of changing climate change on the food system and security. Future research should investigate how the government’s climate change adaption initiatives can be sustainable without relying on donors in fostering food security in the country. Declarations Acknowledgement We would like to thank King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) for their supervision throughout the research. Ethical Approval : Hereby, the authors concisely fulfilled the following ethics. 1) This is an original work by the authors that has not been authored elsewhere. 2) The paper is not being regarded for publication elsewhere at this time. 3) The paper accurately and fully represents the authors' own analysis and research. 4) The findings are contextualized appropriately in relation to prior and previous research. Consent to Participate : Authors are responsible for the accuracy of the statements provided in the manuscript. Consent to Publish : The authors hereby consent to the publication of the manuscript in all AMS publications. Authors Contributions : The corresponding author, Syed Masiur Rahman, made the research design and led the team to conduct the work; Md. Monirul Islam Chowdhury, Syed Maisur Rahman, Md Iqram Uddin Al Amran, Karim Malik, Musah Ahmed Muhyedeen, and Md. Arif Hasan did the information acquisition and analysis; and Md. 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S. Huq et Al. Springer Nature Switzerland, 7–21. Mondal, M.H., (2010). Crop Agriculture of Bangladesh: Challenges and Opportunities. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research, 35(2): 235 – 245. Mondal, P., (2014). Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in Development Programs: Experience from Northern Chars in Bangladesh. Paper presented to the CBA Conference, Dhaka. Moniruzzaman, S., (2015). Crop choice as climate change adaptation: Evidence from Bangladesh’, Ecological Economics, 118, 90-98. Nadiruzzaman, M., Rahman, M., Pal, U., Hossain, M.F., Uddin, M.F., & Islam, M.K. (2019). Climate Resilient Agriculture in Bangladesh: A Value Chain Analysis of Cotton. Action on Climate Today: Dhaka, Bangladesh . NAPA (2009). National Adaptation Programme of Action. MoEF and UNDP (eds), Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka. Nagarajan. (2009). Drought assessment Capital Publishing Company, Co-published by Springer, Berlin. Capital Publishing Company, Co-published by Springer, Berlin. Nessa, B., Salam, M.U., Haque, A.H.M.M., Kashem, M.A., & Kabir, M.S. (2017). Weather Condition , Seasonal Variation and Ball Development Weather Condition , Seasonal Variation and Ball Development Pattern in Relation to Rice False Smut Disease in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice Journal , 22(1), 57–67. Nguyen, H., (2018). Introduction to sustainable food systems and value chains. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Strategic Programme 4 (SP4). Rome: FAO. Pender, J. (2010). Climate change, its impacts and possible community based responses in Bangladesh; (2 nd Ed), Church of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh Planning Commission. (2010). Outline Perspective Plan of Bangladesh 2010-2021- Making Vision 2021 A Reality. General Economics Division, Planning Commission, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Quadir, D. (2009). Observed climatic variations. The Daily Star 18th Anniversary Supplement (60 – 62), Dhaka. 25 February 2009. Rai, N., Huq, S., & Huq, M.J. (2014). Climate resilient planning in Bangladesh: a review of progress and early experiences of moving from planning to implementation. Development in Practice , 24(4), 527-543. Rahman, M. (2014). Framing Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Climate Change, Applicability in the Coast of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh: IUCN. Rahman, M. R., & Lateh, H. (2016). Meteorological drought in Bangladesh: assessing, analysing and hazard mapping using SPI, GIS and monthly rainfall data. Environmental Earth Sciences , 75 (12), 1-20. Rahman, S., & Anik, A. R. (2020). Productivity and efficiency impact of climate change and agroecology on Bangladesh agriculture. Land Use Policy, 94(January), 104507. Rasel, H.M., Hasan, M.R., Ahmed, B., & Miah, M.S.U. (2013). Investigation of soil and water salinity, its effect on crop production and adaptation strategy. International Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, 5(8), 475–481. Roy, D., Sarker Dev, D., & Sheheli, S. (2019). Food Security in Bangladesh: Insight from Available Literature. Journal of Nutrition and Food Security, January. Salam, M. U., Krupnik, T. J., Montes, C., Nessa, B., Ali, M. P., & Shahrin, S. (2019). Potential impact of climate change on crop insect pests and diseases in Bangladesh- Future scenarios and strategies for Climate Services. In Climate Change and Bangladesh Agriculture: Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies (pp. 105–131). Krishi Gobeshona Foundation, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Sarker, M.A.R., Alam, K., Gow, J., (2013). Assessing the determinants of rice farmers' adaptation strategies to climate change in Bangladesh’, International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 5(4), 382-403. Sarker, M. M., Haque, A. H. M. M., Nessa, B., Salam, M. U., Islam, M. M., & Muqit, and A. (2016). Status of Rice False Smut Disease in Natore District of Bangladesh Status of Rice False Smut Disease in Natore District of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice J., 20(2)(September), 31–37. Shahjahan, A. K. M., Ahmed, H. U., & Miah, S. (1986). Yield Loss in Modern Rice Varieties of Bangladesh due to Sheath Blight in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research, November. Shahjahan, A. K. M., & Akanda, S. (1994). Relationship of sheath rot ( Sarocladium oryzae ) severity to yield of rice. Bangladesh Journal of Botany, January. Shahid, S., (2011). Impact of climate change on irrigation water demand of dry season Boro rice intnorthwest Bangladesh. Climatic Change , 105:433 – 453. Shahid, S., Harun, S.B., Katimon, A., (2012). Changes in diurnal temperature range in Bangladesh during the time period 1961–2008’, Atmospheric Research, 118: 260 – 270. Smith, L. C., Frankenberger, T.R., (2018). Does Resilience Capacity Reduce the Negative Impact of Shocks on Household Food Security? Evidence from the 2014 Floods in Northern Bangladesh. World Development, 102, 358–376. SRDI (Soil Resources Development Institute). (2010). Saline Soils of Bangladesh, 2010, Soil Resources Development Institute (SRDI), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. Tanner, T.M., Hassan, A., Islam, K.M.N., Conway, D., Mechler, R., et al., 2007. ORCHID: Piloting Climate Risk Screening in DFID Bangladesh, detailed research report, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, UK. Thornton, P.K., Jones, P.G., Ericksen, P.J., Challinor, A.J., (2011). Agriculture and food systems in sub-Saharan Africa in a 4 _C+ world. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A: Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 369 (1934), 117–136. Uddin, J., Sarker, A., Podder, R., Afzal, A., Rashid, H., & Kadambot, H. M. (2008). Development of new lentil varieties in Bangladesh. Uddin, M., Mohiuddin.Swe, A., Hossain, S. and Hakim, A. (2013) Eco-environmental Changes of Wetland Resources of Hakaluki haor in Bangladesh Using GIS Technology. Biodiversity & Endangered Species. UNDP. (2010). Cyclone Aila Joint UN Multisector Assessment and Response Framework, Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), New York. UNDP. (2019). Human Development Report 2019. Inequalities in Human Development in the 21 st Century Bangladesh. UNFCCC. (2013). Bangladesh Experiences with the NAPA Processes. Available at: http://unfccc.int/adaptation/knowledge_resources/ldc_portal/bpll/items/6497.php. Vij, S., Biesbroek, R., Groot, A., & Termeer, K., (2018). Changing climate policy paradigms in Bangladesh and Nepal. Environmental Science and Policy, 81, 77–85. Wassmann, R., Jagadish, S.V.K., Sumfleth, K., Pathak, H., Howell, G., et al., (2009). Climate Change Affecting Rice Production: The Physiological and Agronomic Basis for Possible Adaptation Strategies’ Advances in Agronomy, 101, 59–122. WFP. (2015). Impact of climate-related shocks and stresses on nutrition and food security in selected areas of rural Bangladesh,Dhaka, the World Food Programme, 150 p. WFP. (2016). Strategic Review of Food Security and Nutrition in Bangladesh, World Food Programme (WFP). WFP. (2020). Bangladesh Country Strategic Plan Evaluation (2016-2019), Country strategic planning, World Food Programme, Bangladesh. Wheeler, S., Zuo, A., Bjornlund, H., (2013). Farmers' climate change beliefs and adaptation strategies for a water scarce future in Australia. Glob. Environ. Change, 23 (2), 537–547. World Bank. (2013). Warming Climate to Hit Bangladesh Hard with Sea Level Rise, More Floods and Cyclones, World Bank Report Says. Retrieved from https://www. worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2013/06/19/warming-climate-to-hitbangladesh- hard-with-sea-level-rise-more-floods. World Bank. (2020). Climate Change Knowledge Portal for Development Practitioners and Policy Makers. https:climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/bangladesh. Yu, W.H. (2010). Climate Change Risks and Food Security in Bangladesh. Earthscan Ltd, Dunstan House, 14a St Cross Street, London EC1N 8XA, UK (Issue February 2015). Zhou, X.L., Harrington, R., Woiwod, I.P., Perry, J.N., Bale, J.S., Clark, S.J., (1995). Effects of temperature on aphid phenology. Global Change Biology, 1, 303 – 313. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Jun, 2022 Reviewers invited by journal 23 Jun, 2022 Editor assigned by journal 07 Jun, 2022 First submitted to journal 02 Jun, 2022 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-1673139","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":115860233,"identity":"909745e2-8b6a-4985-8630-1f878e11b2f8","order_by":0,"name":"Md. Monirul Islam Chowdhury","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Western University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Monirul Islam","lastName":"Chowdhury","suffix":""},{"id":115860234,"identity":"90132952-c0e9-4f59-9d42-9f6079a35193","order_by":1,"name":"Syed Masiur Rahman","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA50lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACZhDBz8P4AMI9QKwWyR5mAxK1GJwhVov8tLMPPxfm2OUZnznMJl2YwyDHdyOB+cMPPFoMbqcbS8/cllxsdraZDchgMJa8kcAm2YNPi3QagzTvNubEbef5jwEZDIkbgFoYePA5bHYa82/ebfWJm/uZ2UBa6oFamD/+weeZ22kglYcTN/A2g7UkGNxIYJDGZ4sBUIs177bjiTPOHGa2nrlNwnDmmYdt0jIEHHabd1t1Yn9PMuPtwm028nzHkw9/fIPPYcgAGEESQIqxgVgN0DgdBaNgFIyCUYAOAKERSPU32UfmAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3624-0519","institution":"King Fahd University of Petroleum \u0026 Minerals","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Syed","middleName":"Masiur","lastName":"Rahman","suffix":""},{"id":115860235,"identity":"3ad7abd0-3f51-41a6-bf60-722244b71327","order_by":2,"name":"Md Iqram Uddin Al Amran","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Fahd University of Petroleum \u0026 Minerals","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md","middleName":"Iqram Uddin Al","lastName":"Amran","suffix":""},{"id":115860236,"identity":"8a301244-e1c2-42d1-b752-8534976a32a0","order_by":3,"name":"Karim Malik","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wilfrid Laurier University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Karim","middleName":"","lastName":"Malik","suffix":""},{"id":115860237,"identity":"8f03ad60-e2af-4a62-aa28-dac3de1ff6bc","order_by":4,"name":"Ismaila Rimi Abubakar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University College of Architecture and Planning","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ismaila","middleName":"Rimi","lastName":"Abubakar","suffix":""},{"id":115860238,"identity":"8c726fe8-9747-4fa5-b687-7cd646dfcd51","order_by":5,"name":"Yusuf Adedoyin Aina","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yusuf","middleName":"Adedoyin","lastName":"Aina","suffix":""},{"id":115860239,"identity":"533ae4ce-1a70-4114-aa84-326aae052ca6","order_by":6,"name":"Sheikh Mohammad Abdur Rahman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northumbria University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sheikh","middleName":"Mohammad Abdur","lastName":"Rahman","suffix":""},{"id":115860240,"identity":"d5002860-9afc-4a19-b096-49f1cb4bd41c","order_by":7,"name":"Maqbool Khan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Fahd University of Petroleum \u0026 Minerals","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maqbool","middleName":"","lastName":"Khan","suffix":""},{"id":115860241,"identity":"699c7d65-b8a2-43dc-a963-a2e4389b3fe7","order_by":8,"name":"Musah Ahmed Muhyedeen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Fahd University of Petroleum \u0026 Minerals","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Musah","middleName":"Ahmed","lastName":"Muhyedeen","suffix":""},{"id":115860242,"identity":"a88fac41-5145-462d-b91e-35eaa43d043f","order_by":9,"name":"Md. Arif Hasan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":": New Zealand Ministry of Transport","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Arif","lastName":"Hasan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-05-19 12:12:49","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1673139/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1673139/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":23342563,"identity":"312f6ca8-8b83-44ce-9013-18eee1cea7c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-01 19:40:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":81145,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAgricultural yield and employment in Bangladesh (The World Bank, 2018)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1673139/v1/40418fb412b07f1f6a02464f.jpg"},{"id":23342975,"identity":"af9840d6-cbb3-440a-ac7f-fc63e02ca381","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-01 19:45:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":112709,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMajor climate change challenges on the food system in Bangladesh (Authors’ illustration)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1673139/v1/1e49a036e04024751e29bfab.jpeg"},{"id":23342564,"identity":"b62c0225-e869-4457-84e2-543708c8a8a2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-01 19:40:20","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":46431,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage monthly temperature and rainfall in Bangladesh, 1991-2016 (World Bank, 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1673139/v1/a0c975654b5bd77e1b83607c.png"},{"id":23342561,"identity":"6ecb8c57-a9da-452c-82c4-d94179bbeacc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-01 19:40:20","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86752,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAgriculturel lands affected by floods in Bangladesh, 1954-2018 (BWDB, 2019)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1673139/v1/bab2dfcccb5fe6eb567102e5.png"},{"id":23342981,"identity":"580da9df-b291-4440-94eb-9c3449677d35","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-01 19:45:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":711256,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1673139/v1/1eab638e-7c84-486b-9edc-282bce7cfc91.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Climate change impacts on food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eClimate change is increasingly undermining food system security worldwide. Food security is the ability of every human to consistently have \u0026ldquo;physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food\u0026rdquo; (Food and Agricultural Organization [FAO], 1996). However, one in nine people worldwide (805 million) faces food shortages (Roy et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Extreme climatic events, such as increased temperature, salinity intrusion, droughts, cyclones, floods, and prolonged and shorten rainy seasons, significantly contribute to food insecurity by lowing agricultural productivity and threatening rural livelihoods (AlQahtany and Abubakar, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Dano et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Biswas et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Irfanullah, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, climate change contributes to a 1\u0026ndash;5% reduction in crop production per decade compared to the baseline situation of no climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Even if global green house gas (GHG) emissions cease, it will take more than a millennium to return to pre-industrial climatic conditions (Rahman and Anik, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). A rapid increase in global warming has been observed since 1950 (IPCC, 2007). Moreover, Global South countries are the most susceptible to climate change impacts and with minimum adaptation capacity (Abubakar and Dano, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ayers et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Hasan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hossain et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBangladesh is among nations highly susceptible to climate change impacts worldwide. About 40 million people are food insecure, while an additional 11 million experience acute hunger, plus other risks to climate change impacts (WFP, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The Global Climate Risk Index 2019, ranked the nation as the 9th most climate-vulnerable worldwide, having experienced 190 climatic events between 1997 and 2017 (Germanwatch, 2018). Annually, the country receives about 1,073 million acre-feet (MAF) of surface water and 203 MAF of rainfall, intensified between July to September (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics [BBS], 2017). It has the world\u0026rsquo;s longest delta intertwined with approximately 7,000 rivers, canals, and streams totaling about 22,155km (Smith and Frankenberger, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Alam et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Floods and soil erosion are commonplace in these disaster-prone areas, thereby disrupting the food system, the environment, and other socioeconomic activities (Alam et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ayers et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The climatic events lead to low crop yields that result in increases in food prices, malnutrition, starvation, and migration (Mondal, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). About 17% of cultivated land, forest, and aquatic resources can be inundated by only a one-meter sea-level rise, affecting about 17 million people relying on agriculture for livelihoods (Hasan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hoque et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In southern Bangladesh, 40% of fertile land could be submerged by a 0.65-meter sea-level rise (World Bank, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the climatic change has a serious impact on the country\u0026rsquo;s overall agriculture and food security.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAgriculture contributes 12.1% of Bangladeshi\u0026rsquo;s GDP and employs 39.71% of its workforce (World Bank, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The sector is expected to ensure food security according to the Government\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2021 (Planning Commission, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). However, climate change threatens food security by actively interacting with the local environment that supports the food systems. The country\u0026rsquo;s adaptive capacity is limited by its low GDP per capita of USD1788, an adult literacy rate of 72.9%, and a life expectancy of 72.3 years (UNDP, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). As of 20215, about 31.5% of the total population lives below the poverty line and the the population density is over 1,000 persons/km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (WFP, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). A study in 2018 reported that nearly 34.2% of children below the age of five were underweight, and 27% of mothers had chronic energy deficiency (BBS, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Sustaining food production at the moment of climate crises is important. Appropriate adaptation actions are required to counteract the increasing urbanization, land scarcity, and soil degradation (Abubakar, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Alauddin and Sarker, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The present study reviews the impacts of climate change on the food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh. Prior studies mostly investigated the impacts of changing rainfall, temperature, and humidity on agriculture, rather than the effects of overall climatic events on agricultural production and the entire food system and security (Hossain et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Similar studies also paid little attention to adaptation strategies Therefore, this review article fills this knowledge gap by analyzing the:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(a) challenges to food system and security in Bangladesh,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(b) direct and indirect climate change impacts on the food system and security,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(c), existing adaptation strategies, and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(d) contribution of stakeholder collaboration in climate change adaptation and enhancing food security.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Food System And Challenges To Food Security In Bangladesh","content":"\u003cp\u003eA food system refers to \u0026ldquo;the entire range of actors and their interlinked value-adding activities involved in the production, aggregation, processing, distribution, consumption, and disposal of food products\u0026rdquo; (Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR112\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, p. 1). The production, processing, accessibility (distribution and sufficiency), and consumption of crops, fisheries, and meat are strongly related to food security (Gregory et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Food security ensures that a food system always satisfies four key conditions: (a) physical and economic access to all people, i.e., universal coverage; (b) adequate supply; (c) food safety; and (d) nutrition (FAO, 1996). In Bangladesh, the food system mainly relies on domestic agricultural production using 8.74\u0026nbsp;million hectares, or about three-fifths of its total landmass. Rice is the main staple food, cultivated in about two-thirds of the gross cultivated area, which provides 74% of total calorie intake (Hossain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The country is the second-largest per capita consumer (200 kg/year) of rice globally, with Aman, Aus, and Boro rice as the highest consumed varieties (CIAT - World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Although rice and maize demand is met locally, wheat, fruits, onions, and cotton are largely imported (CIAT - World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In 2018, about 41,574,000 metric tons (MT) of crops were produced, consisting of 36,459,000 MT of rice, 1,287,000 MT of wheat, and 3,828,000 MT of Maize (BBS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The country produced 4,981,000 MT of fish in the same year, 75% from inland (BBS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), making it the third-largest producer of inland fisheries worldwide (DoF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The aquatic ecosystem is enriched with 293 varieties of freshwater fish, 475 marine fish, 24 exotic fish, and various vertebrates and invertebrates species. (IUCN, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Fish supplies at least 60% of the nation\u0026rsquo;s entire protein consumption (DoF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Also, 55.40\u0026nbsp;million livestock (Cattle, Buffalo, Goat, Sheep) and 344.02\u0026nbsp;million poultry (Chicken, Duck) were in 2019 (MoF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The dominance of rice and fish in the nation\u0026rsquo;s food system succinctly captures the local proverbs \u0026ldquo;Mache Bhate Bangali,\u0026rdquo; which means fish and rice produce a Bangladeshi.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe major challenges to Bangladeshfood system are climate-related and frequent. They include floods, tropical storms, droughts, landslides, and riverbank erosion that cause colossal damage to life and property (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Other challenges, not the focus of the present study, are poverty, gender-based discrimination, access to the market, low education, and cultural practices (BARI, 2006; IFID, 2013). Areas disproportionately affected by climate change include the Barind Tract (locally known as Barendro Bhumi), covering 7,728 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and located in the center and west of Rajshahi Division (MoEF, 2002). This drought-prone area have low rainfall, high temperature, and a thick clayey topsoil that undermines food production (Islam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Soil salinity caused by inundation or seepage also affects southern Bangladesh\u0026rsquo;s coastal region (Dasgupta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Other parts of the country also face irregular rainfall, increased evaporation, saline water intrusion, inundation due to storm surges, and brackish shrimp farming (SRDI, 2010). Soil salinity affects about 1.2\u0026nbsp;million hectares (42.1%) of arable land in this area (NAPA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, Haor wetland, a mosaic of different aquatic habitats, such as rivers, canals, floodplains, and a combination of interconnecting beaches located in the northeastern region and housing 19.37\u0026nbsp;million people, is being threatened by climate change (Chakraborty, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). In this local ecosystem, the natural and anthropogenic threats to the fishery and dry season farming include rising temperature, water regulating structures on fish migration paths, sedimentation in rivers, soil and water pollution from overuse of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, sand and stone mining, land conversion (Uddin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR134\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy 2030, climate change could reduce arable land efficiency at a cumulative rate of 5.0%, 13.0%, and 17.0%, respectively, for rice, wheat, and cereal grain output (Bandara and Cai \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, by 2050, land productivity is anticipated to decline, thereby reducing rice production by 8\u0026ndash;17% and wheat by 32% (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR145\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). According to a biophysical simulation model based on field experimental data from 2000\u0026ndash;2008, the country\u0026rsquo;s average rice production could decline by 33% by 2046\u0026ndash;2065 (Karim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change also reduces the groundwater level in the northwest regions, thereby decreasing rice irrigation frequency by about 13 days (Shahid \u003cspan citationid=\"CR127\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change is also changing the fodder composition and reducing the nutritional value of grass species, and the eventual effect on the livestock population (Kabir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It also directly impacts the forestry sector as alien species are invading the land instead of the native indigenous plants at an alarming rate, with an ultimate impact on the price of forest products (Al-Amin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The nation is also among the top ten vulnerable countries to climate change impacts on the aquatic ecosystem, (Hossain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Being surrounded by the largest delta, the agriculture and fisheries in the coastal of the region of the country are more prone to both human and artificial disaster, including floods, cyclones, drought, saltwater intrusion, sea-level rise, sedimentation, erosion, and landslides (Hoque et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Climate Change Impacts On Food Production In Bangladesh","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgriculture is a sector greatly affected by climate change globally (Thornton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR132\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Misra \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In Bangladesh, every year about one-third to half of the country is affected by climatic events killing hundreds of people, injuring thousands, and damaging vast hectares of crops, properties, and infrastructure (WFP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR142\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Although agriculture and its allied industries are the foundation of the economy, between 2009\u0026ndash;2014, the estimated economic losses triggered by climate change are USD833.73\u0026nbsp;million from crops, USD133.92\u0026nbsp;million from fisheries, and USD137.46\u0026nbsp;million from livestock (Biswas \u0026amp; Maniruzzaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The GPD from the sector has been declining by 3.1% annually, resulting in an estimated loss of USD36\u0026nbsp;billion from 2005\u0026ndash;2050 (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR145\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The migration of displaced farmers to towns also causes population pressure because most of them do settle in slums, pathways, and bus stations that lack basic services, including safe drinking water and sanitation (Chowdhury and Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Gornall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), there are two broad impacts of the changing climate on food systems: direct and indirect impacts. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows that temperature fluctuations, changing rainfall patterns, cyclones, tropical storms, flash floods, and drought directly impact food production in Bangladesh. The indirect impacts include saline water intrusion and pests and diseases. The next subsections review the details of these climate changes and their impacts on the national food system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Direct Impacts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e(a) Temperature fluctuations\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood production is inextricably connected to temperature and atmospheric CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e concentration. Bangladesh is a humid country with an average temperature of 260C, which fluctuates between 150C to 370C throughout the year (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The mean temperature is anticipated to rise by 1.40C and 2.40C by 2050 and 2100, respectively. From 1970\u0026ndash;2013, Maniruzzaman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) reported a 4.00C variation in the national average of maximum temperature. A rising trend in temperatures has been detected between 1950\u0026ndash;2010, particularly during the south-west monsoon and post-monsoon seasons (Khan and Awal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Temperature and precipitation fluctuations considerably impact crop yield (Biswas and Maniruzzaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), undermining food security and rural livelihoods (Chowdhury and Khan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). For example, in the northwestern region of Bangladesh, fluctuations in temperature, daylight, and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e level resulted in low yield of some rice species: BRRI 28 (16.4\u0026ndash;21.3%), BRRI 29 (12.2\u0026ndash;15.4%), and BRRI 58 (14.8\u0026ndash;22.3%) (Maniruzzaman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Yields of crops such as wheat, potato, and lentils heavily depend on cool weather are gradually decreasing in high temperatures during winter (Pender, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Thick winter fog also causes potato blight, destruction of flowers of fruits like mango and low yield of onion, potato, mustard oil, and chili (Char Campaign Group, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Ghani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Heat stress and higher evapotranspiration have been associated with lower rice, wheat, and potato yields (Biswas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e(b) Changing rainfall patterns\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Bangladesh, rainfall ranges from 1500mm to 5800 mm during monsoon rain along the Indian Ocean and transmits warm, humid, and unstable air, continued around June to October. Runoff, duration of rainy days, and rainfall intensity are anticipated to increase. Mean yearly rainfall could increase by 53.66 by 2050 (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR145\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The fifth IPCC assessment predicted that peak intensity might increase by 5% and 10%, and rainfall rates may increase by 20\u0026ndash;30% (IPCC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Fluctuating ranfall patterns and prolong dry season that eventually increases the frequency of flood and drought (Amin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Changing rainfall and seasonal patterns have been threatening yields due to less frequent rain in the rainy season and excessive rainfall in later months (Lonnqvist, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Heavy rainfall is linked to low grain quality and undermining grain storage and preservation facilities (Kettlewell et al., 1999). Also, extremely wet soil caused by heavy rainfall makes the use of agricultural machinery difficult. Because of irregular rainfall patterns, farmers in the northwestern part of the country could not determine the suitable time for planting and harvesting, thereby causing harvest yields to lose as high as 17\u0026ndash;18% for rice and 31\u0026ndash;68% for wheat (Karim et al.1999). By 2050, the country could lose 8\u0026ndash;17% rice yield and 32% wheat yield (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR145\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e(c) Tropical cyclone\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe country\u0026rsquo;s 700 km coastline is the most vulnerable area to a tropical cyclone, especially south and southeast regions that experience cyclones during the mid-year and early harvesting time, around May\u0026ndash;November (Gornall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The severest cyclone rate was 1.3 per annum with speeds as high as 275 km/hr (Chowdhury, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The two most severe cyclones were recorded on 29 April 1991 and 15 November 2007 with 225 km/hr, and 250 km/hr wind speeds, respectively, which caused not only loss of lives and properties, but also caused severe damage to the entire agriculture sector (Tanner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR131\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). For example, the 2007 Cyclone \u0026lsquo;Sidr\u0026rsquo; (Category IV) completely damaged almost 113,000 ha of crops and partially damaged 1,400,000 ha with a total estimated loss of about 1.3\u0026nbsp;million tons of crops (ECRRP, 2010), basic infrastructure like roads, bridge, highways, educational institute. The cyclone caused nearly equivalent to USD 2.3\u0026nbsp;billion worth of damage (Hasan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). An IPCC report indicates that tropical cyclones\u0026rsquo; impacts will become more intense in the upcoming years (Alley et al., 2007). Since 1970, Bangladesh has faced 36 cyclones, including Sidr, Rashma, Alia, and Bijli, which killed about half a million people and caused immense economic loss (UNDP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR135\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e(d) Flash floods\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate changes are responsible for heavy rainfall that cause flash floods in cultivated land as nearly 60% of Bangladesh\u0026rsquo;s total land area is located 6 meters below sea level (Pender, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). From April to May, flash floods damage crops and properties in northeastern and western hilly regions (Choudhury et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the severe floods of 1988, 1998, 2007, and 2014, respectively, flooded around 61%, 68%, 42%, and 25% agricultural lands in the country. Annually, flood and riverbank erosion affect around 8700 ha of residential and agricultural land and render over 200,000 people homeless, which increases their food insecurity and vulnerability to diseases (IFAD, 2013; Alam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In the southern part of the country, about 40% of the land could be flooded by a 0.65-meter sea-level rise (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR144\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, riverbank erosion and silt deposits destroy homes, farmlands and dislocate several residents (Khan and Islam, 2013; WFP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR140\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Estimates show that a 32cm rise in sea level could reduce Aman rice production by 60\u0026ndash;88%, and flash floods negatively affect Boro rice cultivation, especially during harvesting season (CEGIS, 2005). Extreme precipitation during the summer monsoon season has been predicted, increasing the fall season by approximately 2\u0026ndash;7% increase by 2050 (Tanner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR131\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Intensive rainfall leading to elevated water levels in streams and floods can wipe out wide crop areas with other indirect impacts such as soil waterlogging, delayed farming operation, anaerobicity, and condensed plant development (Gornall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). About 18% of low land areas and 12\u0026ndash;16% of other areas are estimated to inundate per annum (Mirza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Large biodiversity (17%), including cultivated land, forest, and aquatic resources, can be inundated by only a one-meter sea-level rise, affecting about 17\u0026nbsp;million people relying on agriculture for livelihoods (Hasan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hoque et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In recent years, landslides have occurred more frequently in the southern part of the country, especially the hilly region, caused by excessive rainfall.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e(e) Drought\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrought caused by a prolonged shortage of rainfall and a high evaporation rate (Rahman and Lateh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR118\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) is globally regarded as the second most occurring natural calamities after floods (Nagarajan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In Bangladesh, food production, especially the Barind tract in the northwest regions, is severely impacted by drought (Rahman and Lateh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR118\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Cultivating rain-fed crops could be impeded when the drier areas become more parched in the winter season (Hussain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Severe droughts that have negatively impact food production in the country are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Notable among the devastating droughts had happened in 1999 and 2006 in the northwestern part that caused a 25\u0026ndash;30% reduction in average agriculture production (Habiba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor droughts and their impacts in Bangladesh, 1973\u0026ndash;2006 (compiled from FAO 2007; Habiba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Rahman and Lateh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR118\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eYear\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAffected region\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eImpacts\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1973\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern, south-western\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA severe droughts that triggered the 1974 famine in the norther region\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern, south-western\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt caused starvation, shortage of food grain stock, smuggling to neighboring countries, mismanagement, endemic diseases, etc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1975\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern, central, south-western\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt affected 47% of agricultural land and over half of the regions\u0026rsquo; populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1978\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorth-western, northern, western\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDestroyed 42% of the cultivated of crops, including 2\u0026nbsp;million tons of rice. Affected the livelihoods of 44% of local farmers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1981\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorth-eastern, southern, south-eastern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcute drought that significantly reduce crop yields\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1982\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlmost the whole nation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe loss of 53000 tons of rice more than twice the damage caused by floods in the same year.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1989\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorth-western, northern, western\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral rivers in Northwest region dried up. Dust storms affected Thakurgaon, Nawabganj, Naogaon, and Nilpahamari districts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1995\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorth-western, western, southern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrops, especially rice, jute, and leading cash crops, were immensely damaged.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouth-western, western\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most incessant drought that led to enormous crop damage, especially rice, jute, wheat, etc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouth-western, central, north-eastern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDamaged almost 2.6\u0026nbsp;million hectares of paddy fields\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe country\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the worst droughts that effected mostly the eastern region\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlmost the whole nation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA reduction of Aman rice by about 25\u0026ndash;30 percent in the northwestern region\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Indirect impacts of extreme climatic events\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e(a) Saline water intrusion\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Bangladesh, the increasing sea-level rise also results in salinity intrusion on cropland and freshwater, which poses a great risk to the country\u0026rsquo;s 710 km coastline (Mohal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Between 1948 and 2004, climate change caused a 2cm sea-level rise along the coast (Quadir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). With a 62cm sea-level rise, the country could lose 16% of its landmass to salinity intrusion along the coastal zone by 2080 (Pender \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). A study indicated that around 1\u0026nbsp;million hectares of land within the coastal zone have already been degraded by saline water intrusion (Mondal \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), which is also reaching groundwater (Christian Aid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Within a decade, settlements inhabited by about 6.0\u0026nbsp;million people have been affected by \u0026ldquo;high saltiness\u0026rdquo; (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5ppt), which might increase to 14.8\u0026nbsp;million people by 2080 (Mohal and Hossain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). It is reported that about 36.5% of land in the Khulna and Barisal divisions is undermined by various soil salinity levels (SRDI, 2010). Saltwater intrusion increases soil salinity along coastline, thereby damaging crops, causing irrigation with saline water, decreasing fish stock, and brackish shrimp farming (Haque et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Rasel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR120\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Estimates indicate that between 60\u0026ndash;88% of \u003cem\u003eAman\u003c/em\u003e rice yield could decline in the event of a 32cm sea-level rise (CEGIS 2005). Also, about 40km of boundary area in the north is facing saline water intrusion and reduced rice yields (Mohal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Annually, saline water intrusion is responsible for the loss of about 659,000mt of rice (Habibullah et al., 1999), decreasing vegetables, betel nuts, fruits, and coconut trees yields (Lonnqvist \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The effect of saltwater intrusion on habitat and freshwater change is exacerbated by sea-level rise, landslide, and low flow river conditions, leading to low income and migration (Karim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Salinity intrusion significantly affects locals\u0026rsquo; livelihoods, requiring adaptive actions in production practices and livelihood choices (Ayers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e(b) Insects, pests, and diseases\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mode of pest and disease infestation will also change and mutate under climate change. The changing temperature and rainfall conditions significantly increase the incidences of various insects, pests, and diseases in the local ecosystems (IPCC, 2007). In Bangladesh, insects, pests, and diseases, and the environmental condition in their favor are negatively impacting crop production (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) and animal husbandry (Salam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR122\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Increased winter temperatures reduce the mortality of pests such as aphids and facilitate their far-reaching dispersion (Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR147\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Crop resistance to pathogen and disease is also weakened by climate change, especially increased temperature and drought (Gregory et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). At least 100 crop varieties are infested by 454 different diseases that cause an annual loss of around USD947,240 (BARI 2006). A study on rice diseases revealed that bacterial leaf blight and nematode are a great threat to rice production throughout the country, and about 4\u0026ndash;14% of rice yield is lost to bug pests annually (Mondal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, several other crop yields are also undermined by pests and diseases because of climate change, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Global warming has also increase the outbreak of new plant diseases and farm invasion by alien pests (Salam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR122\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimated yield loss from insects, pests, and diseases by major crops in Bangladesh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrop\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInsect/pest\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEstimated yield loss (percent)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrevalence status\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDominant season\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eReference\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRice\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsects and pests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MoA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlast\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.4 (Amon)*,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.7 (Boro)*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKharif-2, Rabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Hossain \u0026amp; Hossain, 2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheath blight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.0*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKharif-1, 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Shahjahan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR125\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFalse smut\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmerging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKharif-2, Rabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Sarker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR124\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Nessa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheath rot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmerging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKharif-2, Rabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Shahjahan et al., 1994)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsects and pests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole Year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MoA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlast\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.0*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmerging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Islam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaf spot/blast\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Alam et al., 2016)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotato\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate blight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.8*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Dey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMustard\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlternaria blight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Meah \u0026amp; Hossain \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLentil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatemphylium blight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.3*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Bakr \u0026amp; Ahmed \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollar rot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Uddin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR133\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePulses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsects and pests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MoA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSugarcane\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsects and pests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.0*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKharif-1, 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MoA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJute\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsects and pests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKharif-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MoA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e*maximum reported yield loss. All insect-pest are estimated loss on an annual basis\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKharif-1: March to June, Kharif-2: July to October, Rabi: November to February\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Adaptation To Climate Change Impacts On The Food System In Bangladesh","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdaptation refers to managing the negative effects of environmental change to improve resilience and reduce vulnerability (Alam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). It is a key element of climate policy, especially in highly susceptible countries like Bangladesh (Vij et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR138\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In Bangladesh, initiatives for climate change adaption related to agriculture can be classified into those being implemented at national and community levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 National level adaptation initiatives and policies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change mitigation and adaptation in the agricultural sector are the priority of Bangladesh\u0026rsquo;s government, as demonstrated by the existing policies and pledges for climate-resilient agriculture (CIAT - World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The National Adaptation Programme Action (NAPA) was established with the United Nations Development Programme\u0026rsquo;s support in 2005 to address the negative impacts of climate change with four cardinal functions: security of food, livelihoods, vitality, and water supply (Islam and Nursey-Bray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; MoEF, 2005). Also, both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management implement climate change adaptation through capacity building at the community level. Similarly, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change initiated a coastal plantation program to minimize the climate change vulnerabilities of coastal communities (Islam and Nursey-Bray \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) was developed in 2009 with support from donor organizations to mitigate climate change impacts on the people and their environs (MoEF, 2009). This Action Plan is based on these programs: (i) food security and quality of life; (ii) natural hazard management and mitigation; (iii) strengthening public institutions; (iv) farmer\u0026rsquo;s capacity building; (v) relief and low carbon improvement; and (vi) research and education (MoEF, 2009). Under the umbrella of these two national programs, the government\u0026rsquo;s climate change adaption initiatives focus on introducing new crop varieties that mature early and are resistant to stress, salt, pest, and diseases, which have effectively adapted to changing climate (Moniruzzaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The plan has also been building the capacity of farmers and raising awareness on improved irrigation and water management, integrated pest management, research and development on innovative coastal zone management, post- and pre-disaster preparedness, market infrastructure development, value chain development, and modernization of agricultural techniques and machinery (Karim, 2012). As of December 2018, the Government-funded Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) has executed 687 climate adaptation projects through various ministries and NGOs (MoF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Rai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR116\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious adaptation policies and plans have been promulgated to address climate change impacts under various implementing agencies (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). For example, the government is supporting160\u0026nbsp;million Delta people\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods. Also, Vision 2021 and the National Perspective Plan address climate change under general development planning (Ayers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). A long-term integrated mega plan, \u0026lsquo;Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100\u0026rsquo;, has been prepared to mitigate and adapt to climate change impact, help eliminate extreme poverty by 2030 and reach a developed country beyond 2041 (Chowdhury et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 2016\u0026ndash;2020, has been developed based on the \u0026ldquo;UN Biodiversity Strategic Plan 2016\u0026ndash;2020\u0026rdquo; (MoF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The country is also a signatory to the Paris climate agreement and has submitted its first Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in September 2017 (Hasan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The National Planning Commission is also tasked with implementing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), monitored by a special unit under the Prime Minister\u0026rsquo;s Office (Huq and Khan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor policy-level initiatives to address climate change and food security in Bangladesh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlan/Policy/Act (promulgation year)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eImplementing agency\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Environment Management and Action Plan (1995)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinistry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (1995)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Environment Policy (2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisaster Management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Disaster Management Act (2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisaster Management Council\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Plan for Disaster Management (2010)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisaster Management Bureau, Disaster Management \u0026amp; Relief Division\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStanding Orders on Disaster (2010)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate Change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2009)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMEFCC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNDCs (2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Adaptation Program of Action (2009)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSectoral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBangladesh Water Act (2013)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinistry of Water Resources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Water Management Plan (2001)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Water Policy (1999)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoastal Zone Policy (2005)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe National Food Policy (2006)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinistry of Food\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Agricultural Policy (2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinistry of Agriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Integrated Pest Management Policy (2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Fisheries Policy (1998)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinistry of Livestock and Fisheries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Forestry Policy (1994)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMEFCC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHaor Master Plan (2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinistry of Water Resources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComprehensive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeventh Five Year Plan (2016\u0026ndash;2020)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral Economics Division, Planning Commission\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerspective Plan of Bangladesh (2010\u0026ndash;2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBangladesh Delta Plan (2015\u0026ndash;2100)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlanning Commission\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, several research institutes have developed seed varieties adaptable to climate change. The Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture and Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) have established salt-tolerant (e.g., BRRI dhan7) and flood-tolerant rice species (e.g., BRRI dhan21). Besides, the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) has developed several types of pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits adapted to the coastal areas (Mondal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The central Bangladesh Bank supports farmers by opening free bank accounts and credit subsidies (Bangladesh Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The government has provided a 30% rebate for importers of agricultural equipments and a 20% rebate on the electricity bills of agro-based trade and irrigation systems (Nadiruzzaman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR108\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcerning agricultural policies, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e compares the three policies that focus on climate adaptation. The 2018 agricultural policy has the updated, relevant policies formulated by different ministries and places them under the agriculture ministry\u0026rsquo;s coordination (Chowdhury et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The key difference of this policy from the previous two (1999, 2013) is that it focuses on location-specific programs rather than using generic terms for the whole country. It has specifically mentioned what needs to be done in hilly, coastal, haor and wetlands, Barind and char land areas. It can be treated as guidelines for both researchers and farmers at the field level for location- and problem-specific problems and solution approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of national agriculture policies focusing on climate adaptation, 1999\u0026ndash;2018 (adopted from: MoA (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTopic\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1999\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2013\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2018\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea-specific policy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecial focus on hill tracts agriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupports adaptation agriculture in adverse climatic zones (e.g., Hill tracts, drought-prone, Barind, Char, Haor-Baor, water-logged, coastal areas)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoosted the cultivation of locally grown adaptive crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentify crops suitable for each region through technological and economic parameters, and develop appropriate strategies for cultivating those crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop guidelines on crop types, irrigation, sustainable use of local water sources, soil preservation, pest management for adverse climatic zones\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate Change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edid not address climate change issues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePromote self-sufficient, sustainable agricultural practices adaptable to climate change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on climate change tolerant crops, training programs for capacity building, and agricultural management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch in climate adaptation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on \u0026ldquo;bottom-up\u0026rdquo; local technique\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on salinity- and drought-resistant rice, wheat, and jute.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncourage research by the public and private sectors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncourage research by the private sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on crop production technology for less emission of GHG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIrrigation efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding infrastructure to capture runoff water using Khals, Beels, and small rivers, increasing irrigation systems\u0026rsquo; efficiency. Expanding water reservoirs for irrigation and fish production. Tree plantation alongside water reservoirs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultipurpose use of irrigated water, irrigation efficiency initiatives for adverse climatic zones and using force mode pump instead of a suction mode pump in water-stressed areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch and development of new mechanisms to increase irrigation efficiency and the use of the pipeline instead of irrigation canal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalinity problems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch and development of salinity tolerant crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch and development of irrigation mechanisms to resist salinity intrusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on salinity-tolerant crops, capacity development on salinity management, and guidelines for agriculture in salinity affected zones\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalinity tolerant crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop salt-tolerant crop varieties and measures to resist salinity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on salinity-tolerant crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncrease the cultivation of salinity-tolerant crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainwater harvesting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuidelines and actions to increase rainwater harvesting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar energy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePromote the use of renewable energy for effective irrigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncouraged use of solar energy for irrigation and in households\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Community-based adaptation programs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunities that are largely reliant on nature are enormously susceptible to climate change impacts. In Bangladesh, local farmers implement some coping techniques to lessen and adapt to climate change risks on their farming (Islam and Nursey-Bray \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In total, 85 different local adaptation techniques exist in the coastal regions where 53 areas infrastructure-based and 31 are socioeconomic strategies (Mondal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Examples of successful adaptation techniques include rainwater harvesting, ditch and dyke schemes for year-round cultivation, floating agriculture in the waterlogged area, coastal habitat, and wetland restoration (Rahman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR117\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These community-based adaption efforts, which center on local coping approaches, are more effective than some of the government\u0026rsquo;s centralized and uniform strategies (Chowdhury and Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FAO also initiated community-based adaptation methods executed by farmers, such as digging ponds and deep tube-well for irrigation, extending ephemeral and drought-tolerant crop varieties, and yard gardening (FAO 2006). Other techniques are a new integrated aquaculture system with rice and livestock in the same field in Southern regions and ridging and furrowing methods that have been practiced traditionally for a long time in low-lying waterlogged areas (Aravindakshan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Another integrated method for fish and crop farming, known as Sorjan, where high beds are used for crop cultivation, and the submerged area is used for fish production (Hossain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In the \u0026lsquo;Hari\u0026rsquo; method, fish are grown in ponded water during the rainy season, but the water is drained out later in the dry season to grow Boro rice (FAO, 2015). Islam et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) surveyed three coastal villages of Shyamnagar Upazilla. They found that the local adaptation choices are effective in the following ways: (i) control of saline water interruption into agrarian land, (ii) beachfront afforestation, (iii) development of salt-tolerant crops, (iv) homestead planting, and (v) wages improvement. Similarly, mixed cropping, floating gardens, duck raising, confine aquaculture, wave assurance dividers, waterway recovery, and embankment are climate adaption measures identified in the low-lying ranges of Northeast (Anik and Khan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In the flood-prone areas, the \u0026ldquo;floating agriculture\u0026rdquo; is a climate-adaptive native cultivation method for over 100 years (Irfanullah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Chowdhury and Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther key climate adaptation strategies for enhancing food security are safeguarding land and water resources, creating and receiving versatile atmosphere assortments, modernizing the irrigation system, improving international food trade (Hanjra and Qureshi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Another adaptation measure supplements the existing dietary habit of overreliance on rice with crops less susceptible to climate change impacts (Moniruzzaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The factors that influence whether farmers employ adaptation practices include gender, age, education of family heads, household wealth, farm size, residency status, access to credit, and the conviction to implement adaptation strategies (Sarker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR123\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, climate change adaptation for food security can only be achieved by simultaneously balancing the physical and social factors (Ayers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion: Enhancing Food Security Through Stakeholder Collaboration In Bangladesh","content":"\u003cp\u003eCollaboration among stakeholders such as the communities, governments, the private sector, non-government organizations (NGOs), researchers, and climate experts is also needed for adequate adaptation to climate change impacts (Hasan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Islam and Nursey-Bray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In Bangladesh, the government has engaged multiple stakeholders, including the communities, international organizations, and local NGOs, in several projects such as Community Based Adaptation to Climate Change through Coastal Afforestation and the Climate Resilient Participatory Afforestation and Reforestation Project (Chow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The tidal river management program also promotes stakeholder collaboration in information collection and dissemination, consciousness development, publishing, mobilization, advocacy, demonstration, negotiation, training, and participatory planning related to climate change adaptation (Haque et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In the \u0026lsquo;char\u0026rsquo; areas, collaborative initiatives have increased food security through various programs, including (i) climate change awareness campaigns, (ii) provision for soft loans, (iii) dissemination of new cropping techniques, (iv) introduction of different saving schemes, and (v) tailor-made training on various alternative livelihood options (Islam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2005, CARE Bangladesh NGO initiated a partnership-based project named \u0026lsquo;Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change.\u0026rsquo; Here individual households receive financial support and training in alternative livelihood options such as crab fattening, livestock and poultry rearing, fish farming, homestead gardens, floating gardens, water filtering system, and mat making (Lopa and Ahmad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Another NGO called Shushilan and Uttaran contributed to building a 27-kilometer embankment in the southern part of the country, incorporating local saline water intrusion in the national water policy and implementing community-oriented local initiatives such as eco-club, student water forum, water committee, and local level workshops to build awareness among the stakeholders regarding the benefits of protecting the embankment (Lopa and Ahmad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The Centre for Coastal Environmental Conservation (CCEC) is another NGO that planted around 100,000 saplings in collaboration with local communities and the government to protect the southern coastal area from cyclones and tidal surges. A mangrove protection society responsible for planting, regenerating, and protecting coastal mangrove forests has also been formed (Lopa and Ahmad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther NGOs such as Building Resources Across Communities (BRAC), World Vision, Caritas, Sangstha, Gono Shahajjo, Society for Social Service (SSS), NGO Forum, UNDP, WFP, and IUCN work across the country to reduce climate vulnerability and ensure better food security. They offer financial supports at a reasonable interest rate to farmers and technical training on climate-responsive farming, livestock and poultry rearing, and fisheries. For example, BRAC and SSS offer post-harvest services to ensure better marketing and selling of agro-products (Akhi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The BRAC fisheries program trained 138,090 farmers on pond-aquaculture and disbursed USD 10\u0026nbsp;million loans to 109,002 farmers for pond-fish culture between 1998 and 2015 (BRAC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the SSS supports fish farmers through micro-credits, technical training, monitoring, and marketing (Akhi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These stakeholder collaborations at every stage of the adaptation strategies focusing on the most vulnerable stakeholders, such as poor local farmers, make the strategies successful (Ahmed and Roy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Wheeler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR143\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eBangladesh is faced with significant climate change challenges, specifically on its fragile food system\u0026rsquo;s security and sustainability. Extreme climatic events such as frequent floods, sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, drought, pests, and diseases. They also significantly endanger the country\u0026rsquo;s food security, destroy the coastline, and vital infrastructure, leading to low crop yields, increasing food prices, malnutrition, starvation, and migration. More than half of rural people that rely on agriculture for livelihoods are most severely affected by these climatic events in addition to poverty, poor access to health facilities, and low education. Without adequate adaptation measures, the impacts of climate change will undermine food security and increase the burden of the hardships faced by local farmers in the country. The government and other stakeholders are involved in several programs and projects to reduce climate change impacts on the food system and sustainability. The local adaptation efforts are increasingly building local farmers\u0026rsquo; resilient capacity to adapt to expanding climate risk (IPCC \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Alam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, there are some challenges to the existing adaptation efforts, including lack of subsidies, inadequate technical know-how on climate change issues, and institutional limitations (Masud et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Other challenges are limited access to climate databases and scientific studies, proper irrigation facilities (Alauddin and Sarker \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The NGOs are also working on a very small scale that needs to be scaled up nationwide through the government, private sector, and international communities, including donor agencies. Therefore, the government should develop appropriate programs to improve and expand the local initiatives to enhance their adaptation capacity and lessen the vulnerable effects of changing climate change on the food system and security. Future research should investigate how the government\u0026rsquo;s climate change adaption initiatives can be sustainable without relying on donors in fostering food security in the country.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) for their supervision throughout the research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: Hereby, the authors concisely fulfilled the following ethics.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1) This is an original work by the authors that has not been authored elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2) The paper is not being regarded for publication elsewhere at this time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3) The paper accurately and fully represents the authors' own analysis and research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4) The findings are contextualized appropriately in relation to prior and previous research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: Authors are responsible for the accuracy of the statements provided in the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors hereby consent to the publication of the manuscript in all AMS publications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors Contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe corresponding author, Syed Masiur Rahman, made the research design and led the team to conduct the work; Md. Monirul Islam Chowdhury, Syed Maisur Rahman, Md Iqram Uddin Al Amran, Karim Malik, Musah Ahmed Muhyedeen, and Md. Arif Hasan did the information acquisition and analysis; and Md. Monirul Islam Chowdhury, Syed Masiur Rahman, \u0026nbsp;Md Iqram Uddin Al Amran, Karim Malik, Ismaila Rimi Abubakar, Yusuf Adedoyin Aina, \u0026nbsp;Sheikh Mohammad Abdur Rahman, Maqbool Khan, Musah Ahmed Muhyedeen and Md. Arif Hasan prepared the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors didn’t receive any funding for the following research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbubakar, I. R. (2021). 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Effects of temperature on aphid phenology. Global Change Biology, 1, 303 \u0026ndash; 313.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Agriculture, climate change policy, food system vulnerabilities, food insecurity, adaptation and mitigation strategies","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1673139/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1673139/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eClimate change threatens the security and sustainability of the global food system. In Bangladesh, the fragile food system is strongly being impacted by climate variability and extreme weather events. Estimates indicate that the agricultural sector could lose about USD7.7\u0026nbsp;billion per annum due to climate change. The average annual rice production could decline by 33% within two decades. However, a few studies investigated the impacts of fluctuating temperature and rainfall, flash floods, drought, and saline water intrusion on the food system and security in an integrated manner. This study examines climate change impacts on food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh. It reviews the country\u0026rsquo;s food system, the climatic conditions that threaten food security, and impacts climate change on the food systems and the associated vulnerabilities. The study then assesses the existing adaptation initiatives and the extent of their integration among pertinent stakeholders. It concludes that local climate change adaptation strategies and stakeholder collaboration are necessary for reducing climate change impacts on food system security.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Climate change impacts on food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-07-01 19:40:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1673139/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2022-06-24T04:18:21+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2022-06-23T13:32:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2022-06-07T05:09:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2022-06-02T07:13:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6ca5c0d4-fdc8-4252-9d4a-29649f5e702c","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 1st, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-07-01T19:40:18+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-07-01 19:40:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1673139","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1673139","identity":"rs-1673139","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"_2-kVJe1T_tPrBINL-cwx","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}