A Prospective Evaluation on Regeneration of Mangroves over Indian Part of Sundarbans

A Prospective Evaluation on Regeneration of Mangroves over Indian Part of Sundarbans | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A Prospective Evaluation on Regeneration of Mangroves over Indian Part of Sundarbans Sweta Chatterjee, Dr. Gupinath Bhandari This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6112336/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Regeneration, Restoration and Rehabilitation can be defined properly for the context of mangroves specifically through returning of the regenerated mangrove species in its native places or sites, if the site is already damaged, degraded, destroyed due to several unpredictable natural and anthropogenic baseline factors. Functionality of mangroves can be possible through accommodation of all baseline ecological, environmental factors to be monitored properly and succession analysis can be also acknowledged for this purpose to monitor the planted mangroves at the degraded site or else if there is observation on naturally regrown mangrove patch over Indian Sundarbans, mortality rate, succession of native species with respect to baseline factors can be monitored temporally. Aided by prospective study on Natural and Artificial Regeneration ( Plantation ) along with the blended version of both is crucial to be gained attention for the sake of the mangrove specifically over Indian part of Sundarbans in near future. Different plantation programme initiated by NGOs and government officials at Indian Sundarbans are effective for the native people also through securing their livelihoods, habitats as a whole. Several case studies on behalf of naturally grown sites and planted sites have been justified for the evaluation on both aspects and varieties on regeneration of mangroves specifically for Indian Sundarbans. Irrespective of bottlenecks, dripping out from the evaluation and functionality of regeneration aspects of mangroves can be reduced technically if there stays scientific association of all solutions can be harnessed properly by the engagement of experts, researchers from different genre and government officials obviously. This study evaluates a clear prospective decision on probability of occurrence on mangrove regeneration aspects, with its primary and foremost objective was to set the foundation on retrospective ideas on previous viewpoints and prospect stage for near future mass activities on regeneration aspects of mangrove species over Indian Sundarbans. Mangrove Regeneration Natural and Artificial Regeneration Rehabilitation Restoration Functionality Mangroves Indian Sundarbans Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Lewis (1981) demonstrated that mangroves have the ability of restoration by own self if three steps are considered where first step obliges that the potential environmental stresses has to be determined previously which might disrupt the natural regeneration also possess the probability of natural recovery status of mangroves. Second step is to determine the probability of natural regeneration like natural seedling or propagules recruitment followed by the third step that determines to consider the artificial techniques if there is no way for natural regeneration. According to Chowdhury et al., (2016) , halophytes of Sundarbans are adapted by the balance of saltwater and fresh water and so any changes in this balance can affect the fragile ecosystems of Sundarbans as well as the structure of mangroves. Hazra et al., (2002) also argues that mangroves are facing the risk from climate change and specifically global warming, sea level rise. Smith et al., (1994) stated that mangrove has the restoring capability to cope up the natural calamities but Mangals have also threshold level to any environmental changes triggered by either naturally or anthropologically. Mitra (2019); Mitra et al., (2004) asserted that researchers mostly emphasized four ecosystem services provided by mangroves like nursery services by mangroves, provisional services by mangroves for the dwellers and people of coastal regions, shoreline stabilization, and coastal erosion protection and carbon sequestration and carbon storage pool over the past decades. But recently, signs of progress are on the way for prospecting of the importance of mangrove-based microbes, mangrove actinomycetes. Restoration is nothing but an ecological concept ( Figure 1 ) which is defined as the returning of something’s previous or initial state with the proper and similar effectiveness. Restoration of mangroves is now very important applied tool to protect and conserve as mangroves have been degrading worldwide by some predictable natural factors and artificial or anthropogenic factors. Many researchers have already defined the restoration or regeneration concept in terms of ecology. Morrison (1990); Moorthy (1995) defined the restoration or regeneration as the rejuvenation of native species or the community groupings like species in their native places providing aesthetic values and dynamic characteristics. Field (1999) differentiated between Rehabilitation and Restoration where he denoted Rehabilitation as the partial and full replacement of species from their native places and Restoration as the process of bringing back of native degraded and in the way of extinct species to their initial condition. It also provides the opportunities to enhance and improve the environmental quality and sustainability ( Kairo et al., 2001 ). Restoration or regeneration process is of two kinds; natural and artificial restoration processes though combination of natural and artificial regeneration is also in practice ( Directorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal ) . Natural regeneration or rejuvenation is largely depended on the occurring of the mangrove propagules being the source of natural regeneration and the composition and distribution of the regenerated species are depended on the mixing of the native species. Natural regeneration or restoration process also demonstrates the self-planting or stranding strategies that are largely depended on the natural phenomenon like soil conditions, tidal influence and site or forest conditions ( Kairo et al., 2001 ) . Restoration of mangroves is attributed by some strong arguments based on the ecological goods and services of mangroves ( Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001 ) , high ecological values and the restoration techniques ( Macintosh et al., 2002 ) . As per Nguyen et al., (2008) , “ Restoration ” term is meant by nothing but the process of returning a system to its pre-existing conditions, specifically following the basic principles of secondary ecological succession for the mangrove species in their own habitats. Secondary ecological succession depends upon the propagule availability and relevant hydro-geomorphological conditions, however, the availability of mangrove propagule can be limited to some harsh ecological situations such as due to the removal of mangroves in their own habitats in a degraded site. According to Society for Ecological Restoration (SER, 2002) , “ Ecological Restoration ” is the process of assisting any ecosystem that has already been degraded, damaged or destroyed due to unpredictable natural as well as anthropogenic conditions and as per Twilley et al., (1999) , “ the goal of this process is to emulate the structure, functioning, diversity and dynamics of the specified ecosystem using reference ecosystems as models ”. Figure 1 demonstrates the ten step based conceptual framework on restoration principles that can be followed for the purpose of successful active regeneration process, applicable for any mangrove sites, depending upon several ecological conditions. Step 1 is the understanding of the community ecology of mangrove of the specific site, step 2 is to monitor the baseline environmental conditions, followed by the better understanding of ecological succession of mangrove ecosystem as step 3 , step 4 collides with the utilization of GIS and Remote Sensing applications for the temporal dynamics of the study area, next comes the planning of landscape ecology as the step 5 that can boost the priority purpose of restoration program, cost benefit analysis is one of the important steps as step 6 that can be stepping stone for the further monitoring and assessing if the restored site as per necessary attributes. According to Sen et al., (2014) , Natural Regeneration ( Figure 2 ) process of mangroves in Sundarbans also depends on the diversity and functioning role of Brachyuran crabs being the macro invertebrates making up of 80% of total biomass ( Hamdan et al., 2014 ). These high diversified crabs being the keystone species along with their ecological roles can attain ecological functioning of the mangrove ecosystem through litter turnover ( Lee, 1998 ) and bioturbation process ( Smith et al., 1991 ) . Natural regeneration is nothing but the rejuvenation of crops by sown seeds and coppice in which the sexual method of regeneration is called as the ‘seedling crop’ where the new plants are characterized by the both parent trees. The asexual method of natural regeneration attributes the characteristics of only the parent tree only exhibiting in the new born plant. Seed production, seed dissemination, seed germination and establishment are the four processes of natural regeneration ( Directorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal ) . Seed production is the foremost prerequisite for the natural regeneration where fertile seeds are adequately needed from the parent forest or the neighbor location based on the species structure, age of the tree, soil conditions and climatic factors. Seed dissemination is defined as the spreading or dispersal of seeds by some agents like wind, water, gravity, animals. Seed germination is nothing but the growing from a similar seed under the influence of some internal and external factors. Seed establishment is defined as the development of new crop under the numerous factors like soil conditions, climatic conditions, root conditions and light conditions. Artificial regeneration ( Figure 2 ) includes the renewal of forests by sowing, planting and other hand-planting methods. This regeneration process is evaluated for two main objectives like reforestation and afforestation approaches ( Directorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal ) . It evaluates the hand planting of mangroves propagules at the desired and selected locations of the intertidal locations by implementing different governmental and non- governmental programmes where the natural regeneration process is not possible. This process identifies the transplantation of mangroves saplings from the native area to the new location by aerial technology without removing the mangrove saplings from the initial area (Kairo, 1995 ). According to Huxham et al., (2010) , afforestation and reforestation techniques with the special reference to terrestrial plantation strategy trigger the artificial regeneration process of mangroves instead of natural restoration of plants. Gedan & Silliman (2009); Gerona-Daga & Salmo (2022) led to a paradigm shift from the conventional terrestrial plantation method to the modern restoration technology that is adapted to the mangrove dynamics where they elaborated that environmental stress factors influence tree growth more than other limited resources. Fajardo & Mclntire (2011); McIntire & Fajardo (2014) emphasized on the tree interactions as this can be successful restoration technique for crossing the environmental stress level for the certain mangrove ecosystem. Banerjee et al., (2023). Scientific concern regarding the loss of mangrove ecosystems around the world tends to be focused in the end of 20 th century ( Walsh et al., 1975 ). International initiative and potential efforts have already increased the appreciations of several mangrove regeneration projects around the world ( Kairo et al., 2001; Field, 1996 ). The rationale behind the restoration aspects of mangrove ecosystems has altered and dynamically changed over the time scale from just silviculture practices to diverse attributes of mangroves such as timber production, fuel wood collection, fisheries productivity coastal protection against storm surge ( Ong, 1982; Field, 1996; Saenger, 2002 ). Previous attempts related to mangrove restoration projects got mixed results like, some being successful, some got near successful and some being doomed from the start ( Field, 1996; Erftemeijer & Lewis, 1999 ) due to not so well understood ecological conditions of the native mangrove species. Primitive examined goal of mangrove restoration projects was to practice silviculture reviewed after Ellison (2000) , addressed as the primary objective of mangrove regeneration aspects where few native species were involved for the practice as well. Mangrove ecosystems can be restored with respect to some functionality indicators such as structure and pattern of vegetation, natural processes of regeneration, nutrient recycling, adaptability, productivity and socio economic valuation with respect to livelihoods. It can be reviewed that functionality of restored mangroves can be optimized for the beneficial to process nutrients and organic matter, sediment trapping system, food and habitat security for the animal community, livelihood security ( Bosire et al., 2008 ). Table 1: Observations from Indian Sundarbans Plantation Program (Modified after Banerjee et al., 2023 ) Bottlenecks Solutions Observations from Indian Sundarbans Wrong Species Selection for Selected Site Trait analysis on hydro-geomorphological aspects to correlate with the species requirement as well as selected site for plantation Prior hydrodynamic monitoring was not done at the best level for the mangrove plantation program at the selected sites Improper Site Selection Involvement of Academic Experts for the fundamental aspects of site selection Academic experts were informed at later stage for the sharing of progress but it should have been informed at the prior level the plantation program Artificial Restoration often leads to reduction of species diversity Promotion of Intrinsic species diversity based afforestation instead of mono specific afforestation One new genus got introduced at 47% of sites, two new genera at 22% & three new at 30% Survival of planted seedlings Plantation of seedlings and saplings directly on mudflats of sites instead of transplantation at nurseries 30 nurseries of 1974 ha were operational, where seedlings were compacted using plastic bags before planting in the selected sites Plantation targets with achievements Minimum of 10 years of survival of mangrove saplings is required for successful restoration outcome Survival rate (77%) was higher than the global average but the report was produced only after 4-7 months of program; quite a short time Lack of Local Communities Involvement Sureness of an equitable approach among the local communities Especially women were involved but there remains the traits of top down approaches Failure of projects due to lack of political will A strong political intent is needed to execute the administrative authorizations Chief Minister urged the Department of Forest for planting of 50 million mangroves Lack of Funding Resource management should encompass the plantation period and a 10 year period for long term success Funds covered by National Govt. Scheme for the daily wages for people involved but, a lack of agreement between national and state govt. has led to non-payment of wages As per review of Spalding et al., (2010); Gerona-Daga et al., (2022) , Southeast Asia holds for the World’s largest (32.2%; 43,767 km 2 ) and most diverse by species distribution (>50 species). However, these countries also face extensive mangrove loss ( Bhowmik et al., 2022; Spalding & Leaf, (2021). In the context of Southeast Asian countries, mangrove loss varies regionally specifically for rapid expansion of aquaculture ponds for fish and shrimp culture in Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar ( Luo et al., 2022 ); fish culture in Philippines ( Primavera, 1995 ); rice production in Myanmar and oil palm expansion in Malaysia and Indonesia ( Richards & Friess, 2016 ). As per Estoque et al., (2018), Myanmar is the country of primary mangrove loss hotspot with 27.9% mangrove loss between 2000 and 2014 and Philippines is the second country of loss about 10.5% from 1990 to 2010 ( Long et al., 2014 ). In the contrary, these countries have been also implementing mangrove regeneration as well as restoration and its management for decades. According to Hamdan e al., (2014), Matang mangrove Forest in Peninsular Malaysia was transformed as a permanent reserve forest in 1906 whereas, mangrove plantation was active during 1930s in Philippines for the construction of posts for fish weirs and fuel ( Walters, 2003 ); mangrove rehabilitation program was initiated in 1930s for the timber production ( Ilman et al., 2011 ); direct planting of Rhizophora apiculata was practiced amidst the was in 1978 over the affected areas by herbicide Agent Orange in Vietnam ( Hong, 2001 ). Focusing on these retrospective studies on restoration programs over these countries, it can be observed that early rehabilitation programs were only centralized for the short term economic gains through fuel and timber productions derived from the plantation ( Suman, 2019 ). Observation on Mangrove Regeneration The Indian Sundarbans also lost its mangrove diversity around of 374 km 2 areal coverage between 2000 to 2017 ( Thakur et al., 2021; Banerjee et al., 2023 ) and aftermath of Amphan cyclone also induced the further diversity loss around 43% ( Mishra et al., 2021 ). After the great loss, West Bengal government announced a plantation program through restoration of 50 million trees plantation, started from July, 2020. This program initiated by the State Department of Forests, funded by State Government of West Bengal under the scheme of national government welfare named as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: MGNREGS) as the primitive most plantation program over Indian part of Sundarbans, securing livelihoods of the people over there too. As the result, 123.77 million mangroves were already planted over different parts of Indian Sundarbans instead of having planted 50 million saplings over there. This large scale mangrove restoration program can be useful for adaptation of ecosystem specifically native species adaptation, community participation and livelihood securities, good governance and remedial measures against degeneration of mangroves, better policy governance with respect to scientific investigation, but arguments can also be associated with some bottlenecks and its concurrent solutions ( Table 1 ). Situational bottlenecks such as, wrong species selection, monotypic species selection and plantation, improper site selection and wrong planting techniques application, invasive species selection and further plantation among the native species, germination problems of sowing seeds over mudflats can be considered as the barrier for the restoration program over Indian part of Sundarbans ( Bosire et al., 2006; Banerjee et al., 2023 ). These cumulative effect of bottlenecks can lead to the complications regarding the ecosystem services provided by the mangroves, ecosystem functionality, survival rate of newly planted species ( Bosire et al., 2006 ). Deeper investigation on bottlenecks related to artificial regeneration (Plantation) program over the Indian Sundarbans can optimize several harsh situations for the mangrove diversity such as, usage of plastic bags to carry the saplings for the growth of seeds in nurseries so that it can stabilize the soil against erosion, issues regarding the plantation directly on mudflats instead of growing saplings at nurseries, more plantation of saplings along the salt marsh vegetation. Reported that, already two-thirds of plantation of mangrove saplings were associated with salt marsh vegetation i.e. Poteresia coarctata and Suaeda maritima ( Banerjee et al., 2023 ). 47% of sites over Sundarbans belonged to one new true mangrove species along with two general in 22% and three in 30% of sites. Reported by Government of West Bengal (2022) , this program covered approximately 4579 ha areal coverage, out of which 217 sites of 11 CD blocks covered around 4219 ha of area in Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (SBR). However, the impressive survival rate (77% after monitoring of 4-7 months) from the above restoration experiment had been assessed for the short time span that was against the standard long term level of survival rate analysis. Environmental as well as ecological conditions got also lack of sincere attention and for that some planted saplings could survive only for a year or some more failing to grow as a mature tree. In other dimension, protection through fences, nets to restrict grazing and damages by wildlife, tourism activities could be the effective one to protect the newly artificially regenerated sites however, it can adversely affect the livelihoods of native as they could not access the restricted zones, tourism activities where tourists cannot access the wild life areas. At the end, key lesson is to monitor, assess, symbolize, gain knowledge on persistency, functioning of entire mangrove ecosystem for foundation on long term artificial plantation program along with species long term survival optimization. Artificial Regeneration (Mangrove Plantation) Programs by NGOs Case Study 1: Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) During the span 2017-2020, project named “Restoration of Mangroves in Sundarbans through Afforestation, Integrated Mangrove-Shrimp Farming, Income Generation and Community Participation” was initiated by ‘Nature Environment and Wildlife Society’ (NEWS) , conservation based NGO. Its objective was to stabilize the mangrove ecosystems efficiently through opening up the livelihood options and strategies for the local coastal population through the afforestation program ( Table 2 ). Two sites e.g. Buraburir Tot, Gobardhanpur Village, G.P. G-Plot, Block Patharpratima, District- South 24 Parganas ; Lakshmipur intertidal mangrove habitat , G.P Madhusudanpur, Block Kakdwip over Indian Sundarbans were selected for the afforestation program by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Govt. of India. The former site was sub divided into two subsites e.g. ‘Buraburir Tot’ (towards the sand dune) & ‘Gobardhanpur’ (towards the village) with two different nurseries. The latter one followed up with only one nursery. ‘Buraburir Tot’ This plantation site is associated with the tidal waves and sand dunes that act as the natural barrier where the first survey was initiated in March, 2018. As the baseline report during 2017 plantation, it can be said that earlier 10-hectare area out of 56 ha of the total proposed area was planted by 20 sacks of seeds of 7000 seeds per sack of Avicennia alba Blume (Kalo Bain) along with the Avicennia marina (Peyara Bain). Naturally regenerated saplings of Aegialitis rotundifolia (Tora), Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Sonneratia alba (Ora) and Sonneratia caseolaris were also observed at the plantation site. Saplings of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Kankra) was found that was planted by forest department. This afforestation program was also collaborated by the women group named ‘Srijoni Mohila Badabon Committee’ with 12-15 active female members to monitor the survival rate, growth study and investigation related to causes of mortality etc. Mangrove associates were also found over the sand dune as the good sand binders and this observation will help to augment the proper situation for the whole plantation program. During the nursery visit for 2018 plantation, the area was extended to 18.3 ha where a total of 25,000 saplings were planted for nursery preparation. The germination took place around within 10 days and then that were transferred to small jute bags by the group members. Jute bags and soil preparation for the plantation program were done by the local community. Regularly seedlings activity was carefully monitored by the women members and waters regularly. Monitored seedlings were then transferred to the edges of the mangrove swamps for attaining the average height of 2-3 inches (after 1 month). The seedlings got submerged during the high tide that made them capable of salt tolerant for natural adaptation. Finally, that adapted saplings with height approximately of 1 ft. were selected and eligible for the final plantation. From the chosen seedlings, a valid and large number of Peyara Bain was planted along with the Kalo Bain, Tora, Kankra, Goran, Moth Goran and Garjan . Monitoring report of 2017 plantation offers that along with the existing two spots two other new spots were also considered for the plantation where propagules of 14 different species of mangrove and mangrove associates were recorded ( Khalsi, Kalo Bain, Peyara Bain, Jat Bain, Bakul Kankra, Kankra, Nata karanham Jele Goran/ Goran, Math Goran, Nayalata, Sundari, Keora, Dhudhul ). The third survey was initiated by the BSI team in January, 2019 where total plantation area extended to 29 ha. The evaluation on the plantation survey of mangrove plantation was done by NEWS and 11 new spots with 2 permanent spots ( Spot A & B ) were launched. Table 2: Site wise Species Distribution for Plantation Program Spot Species Frequency Height (cm) Remarks Spot 1 Avicennia alba (new); Avicennia marina (new) 81; 8 20-30 cm New plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants) Spot 2 Avicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new) (4;8), (3;3) (120cms; 100 cms) ,(30 cms; 20 cms) New plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants) Spot 3 Avicennia alba (new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (new) 36; (3,20) ;2 (20-40cms), (100cms; 40-60cms), (10 cms) New plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants) Spot 4 Avicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural); Sonneratia alba (natural) (3,2); (10,25); 30;5 (100-120cms; 20-35cms), (100-180cms; 30-50cms), (20-40cms), 160 cms New plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants); naturally occurred plants Spot 5 Avicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural); Sonneratia apetala (natural) (4,1); (30,6); 1; 2 (130-150cms; 30 cms), (120-150 cms; 30-60 cms), (20cms), (10-20cms) New plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants) Spot 6 Avicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural) (2, 3); (28, 9); 1 (110-130 cms; 20-30 cms), (130-160 cms; 30-60 cms); (10 cms) New plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants) Spot 7 Avicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Avicennia officinalis (natural); Sonneratia apetala (natural) (3, 15); (29,5); 1; 30; 1 (90-110cms; 20-30 cms), (70-110 cms; 50-60 cms), (40 cms), (10-30 cms), (80 cms) New plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants); naturally occurred plants Spot 8 Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural); Aegiceras corniculatum (natural) (2, 5 nursery plants & 10 directly from seeds; total new 15); (3); (1) (70-110 cms; 30-50 cms), (10-20 cms), (10 cms) New plants planted through direct seed sowing & nursery plants; naturally occurred plants Spot 9 Avicennia alba (natural); Avicennia marina (old/new); Avicennia officinalis (natural); Aegiceras corniculatum (natural) (5); (3, 6 nursery plants & 29 directly from seeds; total 35); (1); (1) (20 cms); (110-130 cms, 30-50 cms); (40 cms); (10 cms) New plants planted through direct seed sowing & nursery plants; naturally occurred plants Spot 10 Avicennia marina (old/new/natural) (1; 9;7) (100 cms; 40-48 cms; 20 cms) New plants planted through nursery plants & naturally occurred plants Spot 11 Avicennia marina (old/new/natural) (1; 7 as nursery plants;18 as directly from seeds; 7) (70 cms; 20-30 cms; 20-30 cms; 20-30 cms) New plants planted through nursery plants & naturally occurred plants Spot A (Permanent Spot) Avicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new) (2; 3 as directly from seeds); (29; 5 as nursery plants) (110-130 cms; 25-30 cms), (120-140 cms, 30-45 cms) New plants planted through nursery plants & directly from seeds Spot B (Permanent Spot) Avicennia alba (old/natural); Avicennia marina (old/natural) (1; 1), (6; 3) (90-110 cms; 15 cms); (70-110 cms; 20-30 cms) Naturally occurred with existing species It can be concluded that Avicennia marina was the most dominant as well as grown species over the plantation zone. Comparative study of planted species in 2017 ( Table 3 ) and its survival rates are followed in a table: Table 3: Tabulation on Comparative Study on Planted Mangrove Species Spot Species Survey Time Survival Rate Spot A Avicennia alba March, 2018 January, 2019 42.8 % No. of plants 7 3 Spot B Avicennia alba March, 2018 January, 2019 50 % No. of plants 2 1 The fourth survey was conducted in August, 2019 to evaluate the total restoration sites till the date for providing the midterm evaluation report. Out of 56 ha of the total proposed area, 29 ha was found as the suitable and stabilized for mangrove plantation. 10 ha area was planted in 2017, 18.3 ha area was carried out in 2018 and 29 ha area was extended by the end of 2019. During the year 2020-21, Government of West Bengal initiated Greening of Sundarbans Project where, Plantation of 5 crore Mangrove plants were done over 2500 ha area of non-forest as well as forest land under MGNREGA scheme. Total area coverage by Mangrove Plantations during the stipulated period covers 2000 ha for 24 Parganas (South) division and 500 ha for Sundarban Tiger Reserve (STR). Total 2000 ha area comes under South 24 Parganas comprising of 1452 non forest area and 548 ha forest area whereas, total 500 ha comes under STR comprising 273 ha non forest and 227 ha forest area ( Table 4, Figure 3 ). The primary aims of this project are to protect the Sundarbans from the natural disasters; set livelihood options for the people; create bio-shield for the coast; build women empowerment over Sundarbans. Mangrove plantation has been done as per the species suitability according to the basic soil types over Indian Sundarbans ( Figure 4 ). Avicennia species has been selected for the sandy clay loamy soil , For hard soil Bruguiera species has been selected, Rhizophora & Sonneratia species have been selected for the transition zone . Table 4: Division wise Planted Seedlings Distribution Division Area Seedlings/ha Total No. of Seedlings planted South 24 Parganas 2000 ha 20000 4,00,00,000 Sundarban Tiger Reserve 500 ha 20000 1,00,00,000 Total Seedlings 2500 ha 5,00,00,000 Case Study 2: Purbasha Eco-Helpline Society (Mangrove Man’s Initiative) Purbasha Eco-Helpline Society being a NGO, established in 2009 have been working with academicians, local community, students, NGOs and environmentally concerned people to provide community based solutions for climate change, disaster risk reduction and moreover environmental sustainability ( PEHS, 2024 ). Umashankar Mandal named after ‘ Mangrove Man ’ for the 12-year continuous tree plantation programme at Chargheri village near Gosaba where he started this drive after the devastation occurred due to Cyclone Aila in 2009. They have planted more than 6.5 lakh sapling with the help of more about 135 associates on the embankments of the rivers of two vulnerable islands, Gosaba and Satjelia. They have considered mangroves as the “Shield” for the sake of their lives and already been proved as the biological fence against Cyclone Amphan and Cyclone Yaas. He had set up a platform, named ‘ Purbasha Eco-Helpline Society ’ nowadays serves as the collaborative umbrella of plantation drive and other activities as well to bring more people, local residents to run the societal activities. They work for the three months from August months for the collection of seeds of mangrove trees and plant them throughout the year ( The Telegraph, 2021 ). Apparently, a group of IIT-Kharagpur students joined them to protect the devastated Satjelia Island over Indian part of Sundarbans due to Yaas cyclone by planting 10, 000 mangrove saplings at May month in 2021. The IIT students, mostly research scholars raised money through the crowdfunding for the mass mangrove plantation Programme. Biswarup Mondal , Research Scholar from Chemical Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur mentioned “ During our visit to this region after Yaas, we understood that we have to work towards a permanent solution. Then we came to know about Umashankar Mandal, Geography Teacher and Activist who has been planting mangroves since Cyclone Aila (2009) and we were inspired by him. We planted 10,000 saplings for now and want to ramp it up in the future. ” They planted specifically three types of mangrove such as Avicennia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Ceriops decandra over approximately stretch of two hectares’ area by the banks of Garal river. According to them, they had purchased 10,000 saplings for around 70,000 rupees from nursery and carried them by the hired boat to reach by Satjelia island to pant them accordingly. Research Scholars from IIT Kharagpur also contributed new clothes among 1000 women and children in and around Parashmani village under lahiripur Gram Panchayat of Gosaba block under the Indian part of Sundarbans who participated in the plantation drive in the affected islands through the mass funding ( The Telegraph, 2021 ). As per WWF (2020) , over the last decade, he has single handedly planted over 650,000 mangrove seeds and saplings. This frequency is now increased to 7,80,000 till the date and the primary objective of Purbasha and its team to reach 10 lakhs by 2025 ( PEHS, 2024 ). His restoration efforts, being a mangrove restorer by of his own have inspired and motivated the villagers to come forward for the mass mangrove plantation Programme to restore the entire island by bio-protecting the same and that applauded Mr. Umashankar Mandal as the receiver of WWF’s Dr. Rimington Awar d in 2021. Following are the tabulation ( Table 5-8 ) on every ounce of minute details on Mangrove Restoration Programme through mass plantation by Mangrove Man and his team; Table 5: Details on Mangrove Plantation Sites (2009-2021) Plantation Site Quantity and Time Frame of Plantation Height of Planted Saplings (In Meter) Mortality Rate (%) Siltation Rate (%) Chargheri Village, Gosaba 3,00,000 (August, 2009) 0.50-0.62 30 0.10-0.15 (December) Chargheri Village, Gosaba 1,00,000 (2017) 10.97-12.19; 0.52-0.62 35 0.70-0.80 (December) Chargheri Village, Kakmari Village, Gosaba 1,00,000 (2019) 6.09-7.62; 0.48-0.60 30 0.30-0.45 (December) Kakmari Village, Kumirmari Village, Sonagaon 60,000 (2021) 3.05-3.66; 0.55-0.60 38 0.40-0.42 (December) Table 6: Mangrove Species that have been planted by Purbasha Team (2009-2024) Sl. No. Mangrove Species ( Local Names ) Scientific Name Roots Carbon Absorption Captivity Soil Texture 1 Goran Ceriops decandra Respiratory roots High Hard textured Alluvial Soil 2 Bain Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis Respiratory roots Very High Loose Structured Alluvial Soil 3 Gorjan Rhizophora mucronata Aerial Roots High Hard textured Alluvial Soil 4 Kankra Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Respiratory roots 5 Dhudhul Xylocarpus granatum Respiratory roots 6 Passur Xylocarpus mekongensis Respiratory roots 7 Keora Sonneratia apetala Respiratory roots Very High Loose Structured Alluvial Soil 8 Geoa Excoecaria agallocha High Hard textured Alluvial Soil 9 Sundari Heritiera fomes Respiratory roots 10 Dhani Gash Porteresia coarctata - Very High Loose Structured Alluvial Soil 11 Horgoj Kanta Acanthus ilicifolius - High Hard Textured Alluvial Soil 12 Tora Aegialitis rotundifolia - 13 Khalishi Aegiceras corniculatum - Table 7: Cost Estimate along with Plantation Details on Mangrove Species (2009-2024) Plantation Site Year Status of Mangrove Seedlings Mangrove Army Numbers Quantity of Seedlings Remarks on Estimated Cost Chargheri Village, Gosaba 2009 3,00,000 200 4,30,000 1 tin estimated cost is 20-30 rupees (total 1200-1300 tins utilized) 2010 Protection Period 220 50,000 2011 50 30,000 2012 30,000 2013 20,000 2014 20,000 2015 10,000 2016 10,000 2017 1,00,000 1,75,000 2018 1,00,000 1,80,000 2019 1,00,000 1,60,000 Chargheri Village, Kakmari Village, Kumirmari Village, Sonagaon 2020 42,000 250 70,000 Gorjan-15 Rs. Bain- 10 Rs. Kankra- 15 Rs. Sundari- 15 Rs. Keora- 15 Rs . 2021 60,000 280 90,000 2022 1,70,000 350 2,30,000 2023 50,000 380 1,40,000 Gorjan-20 Rs. Bain- 15 Rs. Kankra- 20 Rs. Sundari- 20 Rs. Keora- 20 Rs 2024 500 Table 8: Status on Mangrove Artificial Restoration Programme at Selected Sites over Indian Part of Sundarbans Nature of Site Chargheri, Bidhan Colony (2019-2023) Kakmari (2020-2023) Sonaga (2020-2023) Kumirmari (2020-2023) Bank Erosive Site 1 Saplings: 4,20,000; Forest Length: 5 km; Forest Width: 200-350 ft. Saplings: 70,000; Forest length: 1 km; Forest Width: 50-80 ft. - - Bank Erosive Site 2 Saplings: 2,00,000; Forest length: 2 Km; Forest Width: 200-350 ft. - Saplings: 30,000; Forest length: ½ Km; Forest width: 40-60 ft. Saplings: 60,000; Forest length: 1 Km; Forest width: 15-20 ft. Entire mangrove restoration programme through artificial regeneration technique so called plantation also boosts up the different genre of livelihoods that can help to generate the sustainability in economic sectors of theses villages under Indian part of Sundarbans. Sectors such as, formation of mangrove army, commonly formed by native women fro the seed collection, seed compilation in poly packets for the plantation at the nursery, small boats for the transportation purpose, large boats utilized for the heavy quantity of mangrove saplings, basic amenities provided for the mangrove army women, van, bike for the local transportation, teacher and associates employed at the non-formal school, formed by Purbasha, Decorators, Sweet shop owners, Book shop owners etc. got utilized for the other amenities provided and needed to motivate and encourage the mangrove army for the execution of mangrove plantation programme ( PEHS, 2024 ). Observation on Natural Mangrove Regeneration Case Study 1: Dorabagda Mangrove Patch, Kaikhali Village, Kultali Block As per investigation of Chatterjee & Bhandari (2024) through field observations by quadrat survey of native mangrove species ( Figure 7 ) and Remote Sensing ad GIS applications, natural regeneration of mangrove species is also possible and been observed from the central part of Indian Sundarbans. Locally named as Dorabagda Mangrove Patch ( Figure 6 ), situated at the upper part of Kaikhali Village, Kultali block is one of the recent spectacular example of naturally grown mangrove patch. Since 2000, this patch is formerly built as the point bar along the River Matla, after while this point bar got stabilized under several hydro-geomorphic conditions, tidal regime conditions etc. After the land stabilization process, this point bar got transformed into accommodation space for the mangrove species propagule, germination was in process then from the extreme southern part of the bar got colonized first with the mangrove species mostly found Bain types ( Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis as the monotypic species) and its friendly mangrove species ( Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Aegiceras corniculatum, Aegialitis rotundifolia, Acanthus ilicifolius ). Aided by plant (mangrove species)-water (tidal regime)-soil (Clayey to silty clayey soil textural groups), this site is totally transformed into fully grown mangrove patch however, this place is not designated as the forest patch under the West Bengal Government. It is also reported that this site is the habitat for intermediate succession, stepping towards the climax vegetation through the transformation of Acanthus ilicifolius (Pioneering species) to Avicennia ( Climax Vegetation ) types. However, for the livelihood and basic amenities purposes, deforestation of hard and tall wood based mangrove trees been in process that might disrupt the continuous procedure of natural mangrove regeneration, hampering the succession process in Dorabagda patch. If the continuous monitoring of this site can be harnessed through handling of several hydro-geomorphological, ecological and environmental indicators, gaining equilibrium between deforestation and regeneration over this newly born site, then this site can be the best example for the experimental study site for the further incorporation of research. If deforestation issues ( Figure 7 ) can be arrested at the disturbed site nearby the newly born Dorabagda mangrove patch, then entire patch would be enlarged with the further colonization of propagules, seed germination and accommodation of climax vegetation ( Avicennia types ), followed by pioneering native mangrove species. Conclusion Surely, it is possible to make a crystal clear closure related to regeneration aspects of mangrove over Indian part of Sundarbans that mangroves, being one of the vibrant estuarine based saltmarsh intruding flora can adapt by its own self through natural growing nature as well as naturally regeneration, if there are certain hydro-geomorphological, tidal regime conditions, balanced salinity gradient, pedological interconnectedness, being in superimposed, coped up at the degraded, destroyed and nearly damaged mangrove patch over the coastal belts of Sundarbans. Natural regeneration can be harnessed if the locals with the help of NGOs and Government officials can look into this matter, engaging researchers and experts from different genre to monitor the ecological, environmental and hydro-geomorphological degraded sites continuously. If there are no more any suitable conditions better adapted for the native species, then the site can be chosen properly by officials as well as the locals just like the NGOs do with their collaboration and monitored the baseline factors with their mortality rate analysis associated with them throughout the temporal scale to check if there is possibility of artificial regeneration technique through plantation of native mangrove species with their associates, mangroves can be colonized with their other associates throughout the time. However, there are some bottlenecks observed throughout this study, to accommodate all these parameters to justify the fact that mangroves can be regenerated as well as restored thoroughly at their already degraded sites. If Policy makers, stakeholders and supreme government officials can intrude in this fact that governance from the very first to execute all the steps with proper guidance and support financially and others to monitor, assess, communicate and engage all the experts from different field and genre to decide which zones or sites from Indian Sundarbans ( Site Selection ) and how these can be restored properly ( Pathways ), so that there would be no loopholes, generated from the very first. Proper framework of executing plan on behalf of this project can be beneficial for the native people for securing their livelihoods, through engaging them to this massive plantation programme if they being guided properly. Prospective study on behalf of regeneration aspects can be fruitful for making the environmental society of Indian Sundarbans better living place for the people and mangroves and other biota of Sundarbans. Declarations Acknowledgement The authors are grateful to the University Grant Commission (UGC) for providing the Fellowship to the First Author as NET JRF. The authors have extended their deep appreciation and indebtedness to Jadavpur University for providing the logistics and infrastructure, along with the supervising expertise. The authors are also indebted to Mangrove Man, Mr. Umashankar Mandal for giving the corresponding author the permission to work and use database of their team and for his remarkable contribution for making mangroves lived and regenerated. Really appreciable and salute to the Purbasha team to their unprecedented activities for the sake of specifically mangroves and its saviors over Indian Sundarbans. Author Contributions Sweta Chatterjee : Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing- Original Draft; Gupinath Bhandari : Supervision, Writing- Reviewing & Editing. Funding This research work is not funded yet. Data Availability The data will be available on request. Conflict of Interest On behalf of all authors, corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Ethics This study involves the analysis of images where potential human faces were detected. However, no personally identifiable information is disclosed, and all images used in the research comply with ethical guidelines for data protection and privacy. Consent to Participate Not Applicable Clinical Trial Number Not Applicable Consent to Publish All individuals whose images are included in this study provided informed consent for their images to be used in research and potential publication. In cases where direct consent was not feasible, all images were either publicly available, anonymized, or used under fair use/data protection regulations, ensuring that no identifiable personal information is disclosed. The authors affirm that publication of the images does not violate any ethical or legal considerations. References Banerjee, S., Ladd, C. J., Chanda, A., Shil, S., Ghosh, T., Large, A., & Balke, T. (2023). Securing the sustainable future of tropical deltas through mangrove restoration: Lessons from the Indian Sundarban. One Earth, 6 (3), 190–194. Bhowmik, A. K., Padmanaban, R., Cabral, P., & Romeiras, M. M. (2022). Global mangrove deforestation and its interacting social-ecological drivers: A systematic review and synthesis. Sustainability, 14 (8), 4433. Bosire, J. O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Kairo, J. G., Wartel, S., Kazungu, J., & Koedam, N. (2006). Success rates of recruited tree species and their contribution to the structural development of reforested mangrove stands. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 325 , 85–91. Bosire, J. O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Walton, M., Crona, B. I., Lewis Iii, R. R., Field, C., … Koedam, N. (2008). Functionality of restored mangroves: a review. Aquatic botany, 89 (2), 251–259. Chowdhury, A., Sanyal, P., & Maiti, S. K. (2016). Dynamics of mangrove diversity influenced by climate change and consequent accelerated sea level rise at Indian Sundarbans. International Journal of Global Warming, 9 (4), 486–506. Directorate of Forest, Government of West Bengal (2020). Greening of Sundarban-Massivemangroveplantation. http://www.environmentwb.gov.in/pdf/Plantation_31122020161729%20Mangrove%20completion%20report.pdf . Ellison, A. M. (2000). Mangrove restoration: do we know enough? Restoration ecology, 8 (3), 219–229. Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Lewis, R.R., (1999). Planting mangroves on intertidal mudflats: habitat restoration or habitat conversion? In: Ecotone, VIIIth Seminar, Enhancing Coastal Ecosystem Restoration for the 21st Century, Ranong and Phuket, May 1999, pp. 1–11 Estoque, R. C., Myint, S. W., Wang, C., Ishtiaque, A., Aung, T. T., Emerton, L., … Fan, C. (2018). Assessing environmental impacts and change in Myanmar's mangrove ecosystem service value due to deforestation (2000–2014). Global change biology, 24 (11), 5391–5410. Fajardo, A., & McIntire, E. J. (2011). Under strong niche overlap conspecifics do not compete but help each other to survive: facilitation at the intraspecific level. Journal of Ecology, 99 (2), 642–650. Field, C. D. (1999). Rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems: an overview. Marine pollution bulletin, 37 (8–12), 383–392. Field, C.D., (1996). Restoration of mangrove ecosystems. International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan, p. 250. Gedan, K. B., & Silliman, B. R. (2009). Using facilitation theory to enhance mangrove restoration. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 38 (2), 109–109. Gerona-Daga, M. E. B., & Salmo III, S. G. (2022). A systematic review of mangrove restoration studies in Southeast Asia: Challenges and opportunities for the United Nation’s Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9 , 987737. Government of West Bengal (2022). Sites specific report on mangrove plantation South 24Parganas: Mangrove Improvement Inspection Report 2020-21 & Mangrove Plantation Inspection Report 2021-22 (Government of West Bengal). Government of West Bengal (2022). Sites specific report on mangrove plantation South 24 Parganas: Mangrove Improvement Inspection Report 2020-21 & Mangrove Plantation Inspection Report 2021-22 (Government of West Bengal) Hamdan, O., Aziz, H. K., & Hasmadi, I. M. (2014). L-band ALOS PALSAR for biomass estimation of Matang Mangroves, Malaysia. Remote Sensing of Environment, 155 , 69–78. Hazra, S., Ghosh, T., Dasgupta, R. and Sen, G. (2002) ‘Sea level and associated changes in the Sundarbans’, Science and Culture , Vol. 68, Nos. 9–12, pp.309–321. Hong, P. (2001). Reforestation of mangroves after severe impacts of herbicides during the Vietnam war: The case of can gio. Unasylva. 52 (207), 57–60. Available at: https://www.fao.org/3/y2795e/y2795e11.htm . Huxham, M., Kumara, M. P., Jayatissa, L. P., Krauss, K. W., Kairo, J., Langat, J., … Kirui, B. (2010). Intra-and interspecific facilitation in mangroves may increase resilience to climate change threats. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365 (1549), 2127–2135. Ilman, M., Wibisono, I. T. C., and Suryadiputra, I. N. N. (2011). State of the art information on mangrove ecosystems in Indonesia (Bogor, Indonesia: Wetlands International- Indonesia Programme). Available at: https:/indonesia.wetlands.org/ publications/state-of-the-art-information-on-mangrove-ecosystems-in-indonesia/ Kairo, J. G. (1995). Artificial regeneration and sustainable yield management of mangrove forests at Gazi Bay, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). Kairo, J. G., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Bosire, J., & Koedam, N. (2001). Restoration and management of mangrove systems—a lesson for and from the East African region. South African Journal of Botany, 67 (3), 383–389. Kathiresan, K., & Bingham, B. L. (2001). Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Lee, S. Y. (1998). Ecological role of grapsid crabs in mangrove ecosystems: a review. Marine and freshwater research, 49 (4), 335–343. Lewis III, R. R. (1981). Mangrove Restoration. In Proceedings, US Fish and Wildlife Service Workshop on Coastal Ecosystems of the Southeastern United States: A Compilation of Seminars, Discussions, Papers and Biological Summaries Presented at Big Pine Key, Florida 18–22 February 1980 (p. 88). The Project. Long, J., Napton, D., Giri, C., & Graesser, J. (2014). A mapping and monitoring assessment of the Philippines' mangrove forests from 1990 to 2010. Journal of Coastal Research, 30 (2), 260–271. Luo, J., Sun, Z., Lu, L., Xiong, Z., Cui, L., & Mao, Z. (2022). Rapid expansion of coastal aquaculture ponds in Southeast Asia: Patterns, drivers and impacts. Journal of Environmental Management, 315 , 115100. Macintosh, D. J., Ashton, E. C., & Havanon, S. (2002). Mangrove rehabilitation and intertidal biodiversity: a study in the Ranong mangrove ecosystem, Thailand. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 55 (3), 331–345. McIntire, E. J., & Fajardo, A. (2014). Facilitation as a ubiquitous driver of biodiversity. New phytologist, 201 (2), 403–416. Mishra, M., Acharyya, T., Santos, C. A. G., da Silva, R. M., Kar, D., Kamal, A. H. M., & Raulo, S. (2021). Geo-ecological impact assessment of severe cyclonic storm Amphan on Sundarban mangrove forest using geospatial technology. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 260 , 107486. Mitra, A. (2019). Mangrove Forests in India: Exploring Ecosystem Services . Springer. Mitra, A., Banerjee, K., & Bhattacharyya, D. P. (2004). The other face of mangroves . Kolkata: Department of Environment, Government of West Bengal. Moorthy, P. (1995). Effects of UV-B radiation on mangrove environment: Physiological responses of Rhizophora apiculata Blume (Doctoral dissertation, Ph. D. thesis, Annamalai University, India). Morrison, D. (1990). Landscape restoration in response to previous disturbance. In Landscape heterogeneity and disturbance (pp. 159–172). New York, NY: Springer New York. Nguyen, A. T., Nguyen, X. H., Pham, D. H., & Nguyen, S. T. (2008). Landscape ecological planning based on change analysis: A case study of mangrove restoration in Phu Long-Gia Luan area, Cat Ba Archipelago. VNU Journal of Science: Earth and Environmental Sciences, 24 (3). Ong, J. E. (1982). Mangroves and aquaculture in Malaysia. Primavera, J. H. (1995). Mangroves and brackishwater pond culture in the Philippines. In Asia-Pacific Symposium on Mangrove Ecosystems: Proceedings of the International Conference held at The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, September 1–3, 1993 (pp. 303–309). Springer Netherlands. Richards, D. R., & Friess, D. A. (2016). Rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia, 2000–2012. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 113 (2), 344–349. Saenger, P., (2002). Mangrove Ecology Silviculture and Conservation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Sen, S., Mukherjee, S., Chaudhuri, A., & Homechaudhuri, S. (2014). Temporal changes in brachyuran crab diversity along heterogeneous habitat in a mangrove ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans. Scientia Marina, 78 (3), 433–442. Smith III, T. J., Boto, K. G., Frusher, S. D., & Giddins, R. L. (1991). Keystone species and mangrove forest dynamics: the influence of burrowing by crabs on soil nutrient status and forest productivity. Estuarine, coastal and shelf science, 33 (5), 419–432. Smith, T., Robblee, M.B., Wanless, H.R. and Doyle, T.W. (1994) ‘Mangroves, hurricanes, and lightning strikes’, BioScience , Vol. 44, pp.256–262. Spalding, M. D., and Leal, M. (2021) The state of the world’s mangroves (Global Mangrove Alliance). Available at: https://www.mangrovealliance.org/mangroveforests/ (Accessed November 8, 2021) Spalding, M., Kainuma, M., and Collins, L. (2010). World atlas of mangroves (London: Earthscan). doi: 10.4324/9781849776608 . Stevenson, N.J., Lewis, R.R., Burbridge, P.R., (1999). Disused shrimp ponds and mangrove rehabilitation. In: Streever, W.J. (Ed.), An International Perspective on Wetland Rehabilitation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp. 277–297. Suman, D. O. (2019). Mangrove management: challenges and guidelines. In Coastal wetlands (pp. 1055–1079). Elsevier. Thakur, S., Maity, D., Mondal, I., Basumatary, G., Ghosh, P. B., Das, P., & De, T. K. (2021). Assessment of changes in land use, land cover, and land surface temperature in the mangrove forest of Sundarbans, northeast coast of India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23 , 1917–1943. Twilley, R. R., Rivera-Monroy, V. H., Chen, R., & Botero, L. (1999). Adapting an ecological mangrove model to simulate trajectories in restoration ecology. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 37 (8–12), 404–419. Walsh, G., Snedaker, S., Teas, H. (Eds.), 1975. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Biology and Management of Mangroves, vols. 1 and 2. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Florida, p. 846. Walters, B. B. (2003). People and mangroves in the Philippines: fifty years of coastal environmental change. Environmental conservation, 30 (3), 293–303. Plates Plates 1 to 3 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Plate13.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 07 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 03 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 02 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 01 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 28 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Mar, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 19 Mar, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 14 Mar, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 14 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Feb, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6112336","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":434275351,"identity":"6939161c-7d0c-40b0-8095-21048ff6e8bb","order_by":0,"name":"Sweta Chatterjee","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Jadavpur University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sweta","middleName":"","lastName":"Chatterjee","suffix":""},{"id":434275352,"identity":"87848c92-8c8c-44df-8282-0f1ef769540c","order_by":1,"name":"Dr. Gupinath Bhandari","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Jadavpur University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Gupinath","middleName":"","lastName":"Bhandari","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-02-26 10:38:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6112336/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6112336/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79574572,"identity":"f8681420-8391-42d5-851e-7c912b57f451","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:10:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63316,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConceptual Framework on Mangrove Restoration (Source: Modified after \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBosire et al., 2008; Nguyen et al., 2008; Stevenson et al., 1999\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/66928a69748d73c0b0007acd.jpg"},{"id":79577646,"identity":"5c048364-c091-4629-86ec-1c23f7bc64f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:26:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90303,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlowchart assembled to focus the possible techniques on Mangrove Regeneration highlighting the potential steps to be considered for the same\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/c7c52bf2e5ec6b6a8bedfd18.jpg"},{"id":79576078,"identity":"d4820ed4-b828-49dd-8671-9175634bd1a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:18:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":198127,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eArea Coverage under Mangrove Plantation Program Over Indian Part of Sundarbans\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/2404bae8119ad42d0065b3f0.jpg"},{"id":79574580,"identity":"413955d0-ceac-42d5-b4e7-cd0d1b59c4ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:10:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":134904,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies wise Plantation Distribution at Indian Sundarbans\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/2343861a7b4699f42addcfba.jpg"},{"id":79574579,"identity":"e0c0be11-531b-4c85-bd08-552ee965a699","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:10:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101925,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Number of Seedlings Planted across South 24 Parganas District and Sundarbans Tiger Reserve\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/1f675512e0b36b4119897f26.jpg"},{"id":79574574,"identity":"645aa135-ddce-492d-9afb-4f59a6ca344c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:10:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":345107,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation Map of Dorabagda Mangrove Patch, along the River Matla at the Upper Part of Kaikhali Village, Central Part of Indian Sundarbans\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/2f4a1575dc916706fb5e4637.jpg"},{"id":79574581,"identity":"9cdb3369-910a-47b3-a6f4-df37aac05fdc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:10:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":321015,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eField Observations through Quadrat Survey at Dorabagda Mangrove Patch, Upper Part of Kaikhali Village, Kultali Block, Central Part of Indian Sundarbans (Source: Modified after \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChatterjee \u0026amp; Bhandari, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/08493cf927fd91bc0348dbfa.jpg"},{"id":79578446,"identity":"90b381b2-0191-4e86-babf-18168d0d3097","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:34:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3624553,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/6cc89c7f-3c3a-4333-8097-d119c74499ad.pdf"},{"id":79574573,"identity":"740f0211-8d14-4224-8b12-c4d3195c4497","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 11:10:45","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":265783,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Plate13.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6112336/v1/febe0a2008b093c745eb7f33.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"A Prospective Evaluation on Regeneration of Mangroves over Indian Part of Sundarbans","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLewis (1981)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003edemonstrated that mangroves have the ability of restoration by own self if three steps are considered where first step obliges that the potential environmental stresses has to be determined previously which might disrupt the natural regeneration also possess the probability of natural recovery status of mangroves. Second step is to determine the probability of natural regeneration like natural seedling or propagules recruitment followed by the third step that determines to consider the artificial techniques if there is no way for natural regeneration. According to \u003cstrong\u003eChowdhury et al., (2016)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e,\u003c/em\u003e halophytes of Sundarbans are adapted by the balance of saltwater and fresh water and so any changes in this balance can affect the fragile ecosystems of Sundarbans as well as the structure of mangroves. \u003cstrong\u003eHazra et al., (2002)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ealso argues that mangroves are facing the risk from climate change and specifically global warming, sea level rise. \u003cstrong\u003eSmith et al., (1994)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003estated that mangrove has the restoring capability to cope up the natural calamities but Mangals have also threshold level to any environmental changes triggered by either naturally or anthropologically. \u003cstrong\u003eMitra (2019); Mitra et al., (2004)\u003c/strong\u003e asserted that researchers mostly emphasized four ecosystem services provided by mangroves like \u003cem\u003enursery services by mangroves, provisional services by mangroves for the dwellers and people of coastal regions, shoreline stabilization, and coastal erosion protection\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003ecarbon sequestration and carbon storage pool\u003c/em\u003e over the past decades. But recently, signs of progress are on the way for prospecting of the importance of mangrove-based microbes, mangrove actinomycetes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRestoration is nothing but an ecological concept (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 1\u003c/strong\u003e) which is defined as the returning of something\u0026rsquo;s previous or initial state with the proper and similar effectiveness. Restoration of mangroves is now very important applied tool to protect and conserve as mangroves have been degrading worldwide by some predictable natural factors and artificial or anthropogenic factors. \u0026nbsp;Many researchers have already defined the restoration or regeneration concept in terms of ecology. \u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eMorrison (1990); Moorthy (1995)\u003c/strong\u003e defined the restoration or regeneration as the rejuvenation of native species or the community groupings like species in their native places providing aesthetic values and dynamic characteristics. \u003cstrong\u003eField (1999)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003edifferentiated between Rehabilitation and Restoration where he denoted \u003cem\u003eRehabilitation\u003c/em\u003e as the partial and full replacement of species from their native places and \u003cem\u003eRestoration\u003c/em\u003e as the process of bringing back of native degraded and in the way of extinct species to their initial condition. It also provides the opportunities to enhance and improve the environmental quality and sustainability (\u003cstrong\u003eKairo et al., 2001\u003c/strong\u003e). Restoration or regeneration process is of two kinds; \u003cem\u003enatural\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eartificial\u003c/em\u003e restoration processes though combination of natural and artificial regeneration is also in practice (\u003cstrong\u003eDirectorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e Natural regeneration or rejuvenation is largely depended on the occurring of the mangrove propagules being the source of natural regeneration and the composition and distribution of the regenerated species are depended on the mixing of the native species. Natural regeneration or restoration process also demonstrates the self-planting or stranding strategies that are largely depended on the natural phenomenon like soil conditions, tidal influence and site or forest conditions (\u003cstrong\u003eKairo et al., 2001\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e Restoration of mangroves is attributed by some strong arguments based on the ecological goods and services of mangroves (\u003cstrong\u003eKathiresan \u0026amp; Bingham, 2001\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003cem\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ehigh ecological values and the restoration techniques (\u003cstrong\u003eMacintosh et al., 2002\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs per \u003cstrong\u003eNguyen et al., (2008)\u003c/strong\u003e, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eRestoration\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; term is meant by nothing but the process of returning a system to its pre-existing conditions, specifically following the basic principles of secondary ecological succession for the mangrove species in their own habitats. Secondary ecological succession depends upon the propagule availability and relevant hydro-geomorphological conditions, however, the availability of mangrove propagule can be limited to some harsh ecological situations such as due to the removal of mangroves in their own habitats in a degraded site. According to \u003cem\u003eSociety for Ecological Restoration (SER, 2002)\u003c/em\u003e, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eEcological Restoration\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; is the process of assisting any ecosystem that has already been degraded, damaged or destroyed due to unpredictable natural as well as anthropogenic conditions and as per \u003cstrong\u003eTwilley et al., (1999)\u003c/strong\u003e, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ethe goal of this process is to emulate the structure, functioning, diversity and dynamics of the specified ecosystem using reference ecosystems as models\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;. \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 1\u003c/strong\u003e demonstrates the ten step based conceptual framework on restoration principles that can be followed for the purpose of successful active regeneration process, applicable for any mangrove sites, depending upon several ecological conditions. \u003cem\u003eStep 1\u003c/em\u003e is the understanding of the community ecology of mangrove of the specific site, \u003cem\u003estep 2\u003c/em\u003e is to monitor the baseline environmental conditions, followed by the better understanding of ecological succession of mangrove ecosystem as \u003cem\u003estep 3\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003estep 4\u003c/em\u003e collides with the utilization of GIS and Remote Sensing applications for the temporal dynamics of the study area, next comes the planning of landscape ecology as the \u003cem\u003estep 5\u003c/em\u003e that can boost the priority purpose of restoration program, cost benefit analysis is one of the important steps as \u003cem\u003estep 6\u003c/em\u003e that can be stepping stone for the further monitoring and assessing if the restored site as per necessary attributes. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to \u003cstrong\u003eSen et al., (2014)\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNatural Regeneration\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e) process of mangroves in Sundarbans also depends on the diversity and functioning role of Brachyuran crabs being the macro invertebrates making up of 80% of total biomass (\u003cstrong\u003eHamdan et al., 2014\u003c/strong\u003e). These high diversified crabs being the keystone species along with their ecological roles can attain ecological functioning of the mangrove ecosystem through litter turnover (\u003cstrong\u003eLee, 1998\u003c/strong\u003e) and bioturbation process (\u003cstrong\u003eSmith et al., 1991\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e Natural regeneration is nothing but the rejuvenation of crops by sown seeds and coppice in which the sexual method of regeneration is called as the \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;seedling crop\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewhere the new plants are characterized by the both parent trees. The asexual method of natural regeneration attributes the characteristics of only the parent tree only exhibiting in the new born plant. \u003cem\u003eSeed production, seed dissemination, seed germination and establishment\u003c/em\u003e are the four processes of natural regeneration (\u003cstrong\u003eDirectorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003cem\u003e. Seed production\u003c/em\u003e is the foremost prerequisite for the natural regeneration where fertile seeds are adequately needed from the parent forest or the neighbor location based on the species structure, age of the tree, soil conditions and climatic factors. \u003cem\u003eSeed dissemination\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eis defined as the spreading or dispersal of seeds by some agents like wind, water, gravity, animals. \u003cem\u003eSeed germination\u003c/em\u003e is nothing but the growing from a similar seed under the influence of some internal and external factors. \u003cem\u003eSeed establishment\u003c/em\u003e is defined as the development of new crop under the numerous factors like soil conditions, climatic conditions, root conditions and light conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArtificial regeneration\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e) includes the renewal of forests by sowing, planting and other hand-planting methods. This regeneration process is evaluated for two main objectives like reforestation and afforestation approaches (\u003cstrong\u003eDirectorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e It evaluates the hand planting of mangroves propagules at the desired and selected locations of the intertidal locations by implementing different governmental and non- governmental programmes where the natural regeneration process is not possible. This process identifies the transplantation of mangroves saplings from the native area to the new location by aerial technology without removing the mangrove saplings from the initial area \u003cstrong\u003e(Kairo, 1995\u003c/strong\u003e). According to \u003cstrong\u003eHuxham et al., (2010)\u003c/strong\u003e, afforestation and reforestation techniques with the special reference to terrestrial plantation strategy trigger the artificial regeneration process of mangroves instead of natural restoration of plants. \u003cstrong\u003eGedan \u0026amp; Silliman (2009); Gerona-Daga \u0026amp; Salmo (2022)\u003c/strong\u003e led to a paradigm shift from the conventional terrestrial plantation method to the modern restoration technology that is adapted to the mangrove dynamics where they elaborated that environmental stress factors influence tree growth more than other limited resources. \u003cstrong\u003eFajardo \u0026amp; Mclntire (2011); McIntire \u0026amp; Fajardo (2014)\u003c/strong\u003e emphasized on the tree interactions as this can be successful restoration technique for crossing the environmental stress level for the certain mangrove ecosystem. \u003cstrong\u003eBanerjee et al., (2023).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eScientific concern regarding the loss of mangrove ecosystems around the world tends to be focused in the end of 20\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e century (\u003cstrong\u003eWalsh et al., 1975\u003c/strong\u003e). International initiative and potential efforts have already increased the appreciations of several mangrove regeneration projects around the world (\u003cstrong\u003eKairo et al., 2001; Field,\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e1996\u003c/strong\u003e). The rationale behind the restoration aspects of mangrove ecosystems has altered and dynamically changed over the time scale from just silviculture practices to diverse attributes of mangroves such as timber production, fuel wood collection, fisheries productivity coastal protection against storm surge (\u003cstrong\u003eOng, 1982; Field, 1996;\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSaenger, 2002\u003c/strong\u003e). Previous attempts related to mangrove restoration projects got mixed results like, some being successful, some got near successful and some being doomed from the start (\u003cstrong\u003eField, 1996;\u0026nbsp;Erftemeijer \u0026amp; Lewis, 1999\u003c/strong\u003e) due to not so well understood ecological conditions of the native mangrove species. Primitive examined goal of mangrove restoration projects was to practice silviculture reviewed after \u003cstrong\u003eEllison (2000)\u003c/strong\u003e, addressed as the primary objective of mangrove regeneration aspects where few native species were involved for the practice as well. Mangrove ecosystems can be restored with respect to some functionality indicators such as structure and pattern of vegetation, natural processes of regeneration, nutrient recycling, adaptability, productivity and socio economic valuation with respect to livelihoods. It can be reviewed that functionality of restored mangroves can be optimized for the beneficial to process nutrients and organic matter, sediment trapping system, food and habitat security for the animal community, livelihood security (\u003cstrong\u003eBosire et al., 2008\u003c/strong\u003e). \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Observations from Indian Sundarbans Plantation Program (Modified after \u003cem\u003eBanerjee et al., 2023\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"width:514.1pt;border-collapse:collapse;margin-left:6.75pt;margin-right: 6.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 2.95pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eBottlenecks\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-left: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 2.95pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eSolutions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-left: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 2.95pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eObservations from Indian Sundarbans\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eWrong Species Selection for Selected Site\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eTrait analysis on hydro-geomorphological aspects to correlate with the species requirement as well as selected site for plantation\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: red;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ePrior hydrodynamic monitoring was not done at the best level for the mangrove plantation program at the selected sites\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eImproper Site Selection\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eInvolvement of \u0026nbsp;Academic Experts for the fundamental aspects of site selection\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: rgb(255, 192, 0);padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eAcademic experts were informed at later stage for the sharing of progress but it should have been informed at the prior level the plantation program\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eArtificial Restoration often leads to reduction of species diversity\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ePromotion of Intrinsic species diversity based afforestation instead of mono specific afforestation\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: rgb(146, 208, 80);padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eOne new genus got introduced at 47% of sites, two new genera at 22% \u0026amp; three new at 30%\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eSurvival of planted seedlings\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ePlantation of seedlings and saplings directly on mudflats of sites instead of transplantation at nurseries\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: rgb(146, 208, 80);padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e30 nurseries of 1974 ha were operational, where seedlings were compacted using plastic bags before planting in the selected sites\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ePlantation targets with achievements\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eMinimum of 10 years of survival of mangrove saplings is required for successful restoration outcome\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: red;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eSurvival rate (77%) was higher than the global average but the report was produced only after 4-7 months of program; quite a short time\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLack of Local Communities Involvement\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eSureness of an equitable approach among the local communities\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: rgb(255, 192, 0);padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eEspecially women were involved but there remains the traits of top down approaches\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eFailure of projects due to lack of political will\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eA strong political intent is needed to execute the administrative authorizations\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: rgb(146, 208, 80);padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eChief Minister urged the Department of Forest for planting of 50 million mangroves\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115.2pt;border-right: 1pt solid black;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-left: 1pt solid black;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLack of Funding\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 178.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eResource management should encompass the plantation period and a 10 year period for long term success\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid black;background: rgb(255, 192, 0);padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;height: 4.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height: normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eFunds covered by National Govt. Scheme for the daily wages for people involved but, a lack of agreement between national and state govt. has led to non-payment of wages\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs per review of \u003cstrong\u003eSpalding et al., (2010); Gerona-Daga et al., (2022)\u003c/strong\u003e, Southeast Asia holds for the World\u0026rsquo;s largest (32.2%; 43,767 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) and most diverse by species distribution (\u0026gt;50 species). However, these countries also face extensive mangrove loss (\u003cstrong\u003eBhowmik et al., 2022;\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSpalding \u0026amp; Leaf, (2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eIn the context of Southeast Asian countries, mangrove loss varies regionally specifically for rapid expansion of aquaculture ponds for fish and shrimp culture in Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar (\u003cstrong\u003eLuo et al., 2022\u003c/strong\u003e); fish culture in Philippines (\u003cstrong\u003ePrimavera, 1995\u003c/strong\u003e); rice production in Myanmar and oil palm expansion in Malaysia and Indonesia (\u003cstrong\u003eRichards \u0026amp; Friess, 2016\u003c/strong\u003e). As per \u003cstrong\u003eEstoque et al., (2018),\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMyanmar is the\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ecountry of primary mangrove loss hotspot with 27.9% mangrove loss between 2000 and 2014 and Philippines is the second country of loss about 10.5% from 1990 to 2010 (\u003cstrong\u003eLong et al., 2014\u003c/strong\u003e). In the contrary, these countries have been also implementing mangrove regeneration as well as restoration and its management for decades. According to \u003cstrong\u003eHamdan e al., (2014),\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMatang mangrove Forest in Peninsular Malaysia was transformed as a permanent reserve forest in 1906 whereas, mangrove plantation was active during 1930s in Philippines for the construction of posts for fish weirs and fuel (\u003cstrong\u003eWalters, 2003\u003c/strong\u003e); mangrove rehabilitation program was initiated in 1930s for the timber production (\u003cstrong\u003eIlman et al., 2011\u003c/strong\u003e); direct planting of \u003cem\u003eRhizophora apiculata\u003c/em\u003e was practiced amidst the was in 1978 over the affected areas by herbicide Agent Orange in Vietnam (\u003cstrong\u003eHong, 2001\u003c/strong\u003e). Focusing on these retrospective studies on restoration programs over these countries, it can be observed that early rehabilitation programs were only centralized for the short term economic gains through fuel and timber productions derived from the plantation (\u003cstrong\u003eSuman, 2019\u003c/strong\u003e). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObservation on Mangrove Regeneration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Indian Sundarbans also lost its mangrove diversity around of 374 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e areal coverage between 2000 to 2017 (\u003cstrong\u003eThakur et al., 2021; Banerjee et al., 2023\u003c/strong\u003e) and aftermath of Amphan cyclone also induced the further diversity loss around 43% (\u003cstrong\u003eMishra et al., 2021\u003c/strong\u003e). After the great loss, West Bengal government announced a plantation program through restoration of 50 million trees plantation, started from July, 2020. This program initiated by the State Department of Forests, funded by State Government of West Bengal under the scheme of national government welfare named as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: MGNREGS) as the primitive most plantation program over Indian part of Sundarbans, securing livelihoods of the people over there too. As the result, 123.77 million mangroves were already planted over different parts of Indian Sundarbans instead of having planted 50 million saplings over there. This large scale mangrove restoration program can be useful for adaptation of ecosystem specifically native species adaptation, community participation and livelihood securities, good governance and remedial measures against degeneration of mangroves, better policy governance with respect to scientific investigation, but arguments can also be associated with some bottlenecks and its concurrent solutions (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e). Situational bottlenecks such as, wrong species selection, monotypic species selection and plantation, improper site selection and wrong planting techniques application, invasive species selection and further plantation among the native species, germination problems of sowing seeds over mudflats can be considered as the barrier for the restoration program over Indian part of Sundarbans (\u003cstrong\u003eBosire et al., 2006; Banerjee et al., 2023\u003c/strong\u003e). \u0026nbsp;These cumulative effect of bottlenecks can lead to the complications regarding the ecosystem services provided by the mangroves, ecosystem functionality, survival rate of newly planted species (\u003cstrong\u003eBosire et al., 2006\u003c/strong\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeeper investigation on bottlenecks related to artificial regeneration (Plantation) program over the Indian Sundarbans can optimize several harsh situations for the mangrove diversity such as, usage of plastic bags to carry the saplings for the growth of seeds in nurseries so that it can stabilize the soil against erosion, issues regarding the plantation directly on mudflats instead of growing saplings at nurseries, more plantation of saplings along the salt marsh vegetation. Reported that, already two-thirds of plantation of mangrove saplings were associated with salt marsh vegetation i.e. \u003cem\u003ePoteresia coarctata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSuaeda maritima\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cstrong\u003eBanerjee et al., 2023\u003c/strong\u003e). 47% of sites over Sundarbans belonged to one new true mangrove species along with two general in 22% and three in 30% of sites. Reported by \u003cstrong\u003eGovernment of West Bengal (2022)\u003c/strong\u003e, this program covered approximately 4579 ha areal coverage, out of which 217 sites of 11 CD blocks covered around 4219 ha of area in Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (SBR). However, the impressive survival rate (77% after monitoring of 4-7 months) from the above restoration experiment had been assessed for the short time span that was against the standard long term level of survival rate analysis. Environmental as well as ecological conditions got also lack of sincere attention and for that some planted saplings could survive only for a year or some more failing to grow as a mature tree. In other dimension, protection through fences, nets to restrict grazing and damages by wildlife, tourism activities could be the effective one to protect the newly artificially regenerated sites however, it can adversely affect the livelihoods of native as they could not access the restricted zones, tourism activities where tourists cannot access the wild life areas. At the end, key lesson is to monitor, assess, symbolize, gain knowledge on persistency, functioning of entire mangrove ecosystem for foundation on long term artificial plantation program along with species long term survival optimization.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eArtificial Regeneration (Mangrove Plantation) Programs by NGOs\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCase Study 1: Nature Environment and Wildlife Society\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;(NEWS)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the span 2017-2020, project named \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Restoration of Mangroves in Sundarbans through Afforestation, Integrated Mangrove-Shrimp Farming, Income Generation and Community Participation\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewas initiated by \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Nature Environment and Wildlife Society\u0026rsquo; (NEWS)\u003c/em\u003e, conservation based NGO. Its objective was to stabilize the mangrove ecosystems efficiently through opening up the livelihood options and strategies for the local coastal population through the afforestation program (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e). Two sites e.g. \u003cem\u003eBuraburir Tot, Gobardhanpur Village, G.P. G-Plot, Block Patharpratima, District- South 24 Parganas\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eLakshmipur intertidal mangrove habitat\u003c/em\u003e, G.P Madhusudanpur, Block Kakdwip over Indian Sundarbans were selected for the afforestation program by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Govt. of India. The former site was sub divided into two subsites e.g. \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Buraburir Tot\u0026rsquo; (towards the sand dune) \u0026amp; \u0026lsquo;Gobardhanpur\u0026rsquo; (towards the village)\u003c/em\u003e with two different nurseries. The latter one followed up with only one nursery.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Buraburir Tot\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis plantation site is associated with the tidal waves and sand dunes that act as the natural barrier where the first survey was initiated in March, 2018. As the baseline report during 2017 plantation, it can be said that earlier 10-hectare area out of 56 ha of the total proposed area was planted by 20 sacks of seeds of 7000 seeds per sack of \u003cem\u003eAvicennia alba Blume (Kalo Bain)\u003c/em\u003e along with the \u003cem\u003eAvicennia marina (Peyara Bain).\u003c/em\u003e Naturally regenerated saplings of Aegialitis rotundifolia (Tora), Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Sonneratia alba (Ora) and Sonneratia caseolaris were also observed at the plantation site. Saplings of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Kankra) was found that was planted by forest department. This afforestation program was also collaborated by the women group named \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Srijoni Mohila Badabon Committee\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e with 12-15 active female members to monitor the survival rate, growth study and investigation related to causes of mortality etc. Mangrove associates were also found over the sand dune as the good sand binders and this observation will help to augment the proper situation for the whole plantation program. During the nursery visit for 2018 plantation, the area was extended to 18.3 ha where a total of 25,000 saplings were planted for nursery preparation. The germination took place around within 10 days and then that were transferred to small jute bags by the group members. Jute bags and soil preparation for the plantation program were done by the local community. Regularly seedlings activity was carefully monitored by the women members and waters regularly. Monitored seedlings were then transferred to the edges of the mangrove swamps for attaining the average height of 2-3 inches (after 1 month). The seedlings got submerged during the high tide that made them capable of salt tolerant for natural adaptation. Finally, that adapted saplings with height approximately of 1 ft. were selected and eligible for the final plantation. From the chosen seedlings, a valid and large number of \u003cem\u003ePeyara Bain\u003c/em\u003e was planted along with the \u003cem\u003eKalo Bain, Tora, Kankra, Goran, Moth Goran and Garjan\u003c/em\u003e. Monitoring report of 2017 plantation offers that along with the existing two spots two other new spots were also considered for the plantation where propagules of 14 different species of mangrove and mangrove associates were recorded (\u003cem\u003eKhalsi, Kalo Bain, Peyara Bain, Jat Bain, Bakul Kankra, Kankra, Nata karanham Jele Goran/ Goran, Math Goran, Nayalata, Sundari, Keora, Dhudhul\u003c/em\u003e). The third survey was initiated by the BSI team in January, 2019 where total plantation area extended to 29 ha. The evaluation on the plantation survey of mangrove plantation was done by NEWS and 11 new spots with 2 permanent spots (\u003cem\u003eSpot A \u0026amp; B\u003c/em\u003e) were launched.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2: Site wise Species Distribution for Plantation Program\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpot\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHeight (cm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRemarks\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (new); Avicennia marina (new)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81; 8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20-30 cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4;8), (3;3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(120cms; 100 cms) ,(30 cms; 20 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (new)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36; (3,20) ;2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(20-40cms), (100cms; 40-60cms), (10 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural); Sonneratia alba (natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3,2); (10,25); 30;5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(100-120cms; 20-35cms), (100-180cms; 30-50cms), (20-40cms), 160 cms\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants); naturally occurred plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural); Sonneratia apetala (natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4,1); (30,6); 1; 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(130-150cms; 30 cms), (120-150 cms; 30-60 cms), (20cms), (10-20cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2, 3); (28, 9); 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(110-130 cms; 20-30 cms), (130-160 cms; 30-60 cms); (10 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new); Avicennia officinalis (natural); Sonneratia apetala (natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3, 15); (29,5); 1; 30; 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(90-110cms; 20-30 cms), (70-110 cms; 50-60 cms), (40 cms), (10-30 cms), (80 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing (no nursery plants); naturally occurred plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia marina (old/new); Aegialitis rotundifolia (natural); Aegiceras corniculatum (natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2, 5 nursery plants \u0026amp; 10 directly from seeds; total new 15); (3); (1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(70-110 cms; 30-50 cms), (10-20 cms), (10 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing \u0026amp; nursery plants; naturally occurred plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (natural); Avicennia marina (old/new); Avicennia officinalis (natural); Aegiceras corniculatum (natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(5); (3, 6 nursery plants \u0026amp; 29 directly from seeds; total 35); (1); (1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(20 cms); (110-130 cms, 30-50 cms); (40 cms); (10 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through direct seed sowing \u0026amp; nursery plants; naturally occurred plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia marina (old/new/natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1; 9;7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(100 cms; 40-48 cms; 20 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through nursery plants \u0026amp; naturally occurred plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpot 11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia marina (old/new/natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1; 7 as nursery plants;18 as directly from seeds; 7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(70 cms; 20-30 cms; 20-30 cms; 20-30 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through nursery plants \u0026amp; naturally occurred plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpot A (Permanent Spot)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (old/new); Avicennia marina (old/new)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2; 3 as directly from seeds); (29; 5 as nursery plants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(110-130 cms; 25-30 cms), (120-140 cms, 30-45 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew plants planted through nursery plants \u0026amp; directly from seeds\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpot B (Permanent Spot)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvicennia alba (old/natural); Avicennia marina (old/natural)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1; 1), (6; 3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(90-110 cms; 15 cms); (70-110 cms; 20-30 cms)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNaturally occurred with existing species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;It can be concluded that \u003cem\u003eAvicennia marina\u003c/em\u003e was the most dominant as well as grown species over the plantation zone. Comparative study of planted species in 2017 (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e) and its survival rates are followed in a table:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3: Tabulation on Comparative Study on Planted Mangrove Species\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpot\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSurvey Time\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSurvival Rate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpot A\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvicennia alba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarch, 2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJanuary, 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e42.8 %\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo. of plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpot B\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvicennia alba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarch, 2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJanuary, 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e50 %\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo. of plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fourth survey was conducted in August, 2019 to evaluate the total restoration sites till the date for providing the midterm evaluation report. Out of 56 ha of the total proposed area, 29 ha was found as the suitable and stabilized for mangrove plantation. 10 ha area was planted in 2017, 18.3 ha area was carried out in 2018 and 29 ha area was extended by the end of 2019. During the year 2020-21, Government of West Bengal initiated Greening of Sundarbans Project where, Plantation of 5 crore Mangrove plants were done over 2500 ha area of non-forest as well as forest land under \u003cem\u003eMGNREGA\u003c/em\u003e scheme. Total area coverage by Mangrove Plantations during the stipulated period covers 2000 ha for \u003cem\u003e24 Parganas (South) division\u003c/em\u003e and 500 ha for \u003cem\u003eSundarban Tiger Reserve (STR).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTotal 2000 ha area comes under South 24 Parganas comprising of 1452 non forest area and 548 ha forest area whereas, total 500 ha comes under STR comprising 273 ha non forest and 227 ha forest area (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4, Figure 3\u003c/strong\u003e). The primary aims of this project are to protect the Sundarbans from the natural disasters; set livelihood options for the people; create bio-shield for the coast; build women empowerment over Sundarbans. Mangrove plantation has been done as per the species suitability according to the basic soil types over Indian Sundarbans (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 4\u003c/strong\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvicennia\u003c/em\u003e species has been selected for the \u003cem\u003esandy clay loamy soil\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFor \u003cem\u003ehard soil Bruguiera\u003c/em\u003e species has been selected,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizophora \u0026amp; Sonneratia\u003c/em\u003e species have been selected for the \u003cem\u003etransition zone\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4: Division wise Planted Seedlings Distribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"529\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDivision\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eArea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeedlings/ha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal No. of Seedlings planted\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth 24 Parganas\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2000 ha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,00,00,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSundarban Tiger Reserve\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500 ha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,00,00,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Seedlings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2500 ha\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5,00,00,000\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCase Study 2: Purbasha Eco-Helpline Society (Mangrove Man\u0026rsquo;s Initiative)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePurbasha Eco-Helpline Society being a NGO, established in 2009 have been working with academicians, local community, students, NGOs and environmentally concerned people to provide community based solutions for climate change, disaster risk reduction and moreover environmental sustainability (\u003cstrong\u003ePEHS, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e).\u0026nbsp;Umashankar Mandal named after \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eMangrove Man\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; for the 12-year continuous tree plantation programme at Chargheri village near Gosaba where he started this drive after the devastation occurred due to Cyclone Aila in 2009. They have planted more than 6.5 lakh sapling with the help of more about 135 associates on the embankments of the rivers of two vulnerable islands, Gosaba and Satjelia. They have considered mangroves as the \u0026ldquo;Shield\u0026rdquo; for the sake of their lives and already been proved as the biological fence against Cyclone Amphan and Cyclone Yaas. He had set up a platform, named \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003ePurbasha Eco-Helpline Society\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; nowadays serves as the collaborative umbrella of plantation drive and other activities as well to bring more people, local residents to run the societal activities. They work for the three months from August months for the collection of seeds of mangrove trees and plant them throughout the year (\u003cstrong\u003eThe Telegraph, 2021\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApparently, a group of IIT-Kharagpur students joined them to protect the devastated Satjelia Island over Indian part of Sundarbans due to Yaas cyclone by planting 10, 000 mangrove saplings at May month in 2021. The IIT students, mostly research scholars raised money through the crowdfunding for the mass mangrove plantation Programme. \u003cem\u003eBiswarup Mondal\u003c/em\u003e, Research Scholar from Chemical Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur mentioned \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eDuring our visit to this region after Yaas, we understood that we have to work towards a permanent solution. Then we came to know about Umashankar Mandal, Geography Teacher and Activist who has been planting mangroves since Cyclone Aila (2009) and we were inspired by him. We planted 10,000 saplings for now and want to ramp it up in the future.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; They planted specifically three types of mangrove such as \u003cem\u003eAvicennia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCeriops decandra\u003c/em\u003e over approximately stretch of two hectares\u0026rsquo; area by the banks of Garal river. According to them, they had purchased 10,000 saplings for around 70,000 rupees from nursery and carried them by the hired boat to reach by Satjelia island to pant them accordingly. Research Scholars from IIT Kharagpur also contributed new clothes among 1000 women and children in and around Parashmani village under lahiripur Gram Panchayat of Gosaba block under the Indian part of Sundarbans who participated in the plantation drive in the affected islands through the mass funding (\u003cstrong\u003eThe Telegraph, 2021\u003c/strong\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs per \u003cstrong\u003eWWF (2020)\u003c/strong\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eover the last decade, he has single handedly planted over 650,000 mangrove seeds and saplings. This frequency is now increased to 7,80,000 till the date and the primary objective of Purbasha and its team to reach 10 lakhs by 2025 (\u003cstrong\u003ePEHS, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e). His restoration efforts, being a mangrove restorer by of his own have inspired and motivated the villagers to come forward for the mass mangrove plantation Programme to restore the entire island by bio-protecting the same and that applauded \u003cem\u003eMr. Umashankar Mandal\u003c/em\u003e as the receiver of \u003cem\u003eWWF\u0026rsquo;s Dr. Rimington Awar\u003c/em\u003ed in 2021. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing are the tabulation (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5-8\u003c/strong\u003e) on every ounce of minute details on Mangrove Restoration Programme through mass plantation by Mangrove Man and his team;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5: Details on Mangrove Plantation Sites (2009-2021)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlantation Site\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQuantity and Time Frame of Plantation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHeight of Planted Saplings (In Meter)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMortality Rate (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSiltation Rate (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChargheri Village, Gosaba\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,00,000 (August, 2009)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50-0.62\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10-0.15 (December)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChargheri Village, Gosaba\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,00,000 (2017)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.97-12.19; 0.52-0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70-0.80\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(December)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChargheri Village, Kakmari Village, Gosaba\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,00,000 (2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.09-7.62; 0.48-0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30-0.45 (December)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKakmari Village, Kumirmari Village, Sonagaon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60,000 (2021)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.05-3.66; 0.55-0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40-0.42 (December)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6: Mangrove Species that have been planted by Purbasha Team (2009-2024)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSl. No.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMangrove Species (\u003cem\u003eLocal Names\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScientific Name\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRoots\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCarbon Absorption Captivity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSoil Texture\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGoran\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCeriops decandra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHard textured Alluvial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery High\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLoose Structured Alluvial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGorjan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizophora mucronata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAerial Roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHard textured Alluvial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKankra\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBruguiera gymnorrhiza\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDhudhul\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eXylocarpus granatum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePassur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eXylocarpus mekongensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKeora\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSonneratia apetala\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery High\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLoose Structured Alluvial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeoa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eExcoecaria agallocha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHard textured Alluvial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSundari\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHeritiera fomes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDhani Gash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePorteresia coarctata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery High\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLoose Structured Alluvial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHorgoj Kanta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcanthus ilicifolius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHard Textured Alluvial Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTora\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAegialitis rotundifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKhalishi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAegiceras corniculatum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 7: Cost Estimate along with Plantation Details on Mangrove Species (2009-2024)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlantation Site\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatus of Mangrove Seedlings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMangrove Army Numbers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQuantity of Seedlings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRemarks on Estimated Cost\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"11\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChargheri Village, Gosaba\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,00,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4,30,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"11\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1 tin estimated cost is 20-30 rupees (total\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1200-1300 tins utilized)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtection Period\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"9\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,00,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,75,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,00,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,80,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,00,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,60,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChargheri Village, Kakmari Village, Kumirmari Village, Sonagaon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGorjan-15 Rs. Bain- 10 Rs. Kankra- 15 Rs. Sundari- 15 Rs. Keora- 15 Rs\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e280\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,70,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2,30,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e380\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,40,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGorjan-20 Rs. Bain- 15 Rs. Kankra- 20 Rs. Sundari- 20 Rs. Keora- 20 Rs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 8: Status on Mangrove Artificial Restoration Programme at Selected Sites over Indian Part of Sundarbans\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNature of Site\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChargheri, Bidhan Colony\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2019-2023)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKakmari\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2020-2023)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSonaga\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2020-2023)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKumirmari\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;(2020-2023)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBank Erosive Site 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaplings: 4,20,000; Forest Length: 5 km; Forest Width: 200-350 ft.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaplings: 70,000; Forest length: 1 km; Forest Width: 50-80 ft.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBank Erosive Site 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaplings: 2,00,000; Forest length: 2 Km; Forest Width: 200-350 ft.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaplings: 30,000; Forest length: \u0026frac12; Km; Forest width: 40-60 ft.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaplings: 60,000; Forest length: 1 Km; Forest width: 15-20 ft.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEntire mangrove restoration programme through artificial regeneration technique so called plantation also boosts up the different genre of livelihoods that can help to generate the sustainability in economic sectors of theses villages under Indian part of Sundarbans. Sectors such as, formation of mangrove army, commonly formed by native women fro the seed collection, seed compilation in poly packets for the plantation at the nursery, small boats for the transportation purpose, large boats utilized for the heavy quantity of mangrove saplings, basic amenities provided for the mangrove army women, van, bike for the local transportation, teacher and associates employed at the non-formal school, formed by Purbasha, Decorators, Sweet shop owners, Book shop owners etc. got utilized for the other amenities provided and needed to motivate and encourage the mangrove army for the execution of mangrove plantation programme (\u003cstrong\u003ePEHS, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObservation on Natural Mangrove Regeneration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCase Study 1: Dorabagda Mangrove Patch, Kaikhali Village, Kultali Block\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs per investigation of \u003cstrong\u003eChatterjee \u0026amp; Bhandari (2024)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ethrough field observations by quadrat survey of native mangrove species (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 7\u003c/strong\u003e) and Remote Sensing ad GIS applications, natural regeneration of mangrove species is also possible and been observed from the central part of Indian Sundarbans. Locally named as Dorabagda Mangrove Patch (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 6\u003c/strong\u003e), situated at the upper part of Kaikhali Village, Kultali block is one of the recent spectacular example of naturally grown mangrove patch. Since 2000, this patch is formerly built as the point bar along the River Matla, after while this point bar got stabilized under several hydro-geomorphic conditions, tidal regime conditions etc. After the land stabilization process, this point bar got transformed into accommodation space for the mangrove species propagule, germination was in process then from the extreme southern part of the bar got colonized first with the mangrove species mostly found Bain types (\u003cem\u003eAvicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eas the monotypic species) and its friendly mangrove species (\u003cem\u003eBruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Aegiceras corniculatum, Aegialitis rotundifolia, Acanthus ilicifolius\u003c/em\u003e). Aided by plant (mangrove species)-water (tidal regime)-soil (Clayey to silty clayey soil textural groups), this site is totally transformed into fully grown mangrove patch however, this place is not designated as the forest patch under the West Bengal Government. It is also reported that this site is the habitat for intermediate succession, stepping towards the climax vegetation through the transformation of \u003cem\u003eAcanthus ilicifolius (Pioneering species)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eto \u003cem\u003eAvicennia\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eClimax Vegetation\u003c/em\u003e) types.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, for the livelihood and basic amenities purposes, deforestation of hard and tall wood based mangrove trees been in process that might disrupt the continuous procedure of natural mangrove regeneration, hampering the succession process in Dorabagda patch. If the continuous monitoring of this site can be harnessed through handling of several hydro-geomorphological, ecological and environmental indicators, gaining equilibrium between deforestation and regeneration over this newly born site, then this site can be the best example for the experimental study site for the further incorporation of research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIf deforestation issues (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 7\u003c/strong\u003e) can be arrested at the disturbed site nearby the newly born Dorabagda mangrove patch, then entire patch would be enlarged with the further colonization of propagules, seed germination and accommodation of climax vegetation (\u003cem\u003eAvicennia types\u003c/em\u003e), followed by pioneering native mangrove species.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eSurely, it is possible to make a crystal clear closure related to regeneration aspects of mangrove over Indian part of Sundarbans that mangroves, being one of the vibrant estuarine based saltmarsh intruding flora can adapt by its own self through natural growing nature as well as naturally regeneration, if there are certain hydro-geomorphological, tidal regime conditions, balanced salinity gradient, pedological interconnectedness, being in superimposed, coped up at the degraded, destroyed and nearly damaged mangrove patch over the coastal belts of Sundarbans. Natural regeneration can be harnessed if the locals with the help of NGOs and Government officials can look into this matter, engaging researchers and experts from different genre to monitor the ecological, environmental and hydro-geomorphological degraded sites continuously. If there are no more any suitable conditions better adapted for the native species, then the site can be chosen properly by officials as well as the locals just like the NGOs do with their collaboration and monitored the baseline factors with their mortality rate analysis associated with them throughout the temporal scale to check if there is possibility of artificial regeneration technique through plantation of native mangrove species with their associates, mangroves can be colonized with their other associates throughout the time. However, there are some bottlenecks observed throughout this study, to accommodate all these parameters to justify the fact that mangroves can be regenerated as well as restored thoroughly at their already degraded sites. If Policy makers, stakeholders and supreme government officials can intrude in this fact that governance from the very first to execute all the steps with proper guidance and support financially and others to monitor, assess, communicate and engage all the experts from different field and genre to decide which zones or sites from Indian Sundarbans (\u003cem\u003eSite Selection\u003c/em\u003e) and how these can be restored properly (\u003cem\u003ePathways\u003c/em\u003e), so that there would be no loopholes, generated from the very first. Proper framework of executing plan on behalf of this project can be beneficial for the native people for securing their livelihoods, through engaging them to this massive plantation programme if they being guided properly. Prospective study on behalf of regeneration aspects can be fruitful for making the environmental society of Indian Sundarbans better living place for the people and mangroves and other biota of Sundarbans.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to the University Grant Commission (UGC) for providing the Fellowship to the First Author as NET JRF. The authors have extended their deep appreciation and indebtedness to Jadavpur University for providing the logistics and infrastructure, along with the supervising expertise. The authors are also indebted to Mangrove Man, Mr. Umashankar Mandal for giving the corresponding author the permission to work and use database of their team and for his remarkable contribution for making mangroves lived and regenerated. Really appreciable and salute to the Purbasha team to their unprecedented activities for the sake of specifically mangroves and its saviors over Indian Sundarbans. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSweta Chatterjee\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing- Original Draft; \u003cstrong\u003eGupinath Bhandari\u003c/strong\u003e: Supervision, Writing- Reviewing \u0026amp; Editing. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research work is not funded yet.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data will be available on request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study involves the analysis of images where potential human faces were detected. However, no personally identifiable information is disclosed, and all images used in the research comply with ethical guidelines for data protection and privacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll individuals whose images are included in this study provided informed consent for their images to be used in research and potential publication. In cases where direct consent was not feasible, all images were either publicly available, anonymized, or used under fair use/data protection regulations, ensuring that no identifiable personal information is disclosed. The authors affirm that publication of the images does not violate any ethical or legal considerations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBanerjee, S., Ladd, C. J., Chanda, A., Shil, S., Ghosh, T., Large, A., \u0026amp; Balke, T. (2023). Securing the sustainable future of tropical deltas through mangrove restoration: Lessons from the Indian Sundarban. One Earth, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(3), 190\u0026ndash;194.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhowmik, A. K., Padmanaban, R., Cabral, P., \u0026amp; Romeiras, M. M. (2022). Global mangrove deforestation and its interacting social-ecological drivers: A systematic review and synthesis. Sustainability, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(8), 4433.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBosire, J. O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Kairo, J. G., Wartel, S., Kazungu, J., \u0026amp; Koedam, N. (2006). Success rates of recruited tree species and their contribution to the structural development of reforested mangrove stands. Marine Ecology Progress Series, \u003cem\u003e325\u003c/em\u003e, 85\u0026ndash;91.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBosire, J. O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Walton, M., Crona, B. I., Lewis Iii, R. R., Field, C., \u0026hellip; Koedam, N. (2008). Functionality of restored mangroves: a review. Aquatic botany, \u003cem\u003e89\u003c/em\u003e(2), 251\u0026ndash;259.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChowdhury, A., Sanyal, P., \u0026amp; Maiti, S. K. (2016). Dynamics of mangrove diversity influenced by climate change and consequent accelerated sea level rise at Indian Sundarbans. International Journal of Global Warming, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(4), 486\u0026ndash;506.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDirectorate of Forest, Government of West Bengal (2020). Greening of Sundarban-Massivemangroveplantation.\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.environmentwb.gov.in/pdf/Plantation_31122020161729%20Mangrove%20completion%20report.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.environmentwb.gov.in/pdf/Plantation_31122020161729%20Mangrove%20completion%20report.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEllison, A. M. (2000). Mangrove restoration: do we know enough? Restoration ecology, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(3), 219\u0026ndash;229.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eErftemeijer, P.L.A., Lewis, R.R., (1999). Planting mangroves on intertidal mudflats: habitat restoration or habitat conversion? In: Ecotone, VIIIth Seminar, Enhancing Coastal Ecosystem Restoration for the 21st Century, Ranong and Phuket, May 1999, pp. 1\u0026ndash;11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEstoque, R. C., Myint, S. W., Wang, C., Ishtiaque, A., Aung, T. T., Emerton, L., \u0026hellip; Fan, C. (2018). Assessing environmental impacts and change in Myanmar's mangrove ecosystem service value due to deforestation (2000\u0026ndash;2014). Global change biology, \u003cem\u003e24\u003c/em\u003e(11), 5391\u0026ndash;5410.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFajardo, A., \u0026amp; McIntire, E. J. (2011). Under strong niche overlap conspecifics do not compete but help each other to survive: facilitation at the intraspecific level. Journal of Ecology, \u003cem\u003e99\u003c/em\u003e(2), 642\u0026ndash;650.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eField, C. D. (1999). Rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems: an overview. Marine pollution bulletin, \u003cem\u003e37\u003c/em\u003e(8\u0026ndash;12), 383\u0026ndash;392.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eField, C.D., (1996). Restoration of mangrove ecosystems. International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan, p. 250.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGedan, K. B., \u0026amp; Silliman, B. R. (2009). Using facilitation theory to enhance mangrove restoration. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, \u003cem\u003e38\u003c/em\u003e(2), 109\u0026ndash;109.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGerona-Daga, M. E. B., \u0026amp; Salmo III, S. G. (2022). A systematic review of mangrove restoration studies in Southeast Asia: Challenges and opportunities for the United Nation\u0026rsquo;s Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Frontiers in Marine Science, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e, 987737.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGovernment of West Bengal (2022). Sites specific report on mangrove plantation South 24Parganas: Mangrove Improvement Inspection Report 2020-21 \u0026amp; Mangrove Plantation Inspection Report 2021-22 (Government of West Bengal).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGovernment of West Bengal (2022). Sites specific report on mangrove plantation South 24 Parganas: Mangrove Improvement Inspection Report 2020-21 \u0026amp; Mangrove Plantation Inspection Report 2021-22 (Government of West Bengal)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHamdan, O., Aziz, H. K., \u0026amp; Hasmadi, I. M. (2014). L-band ALOS PALSAR for biomass estimation of Matang Mangroves, Malaysia. Remote Sensing of Environment, \u003cem\u003e155\u003c/em\u003e, 69\u0026ndash;78.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHazra, S., Ghosh, T., Dasgupta, R. and Sen, G. (2002) \u0026lsquo;Sea level and associated changes in the Sundarbans\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eScience and Culture\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 68, Nos. 9\u0026ndash;12, pp.309\u0026ndash;321.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHong, P. (2001). Reforestation of mangroves after severe impacts of herbicides during the Vietnam war: The case of can gio. Unasylva. 52 (207), 57\u0026ndash;60. Available at: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.fao.org/3/y2795e/y2795e11.htm\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.fao.org/3/y2795e/y2795e11.htm\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHuxham, M., Kumara, M. P., Jayatissa, L. P., Krauss, K. W., Kairo, J., Langat, J., \u0026hellip; Kirui, B. (2010). Intra-and interspecific facilitation in mangroves may increase resilience to climate change threats. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, \u003cem\u003e365\u003c/em\u003e(1549), 2127\u0026ndash;2135.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIlman, M., Wibisono, I. T. C., and Suryadiputra, I. N. N. (2011). State of the art information on mangrove ecosystems in Indonesia (Bogor, Indonesia: Wetlands International- Indonesia Programme). Available at: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps:/indonesia.wetlands.org/ publications/state-of-the-art-information-on-mangrove-ecosystems-in-indonesia/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://indonesia.wetlands.org/ publications/state-of-the-art-information-on-mangrove-ecosystems-in-indonesia/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKairo, J. G. (1995). \u003cem\u003eArtificial regeneration and sustainable yield management of mangrove forests at Gazi Bay, Kenya\u003c/em\u003e (Doctoral dissertation).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKairo, J. G., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Bosire, J., \u0026amp; Koedam, N. (2001). Restoration and management of mangrove systems\u0026mdash;a lesson for and from the East African region. South African Journal of Botany, \u003cem\u003e67\u003c/em\u003e(3), 383\u0026ndash;389.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKathiresan, K., \u0026amp; Bingham, B. L. (2001). Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLee, S. Y. (1998). Ecological role of grapsid crabs in mangrove ecosystems: a review. Marine and freshwater research, \u003cem\u003e49\u003c/em\u003e(4), 335\u0026ndash;343.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLewis III, R. R. (1981). Mangrove Restoration. In \u003cem\u003eProceedings, US Fish and Wildlife Service Workshop on Coastal Ecosystems of the Southeastern United States: A Compilation of Seminars, Discussions, Papers and Biological Summaries Presented at Big Pine Key, Florida 18\u0026ndash;22 February 1980\u003c/em\u003e (p. 88). The Project.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLong, J., Napton, D., Giri, C., \u0026amp; Graesser, J. (2014). A mapping and monitoring assessment of the Philippines' mangrove forests from 1990 to 2010. Journal of Coastal Research, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e(2), 260\u0026ndash;271.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuo, J., Sun, Z., Lu, L., Xiong, Z., Cui, L., \u0026amp; Mao, Z. (2022). Rapid expansion of coastal aquaculture ponds in Southeast Asia: Patterns, drivers and impacts. Journal of Environmental Management, \u003cem\u003e315\u003c/em\u003e, 115100.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMacintosh, D. J., Ashton, E. C., \u0026amp; Havanon, S. (2002). Mangrove rehabilitation and intertidal biodiversity: a study in the Ranong mangrove ecosystem, Thailand. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, \u003cem\u003e55\u003c/em\u003e(3), 331\u0026ndash;345.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcIntire, E. J., \u0026amp; Fajardo, A. (2014). Facilitation as a ubiquitous driver of biodiversity. New phytologist, \u003cem\u003e201\u003c/em\u003e(2), 403\u0026ndash;416.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMishra, M., Acharyya, T., Santos, C. A. G., da Silva, R. M., Kar, D., Kamal, A. H. M., \u0026amp; Raulo, S. (2021). Geo-ecological impact assessment of severe cyclonic storm Amphan on Sundarban mangrove forest using geospatial technology. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, \u003cem\u003e260\u003c/em\u003e, 107486.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMitra, A. (2019). \u003cem\u003eMangrove Forests in India: Exploring Ecosystem Services\u003c/em\u003e. Springer.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMitra, A., Banerjee, K., \u0026amp; Bhattacharyya, D. P. (2004). \u003cem\u003eThe other face of mangroves\u003c/em\u003e. Kolkata: Department of Environment, Government of West Bengal.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoorthy, P. (1995). \u003cem\u003eEffects of UV-B radiation on mangrove environment: Physiological responses of Rhizophora apiculata Blume\u003c/em\u003e (Doctoral dissertation, Ph. D. thesis, Annamalai University, India).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMorrison, D. (1990). Landscape restoration in response to previous disturbance. In \u003cem\u003eLandscape heterogeneity and disturbance\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 159\u0026ndash;172). New York, NY: Springer New York.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNguyen, A. T., Nguyen, X. H., Pham, D. H., \u0026amp; Nguyen, S. T. (2008). Landscape ecological planning based on change analysis: A case study of mangrove restoration in Phu Long-Gia Luan area, Cat Ba Archipelago. VNU Journal of Science: Earth and Environmental Sciences, \u003cem\u003e24\u003c/em\u003e(3).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOng, J. E. (1982). Mangroves and aquaculture in Malaysia.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrimavera, J. H. (1995). Mangroves and brackishwater pond culture in the Philippines. In \u003cem\u003eAsia-Pacific Symposium on Mangrove Ecosystems: Proceedings of the International Conference held at The Hong Kong University of Science \u0026amp; Technology, September 1\u0026ndash;3, 1993\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 303\u0026ndash;309). Springer Netherlands.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRichards, D. R., \u0026amp; Friess, D. A. (2016). Rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia, 2000\u0026ndash;2012. \u003cem\u003eProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e113\u003c/em\u003e(2), 344\u0026ndash;349.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaenger, P., (2002). Mangrove Ecology Silviculture and Conservation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSen, S., Mukherjee, S., Chaudhuri, A., \u0026amp; Homechaudhuri, S. (2014). Temporal changes in brachyuran crab diversity along heterogeneous habitat in a mangrove ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans. Scientia Marina, \u003cem\u003e78\u003c/em\u003e(3), 433\u0026ndash;442.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmith III, T. J., Boto, K. G., Frusher, S. D., \u0026amp; Giddins, R. L. (1991). Keystone species and mangrove forest dynamics: the influence of burrowing by crabs on soil nutrient status and forest productivity. Estuarine, coastal and shelf science, \u003cem\u003e33\u003c/em\u003e(5), 419\u0026ndash;432.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmith, T., Robblee, M.B., Wanless, H.R. and Doyle, T.W. (1994) \u0026lsquo;Mangroves, hurricanes, and lightning strikes\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eBioScience\u003c/em\u003e, Vol. 44, pp.256\u0026ndash;262.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpalding, M. D., and Leal, M. (2021) The state of the world\u0026rsquo;s mangroves (Global Mangrove Alliance). Available at: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.mangrovealliance.org/mangroveforests/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.mangrovealliance.org/mangroveforests/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Accessed November 8, 2021)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpalding, M., Kainuma, M., and Collins, L. (2010). World atlas of mangroves (London: Earthscan). doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4324/9781849776608\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4324/9781849776608\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStevenson, N.J., Lewis, R.R., Burbridge, P.R., (1999). Disused shrimp ponds and mangrove rehabilitation. In: Streever, W.J. (Ed.), An International Perspective on Wetland Rehabilitation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp. 277\u0026ndash;297.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSuman, D. O. (2019). Mangrove management: challenges and guidelines. In \u003cem\u003eCoastal wetlands\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 1055\u0026ndash;1079). Elsevier.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThakur, S., Maity, D., Mondal, I., Basumatary, G., Ghosh, P. B., Das, P., \u0026amp; De, T. K. (2021). Assessment of changes in land use, land cover, and land surface temperature in the mangrove forest of Sundarbans, northeast coast of India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, \u003cem\u003e23\u003c/em\u003e, 1917\u0026ndash;1943.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTwilley, R. R., Rivera-Monroy, V. H., Chen, R., \u0026amp; Botero, L. (1999). Adapting an ecological mangrove model to simulate trajectories in restoration ecology. Marine Pollution Bulletin, \u003cem\u003e37\u003c/em\u003e(8\u0026ndash;12), 404\u0026ndash;419.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWalsh, G., Snedaker, S., Teas, H. (Eds.), 1975. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Biology and Management of Mangroves, vols. 1 and 2. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Florida, p. 846.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWalters, B. B. (2003). People and mangroves in the Philippines: fifty years of coastal environmental change. Environmental conservation, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e(3), 293\u0026ndash;303.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Plates","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlates 1 to 3 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-applied-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Applied Sciences](https://link.springer.com/journal/42452)","snPcode":"42452","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42452/3","title":"Discover Applied Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mangrove Regeneration, Natural and Artificial Regeneration, Rehabilitation, Restoration, Functionality, Mangroves, Indian Sundarbans","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6112336/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6112336/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eRegeneration, Restoration\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eRehabilitation\u003c/em\u003e can be defined properly for the context of mangroves specifically through returning of the regenerated mangrove species in its native places or sites, if the site is already damaged, degraded, destroyed due to several unpredictable natural and anthropogenic baseline factors. Functionality of mangroves can be possible through accommodation of all baseline ecological, environmental factors to be monitored properly and succession analysis can be also acknowledged for this purpose to monitor the planted mangroves at the degraded site or else if there is observation on naturally regrown mangrove patch over Indian Sundarbans, mortality rate, succession of native species with respect to baseline factors can be monitored temporally. Aided by prospective study on Natural and Artificial Regeneration (\u003cem\u003ePlantation\u003c/em\u003e) along with the blended version of both is crucial to be gained attention for the sake of the mangrove specifically over Indian part of Sundarbans in near future. Different plantation programme initiated by NGOs and government officials at Indian Sundarbans are effective for the native people also through securing their livelihoods, habitats as a whole. Several case studies on behalf of naturally grown sites and planted sites have been justified for the evaluation on both aspects and varieties on regeneration of mangroves specifically for Indian Sundarbans. Irrespective of bottlenecks, dripping out from the evaluation and functionality of regeneration aspects of mangroves can be reduced technically if there stays scientific association of all solutions can be harnessed properly by the engagement of experts, researchers from different genre and government officials obviously. This study evaluates a clear prospective decision on probability of occurrence on mangrove regeneration aspects, with its primary and foremost objective was to set the foundation on retrospective ideas on previous viewpoints and prospect stage for near future mass activities on regeneration aspects of mangrove species over Indian Sundarbans.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Prospective Evaluation on Regeneration of Mangroves over Indian Part of Sundarbans","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-31 11:10:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6112336/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-04-07T08:10:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-03T04:52:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-02T04:45:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-01T09:37:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"90383141478720104875980896412482683955","date":"2025-03-28T04:43:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"152121247738869151499973188749801147155","date":"2025-03-26T11:33:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"173115177072953411090572879517387432489","date":"2025-03-26T10:50:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"36332809585684493802224984341767525255","date":"2025-03-26T02:53:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"152485984728203969007905233098182020464","date":"2025-03-22T00:45:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-19T19:57:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-14T09:21:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-14T09:20:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Applied Sciences","date":"2025-02-26T10:31:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-applied-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Applied Sciences](https://link.springer.com/journal/42452)","snPcode":"42452","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42452/3","title":"Discover Applied Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d204bf1b-cd42-4e45-b318-7124b7974b5a","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 31st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-02T14:53:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-31 11:10:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6112336","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6112336","identity":"rs-6112336","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}