Review on the strategies for enhancing mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose

Review on the strategies for enhancing mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Review on the strategies for enhancing mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose Yun-Ya Wang, Xue-Qing Zhao, Dong-Mei Li, Ya-Mei Wu, Fazli Wahid, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1783762/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a pure biopolymer with abundant sources. BC has been used in wound dressings, artificial blood vessels, bone tissue engineering, and other applications because of its microporosity, excellent water retention, thermal stability, and biocompatibility. Despite this, the mechanical qualities of dehydrated BC are poor, and its strength and toughness are insufficient for the application. The mechanical properties of BC are influenced by the three-dimensional (3D) nano-network structure, which includes porosity, pore diameter, and the ordered arrangement of fibers, among other factors. Essentially, the quantity and kind of cross-linking in the 3D network play a critical role in improving mechanical characteristics. Selection and modification of production strains, surface chemical modification, physical mixing with reinforcement, and improving the ordered arrangement of fibers are some of the tactics discussed in this review for improving the mechanical properties of BC. Various improvement methods and their effects on mechanical characteristics are addressed. BC mechanical properties enhancing strategies Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1 Introduction BC is a natural polymer found at the air/liquid interface of the culture medium (Cheng et al., 2009 ; Iijima et al., 1990 ), released by bacteria that produce acetic acid, such as Acetobacter xylinus and Acetobacter hansenii (Shezad et al., 2009 ). Furthermore, BC is made up of repetitive β-D-glucopyranose units, which have a chair-like structure that keeps all of the -OH at the equatorial position, which is necessary for intermolecular H-bonding between two neighboring chains (Fig. 1 a) (Foresti et al., 2017 ). BC nanofibers are secreted via cell plasma membrane pores and aggregated to form microfibers, which then evolve into fibrous bands with a diameter of 40–100 nm (Fig. 1 b) (Barud et al., 2011 ; Cielecka et al., 2019 ). These fibrous bands then form a 3D network structure, resulting in a larger surface area and increased porosity (Dahman, 2009 ; Ul-Islam et al., 2012 ). BC fibers can have a content of up to 99% and exist as individual fibers, which are one of the finest natural nanofibers with a surface area of 37 m 2 g − 1 (Iguchi et al., 2000 ; Nishiyama et al., 2002 ). The structure and shape of the prepared BC might vary depending on the culture circumstances, such as fibrous filaments, irregular blocks, and pellicles, due to the aerobic nature of BC-producing strains (Fig. 1 c-e) (Chao et al., 2015 ). The BC obtained from fermentation needs to be purified with NaOH to remove the culture media until the color turns white, then washed with deionized water to neutralize it (Fig. 1 f) (Kashcheyeva et al., 2019 ). BC fibers have a disordered laminar porous structure that can be loaded with tiny molecules, according to field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) micrograph (Fig. 1 g-i). The microstructure of the BC and hence its variable physical properties are determined by the culture circumstances chosen (Naoki et al., 1997). For example, BC pellicles generated under static culture conditions offer appealing advantages in terms of polymerization, crystallinity index, and Young’s modulus (Naoki et al., 1997; Watanabe et al., 1998 ). Furthermore, compared to plant-derived analogs, BC has better mechanical properties, a shorter growth cycle, a simpler purification method, greater purity, higher degree of polymerization (14,000–16,000) (Naoki et al., 1997; Wu et al., 2016 ) and crystallinity (Shah et al., 2013 ; Ul-Islam et al., 2012 ). BC and plant-derived analogs have the same chemical properties but differing physical qualities due to various degrees of polymerization (Cacicedo et al., 2016 ; Romling and Galperin, 2015 ). One of the most important parameters determining mechanical properties is the crystallinity of BC (Nishiyama et al., 2002 ). According to the literature, BC crystallinity can reach 84–90% (Barud et al., 2011 ; Czaja et al., 2004 ), whereas the index of plant-derived analogs is simply 40–60% (Huang et al., 2014 ; Jonas and Farah, 1998 ). This is due to the fact that different resources of cellulose have distinct crystal structures of crystalline cellulose in terms of I α (one-chain triclinic) and I β (two-chain monoclinic) crystalline phases (Atalla RH and DL, 1984; Imai and Sugiyama, 1998 ). It is worth noting that most plant cellulose is I β -rich, while BC is I α -rich (> 80%) (Sugiyama J et al., 1985 ; Sun et al., 2007 ). The nanometer-sized compact structure of cellulose I α chain results in a tighter arrangement of fibers and improved mechanical properties (Gullo et al., 2018 ; Yamamoto, 1996 ). Moreover, BC possesses a higher purity due to the absence of lignin and hemicellulose, which impair fiber binding (Mona et al., 2017 ; Shahriari Khalaji et al., 2021 ). When it comes to the production and application of BC, it is an environmentally friendly green material with inexpensive production costs, easy degradation, plentiful reactive groups, simple transformation, and renewable and sustainable resource (Klemm et al., 2005 ; Zhan, 2017 ). BC has been extensively applied for papermaking (Basta and H. El, 2010 ; Ciolacu and Suflet, 2018 ), wound dressings (Fontana et al., 1990 ; Lin et al., 2013 ), drug controlled release (Ciolacu and Suflet, 2018 ; Feng et al., 2018 ), food preservation and storage, environmental protection (Wahid et al., 2022 ; Zhao et al., 2021 ), capacitors (Chen et al., 2015 ) and cosmetics (Ama et al., 2021 ). The mechanical properties belong to the macroscopic properties of BC, which consist of strength, brittleness, toughness, plasticity, ductility, etc. The parameters describing the mechanical properties of BC mainly involve Young’s modulus (expressed as YM), elongation at break (stated as E%), tensile strength (reported as TS) etc. Young’s modulus is an inherent property of the material, and the difference in atomic level is the essential factor. For example, metals and ceramics have strong atomic bonds, while BC is prone to form hydrogen bonds with faintish bonding ability (Sun et al., 2019 ; Zhang, X. et al., 2019 ). The universal testing machine is commonly used to measure the mechanical properties of BC (Cai et al., 2016 ). The universal testing machine imposes a uniaxial vertical load on BC, records the size of the load and the deformation degree of BC, and then displays the data as a stress-strain graph. Due to the absence of molecular fluidity, dehydrated BC is a brittle material with no obvious plastic deformation (Arrieta et al., 2016 ; Retegi et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, in the tensile strength testing process, the brittleness of BC will accelerate the creation and propagation of cracks. Larger stress concentration leads to fracture because of the inability to redistribute stress at the crack. The highest stress that BC can endure, as well as its tensile strength, is the stress at fracture. Ductility (also called elongation) is the property of elongation (deformation) when BC is subjected to stress. There is no clear distinction between brittleness and toughness. The value of ductility (toughness) could be employed by the area of BC underneath the stress-strain curve. The specific modulus should also be paid attention to when evaluating the mechanical properties of BC. The specific modulus is the Young’s modulus of unit density. It is an essential index for determining BC carrying capacity, and is positively correlated with the rigidity of materials. The mechanical properties of BC are closely related to its 3D nanostructures and affected by many factors (Fe Ng et al., 2015 ; Nakagaito et al., 2005 ). The intrinsic factors that affect the mechanical properties of BC include porosity, pore diameter, crystallinity, density, thickness (Cheng et al., 2009 ; Zywicka et al., 2018 ), degree of polymerization, specific surface area, and so on (Shah et al., 2013 ; Thiruvengadam and Vitta, 2014 ). Porosity could be utilized to indicate the tightness of BC fiber. In general, higher porosity means poorer mechanical properties (Jiang and Hsieh, 2014 ; Karageorgiou and Kaplan, 2005 ). Nevertheless, porosity can vary depending on the fermentation environment (Na et al., 2015 ; Zhang, H. et al., 2019 ) and later modifications (Huang et al., 2020 ; Laitinen et al., 2017 ). Crystallinity shows the degree of fibers’ orderly arrangement and its value is proportional to the degree of orderly arrangement. The increase in BC crystallinity indicates that fibers are more ordered and compact, and have higher intermolecular interactions, leading to the increase in Young’s modulus (Cielecka et al., 2019 ; Ruan et al., 2016 ). In-situ surface and crushing modifications can alter the crystallinity of BC and thus affect the mechanical properties. The advantage of the in-situ surface modification is that the original fiber aggregation structure is maintained, while the crushing modification destroys the 3D structure of BC. As for density and thickness, in general, the tensile strength of BC is proportional to the magnitude of both values. Strictly speaking, the mechanical properties of BC wet film are excellent, while the mechanical properties of dehydrated BC film are poor, especially in terms of toughness (Swingler et al., 2021 ). This can be attributed to the strong intermolecular interaction due to excessive hydrogen bonding between BC fibers, making it difficult to move between chains and leading to breakage. Fortunately, the strength and toughness of BC can be balanced by different strategies. Firstly, BC films with different pores, diameters and crystallinity can be prepared starting from strain and carbon source selection. Secondly, chemical modification or attachment of bioactive polymers and nanoparticles can be used to form more and stronger bonds. Finally, BC films with enhanced mechanical properties can be obtained by improving the orderly arrangement of fibers. Figure 2 shows the different strategies to enhance the mechanical properties of BC. To the best of our knowledge, there is much literature about the mechanical properties of BC (Chen et al., 2021 ; Wahid et al., 2021 ). However, there is a lack of a comprehensive review describing the mechanical properties of BC, which is essential for the enhancement of BC performance. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of mechanical properties promotion, including the main parameters and influencing factors and focusing on different strategies for improving mechanical properties of BC. 2 Strategies To Enhance Mechanical Properties Of Bc 2.1 Selection and genetic modification of BC production strains BC is produced by microorganisms, such as Komagateibacter xylinus (known successively as Acetobacter xylinus and Gluconacetobacter xylinus ) (Kumbhar et al., 2015 ; Tsouko et al., 2015), Sarcina , Agrobacterium , Rhizobium , Rhodobacter , Azotobacte , etc (Augimeri et al., 2015 ; Zeng et al., 2014 ). Among them, Komagateibacter xylinus (K. xylinus) is widely used because it can utilize a broad spectrum of carbon or nitrogen sources (Azeredo et al., 2019 ; Lu et al., 2019 ), and produce a higher yield and purity of fibers (Chen et al., 2018a ; Ruka et al., 2012 ). The content, morphology, and structure of the cellulose produced by different strains can be varied, which affecting mechanical performance (Chen et al., 2018b ; Wang, J et al., 2019 ). For instance, the selection of BC-producing strains affects the ultrastructure and diameter size of the fiber, both of which are vital factors in determining the mechanical performance of BC (Volova et al., 2018 ). This suggests that we can enhance the mechanical properties of BC by starting with strains. Researchers have investigated the impact of various strains on BC performance in order to improve the mechanical properties of BC. For example, the effect of six different strains on the mechanical properties of BC has been investigated (Chen et al., 2018b ). The experimental data revealed that BC produced by K. xylinus ATCC 53524 had the largest fiber concentration (measured as dry weight divided by weight of the hydrated gel) as well as the highest tensile strength and stiffness. It suggests that the mechanical properties of BC are mostly determined by fiber concentration, which is helpful for the selection of BC-producing strains in experiments (Patricia et al., 2018 ). Compared the morphological characteristics of BC produced by L. Hilgardii IITRKH159 and K. xylinus (Khan et al., 2019 ), and found that the BC fibrils produced by L. Hilgardii IITRKH159 were thinner and their average diameter was smaller than K. xylinus (Dubey et al., 2016 ; Mohammadkazemi et al., 2015 ). Nevertheless, the BC film produced by L. Hilgardii IITRKH159 and K. xylinus were enriched with I α (Poletto et al., 2014 ), the BC film produced by the former has a higher crystallinity and is more ordered structure (Khan et al., 2019 ; Kumar et al., 2020 ). This suggests that L. hilgardii IITRKH159 appears to be a potential producer of BC and can be used in some respects as an alternative for K. xylinus . Similarly, high purity BC was produced by Acetobacter Pasteurianus of RSV-4 bacterium (Kumar et al., 2019 ). By introducing functional genes or manipulating gene expression through genetic engineering, BC membranes with a variety of mechanical properties can be created (Wang, J. et al., 2019 ). The modified strains were created by modulating the expression level of gaIU , an important gene that controls the carbon metabolic flow during BC production. The gaIU expression level is negatively correlated with BC porosity and positively correlated with BC crystallinity, which influenced mechanical properties to some extent (Huang et al., 2020 ). Increased the expression of colanic acid biosynthetic gene clusters in Enterobacter sp. FY-07 can prepare BC with a denser and clearer network (Liu et al., 2019 ). The trends of fracture stress and Young’s modulus of modified BC were similar to the trends of crystallinity, according to the experimental data (Liu et al., 2019 ). The genes of A:Kan and AB::Kan were obtained by mutating motA and motB genes related to strain motility (Jacek et al., 2019 ). The results showed that the compression modulus of BC film formed by the strains of A:Kan and AB::Kan was higher than that of pure BC wet film, while the tensile modulus was lower than that of pure BC wet film. It is supposed that the disruption mutants of motA and motB reduced the motility of strains, resulting in higher compaction of nanocellulose fibers. The generation of BC by co-culture strains has gotten a lot of attention as a way to improve mechanical properties. Co-culture is an industrial technology that streamlines production processes and maximizes advantages by culturing two or more strains simultaneously to meet specific requirements. The relationship between co-cultured strains is cooperation and competition, hence the optimum conditions for strains to show synergistic effects should be thoroughly investigated during the co-culture process. When BC films were produced in a fermentation media with bacterial and yeast symbiotic communities (Tapias et al., 2022 ), ethanol produced by yeast activates bacterial cellulose synthase, which improves BC mechanical properties (Gullo et al., 2018 ; May et al., 2019 ). The BC film obtained in Kombucha has a better mechanical strength but a lesser toughness. The discrepancy in mechanical properties could be attributed to the formation of uniform and continuous nanonetworks, and BC is plasticized due to the presence of various molecular weight components throughout the culture process (Mec et al., 2019 ; Tapias et al., 2020 ). BC/polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) films were prepared by co-culture of G. xylinus ATCC 700178 and PHB-producing strain R. eutropha H16 (Ding et al., 2021 ). It was found that BC/PHB films with various mechanical properties could be obtained at different strain inocula. Moreover, the trends of TS and E% were not proportional to the PHB content, which could be explained by the dense network structure formed by fine interfacial adhesion between BC fiber and PHB particles (Barud et al., 2011 ; Fernandes et al., 2009 ). Escherichia coli (E. coli) could synthesize mannose-rich exopolysaccharides (EPS), which differ from BC fibers only at the C2 position and have a high degree of stereochemistry similarity (Fang and Catchmark, 2014 ; Wang, X. et al., 2016 ). Herein, it is predicted that EPS has a strong affinity for BC fiber in this study (Whitney et al., 1998 ). BC films were co-cultured with E. coli and Gluconacetobacter hansenii , and it was discovered that appropriate EPS had a positive effects on its mechanical properties, such as increasing the TS value (Liu. et al., 2019). The explanation for this could be the bonding of the appropriate amount of EPS to BC fiber and filled with porous diameter, whereas excessive EPS is perfectly coated on fiber, resulting in reduced adhesion (Fang and Catchmark, 2014 ; Liu and Catchmark, 2018 ). The postbiotics incorporated BNC(P-BNC) film was obtained by impregnating lyophilized postbiotics of Lactobacillus plantarum with bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) (Yordshahi et al., 2020 ). After adding postbiotics, the E% value increased from 7.5–47.0%. This may be attributed to the postbiotics of lactic acid bacteria containing a variety of extracellular polysaccharides and fatty acids (Dilna et al., 2015 ; Moradi et al., 2019 ), and the improvement of the mechanical properties of the film may be related to their plasticity. 2.2 Carbon source selection During the growth of the microorganism, the carbon source serves as the frame of the cell and also provides the energy required for growth (Andriani et al., 2020 ). BC-producing strains utilize carbon sources selectively, affecting the intrinsic properties of BC. For example, the carbon source chosen has an impact on its ultrastructure, such as fiber diameter, crystallinity, and so on, which in turn has an impact on physical properties (Volova et al., 2018 ). As a result, the synthesis of BC could be regulated through the selection of carbon sources, and the mechanical features of BC could be shaped according to the requirements (Badshah et al., 2018 ). The direct addition of diverse compounds to the culture medium as a carbon source is a standard way for obtaining BC with multiple characteristics (Andriani et al., 2020 ). However, sugars, lipids, organic acids, protein, and other carbon sources are common. Sugars are the most commonly used carbon source, including glucose, sucrose, fructose, galactose, starch and so on (Mikkelsen et al., 2009 ). In addition, other carbon sources, such as ethanol, can also affect fiber production (May et al., 2019 ). The calcium-modified BC obtained by using calcium gluconate as a carbon source has good mechanical properties due to the fact that calcium gluconate changes the ultrastructure of BC, which determines the properties of BC (Lin S et al., 2022 ; Sun et al., 2021 ). Calcium-modified BC composites were prepared using calcium gluconate by replacing glucose into the medium as the carbon source, and then BC-hydroxyapatite (BC/HAp) nanocomposites were prepared by biomimetic mineralization (BMBC) and chemical mineralization of BC (CMBC) (Lin S et al., 2022 ) (Fig. 3 a). Among them, Ca 2+ is adsorbed on the entangled cellulose unit by forming a coordination polymer with the oxygen atoms of the cellulose unit (Koshevoy et al., 2019 ). The FESEM micrographs showed that BC-calcium nanocomposite obtained by BMBC induces mineralization more quickly and uniformly than CMBC (Fig. 3 b-f). The TS of BC films generated by BMBC was better than of CMBC, and both were greater than that of BC, according to mechanical test results (Fig. 3 g-i). It is speculated that the supersaturated Ca 2+ provided by calcium gluconate are well combined with the hydroxyl groups on BC, providing multiple nucleation sites for subsequent mineralization, resulting in BMBC that is more uniform and dense, with more prominent mechanical qualities (Hong et al., 2006 ). 2.3 Chemical modification To better adapt to the demands of the application, the chemical modification of BC can precisely customize its structure (Hosakun et al., 2017 ; O-Rak et al., 2014 ). Chemical functionalization, which involves making new bonds and changing the linkage to improve its mechanical properties (Chun et al., 2013 ; Espino Perez et al., 2013 ), is partly attributable to the BC chain’s abundance of active hydroxyl groups (Azeredo et al., 2019 ). Owing to the diversity in applications, the chemical modification methods of BC include acetylation (Ifuku et al., 2007 ), oxidation (Chang, W.S. and Chen, H.H., 2016; Isogai and Zhou, 2019 ), benzoylation (Yan et al., 2008 ), phosphorylation (Oshima et al., 2008 ), succinylation (Yin et al., 2011 ), Etherification (Casaburi et al., 2017 ), etc. The chemical crosslinking of BC generates a preferred crosslinking network, enhancing the molecular connections and therefore improving the structural stability and mechanical strength of the composites. Oxidation refers to the use of oxidizing agents, such as hydrogen peroxide, persulfate, potassium permanganate, and others to oxidize the hydroxyl groups in the BC structure to carbonyl or carboxyl groups, so changing the kind of functional group (Oun and Rhim, 2017 ; Solomevich et al., 2020 ). One of the most frequent chemical approaches for functional BC is oxidation (Ch et al., 2020 ; Wu et al., 2018 ), which can increase intermolecular interactions (Chen et al., 2019 ). Taking 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO)-mediated oxidation as an example, TEMPO and its derivatives mediated oxidation of polysaccharides is a selective oxidation of primary alcohols, in which the hydroxyl groups of carbon-6 produce aldehydes and acids successively (Fig. 4a) (Ch et al., 2020 ; Isogai and Kato, 1998 ). Four types of BC aerogels, including non-oxidized (BC N and BC NS ), non-silylated (BC OXN ) and double-functionalized BC (BC OXNS ), were prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation, nanofibrillation and silylation (Pereira et al., 2020 ). The mechanical test results showed that BC OXN had the highest elastic modulus, tension in the deformation of 50% and smallest recovery. The BC NS were observed with the highest value of recovery, the lowest values of tension in the deformation of 50% and elasticity modulus. Analysis of the resulting aerogels showed that BC OXN had the lowest porosity and the densest structure. This is due to the enhanced inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bonding by oxidation and the freezing preparation that promotes the formation of denser protofibrils (Yang et al., 2014 ; Zhang et al., 2012 ), which is consistent with Chen’s experimental findings (Chen et al., 2019 ). BC NS had the highest porosity and the lowest density, leading to the decline of mechanical properties. The composite of oxidized bacterial nanocellulose (O-BNC) and ε-poly-L-lysine (PLL) with high carboxylic acid content was prepared by TEMPO oxidation of BNC (Fig. 4b) (Mina Shahriari-Khalaji et al., 2022). The fracture stress and E% of O-BNC/PLL increased obviously, which may be due to the favorable covalent bond between PLL and O-BNC with high carboxylic acid content (Lal and Mhaske, 2019 ). TEMPO-oxidation prepared -COONa functional group on the BC surface (Yao et al., 2017 ), which provides cross-linking bridges for the subsequent Fe 3+ exchange (Gordeyeva et al., 2016 ; Torres-Rendon et al., 2016 ). The mechanical properties of the modified composite films are greatly improved due to the enhanced interfacial interaction of the metal ions with the fibers, resulting in improved mechanical properties. The degree of substitution (DS) of acetylated BC was controlled between 0.04 ~ 2.77 by adjusting the amount of acetic anhydride (Schlufter et al., 2006 ). It was found that the YM of acetylated BC was lower than that of BC, which may be due to the change in stiffness of microprotofibers caused by acetylation (Fig. 4c) (Schlufter et al., 2006 ). Carboxymethyl modified BC was obtained by monochloroacetic acid (MCA) and it was found that different concentrations of MCA increased DS, further improving the mechanical properties related to DS (Rachtanapun et al., 2021 ). The experimental data showed that the values of TS and E% increased with the increase of carboxymethylation level. It was speculated that the increase in TS value was due to the increase of DS and intermolecular forces caused by carboxymethylation, while the increase of E% value was due to the decrease of crystallinity and the increase of flexibility of cellulose structure (Adinugraha et al., 2005 ; Rachtanapun and Rattanapanone, 2011 ). Phosphorylation of BC increased DS value and preserved microfibrous structure (Fig. 4d) (Oshima et al., 2008 ). Additionally, the esterification of BC also provides a basis for improving its mechanical properties (Lee et al., 2009 ; Wang, B. et al., 2016 ). 2.4 Polymer reinforcement Compared with the methods mentioned above, one of the commonly used strategies to enhance the mechanical properties of BC is to incorporate polymers as reinforcement agents (Bahrami et al., 2003 ; Tajima et al., 2017 ). The 3D nano-network of BC allows polymers and nanoparticles to be impregnated into its matrix and cross-linked with cellulose chains (Khan et al., 2015). The strategy of reinforcing agent filling BC is divided into in-situ and ex-situ according to whether it is added during the BC film is formed. Figure 5 shows the types of substances used for in-situ and ex-situ modification to enhance the mechanical properties of BC. The In-situ approach adds polymer attached to the BC fiber network in the process of BC formation (Shah et al., 2013 ; Ul-Islam et al., 2011 ), which will alter the growth environment of BC and interfere with the crystallization or co-crystallization process (Ruka et al., 2013 ). The type and concentration of the polymer could alter the properties of BC to some extent, such as fiber diameter, microstructure and crystallinity, affecting its mechanical properties (Ruka et al., 2012 ). The ex-situ modification refers to the reinforcement agents attached to the synthesized BC network, primarily through immersion and crushing methods (Hu et al., 2009 ; Kanjanamosit et al., 2010 ). Polymers also serve as plasticizers, equivalent to internal lubricant, enabling excellent interfacial adhesion and strong interaction between the chains. When the composite film is stressed, the free volume of the internal structure increases due to the lubrication of the polymer, and the fluidity between the fibers is favorable, which avoids the concentration of stress. In addition, when the composite film is subjected to external forces, the embedded polymer shares the stress with BC, which improves the TS value of the composite film (Ul-Islam et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the lubrication of the polymer reduces the intermolecular friction and improves the flexibility and processability of the composite membranes (Marcilla and Beltrán, 2012 ; Ul-Islam et al., 2011 ). Composite membrane composed of BC and polymer with reduced BC-BC bond, while forming stronger plasticizer-BC bonds. The quantity of plasticizer-BC bonds is directly related to the mechanical properties of BC, for instance, the elastic modulus of BC/poly ethylene glicol (PEG) composite membrane is better than that of BC/GEL composite membrane (Sun et al., 2018 ). Polymers can be divided into hydrophilic and hydrophobic according to their intrinsic feature. The BC film modified by hydrophilic polymer is conducive to absorbing water to promote the rehydration of fiber and the reorganization of the internal structure of the composite membrane (Cazon, P et al., 2020 ; Figura and Teixeira, 2007 ). The increase in the water content of the composite membrane will improve the elastic performance, whereas reducing the resistance to fracture and deformation (Cazón et al., 2019 ; Cazón et al., 2020 ). Glycerol (Cazon, P. et al., 2020 ; Patricia et al., 2019 ), poly ethylene glycol (Cai and Kim, 2010 ; Sun et al., 2018 ), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and gelatin are water-soluble polymers. Chitosan (CS) can be used to enhance the mechanical properties of BC due to the similar structure of BC and CS leading to enhanced interfacial interactions. In addition, in order to better combine BC and CS, oxidation methods, such as TEMPO oxidation (Nge et al., 2010 ), graft oxidation (Liu et al., 2022 ), and H 2 O 2 oxidation (Chang, W. and Chen, H., 2016 ), are used to introduce carboxyl on the surface of BC and form a covalent amide bond with -NH 2 of CS, thus improving the mechanical properties of the composite film. Hydrogen peroxide oxidation BC (HOBC)/CS/ alginate (Alg) composite film was prepared by hydrogen peroxide with better mechanical properties (Chang, W.S. and Chen, H.H., 2016). It is speculated that the interaction between the carboxylate group of alginate and/or oxidized bacterial cellulose and the amine group of CS forms polyelectrolyte complex to improve the mechanical strength of the film (Jian et al., 2009 ). BC/PVA/glycerol ternary composite film was acquired by soaking BC film in a mixture of glycerol and PVA, with PVA as a reinforcing agent and glycerol as a plasticizer (Cazon, P. et al., 2020 ). The mechanical test results demonstrated that the TS of the composite film improved remarkably compared to BC reaching 49.89%, while the toughness was decreased. It is speculated that the BC/PVA/glycerol ternary composite film is overplasticized under high humidity due to the strong wettability of glycerol, resulting in the weak structure and the decrease of elasticity of the composite film. When dehydrated BC film was immersed in the mixture of glycerol and starch, mechanical tests showed that TS and YM of the composite membrane increased by 2.37 times and 1.324 times, compared with pure BC (Wan et al., 2009 ). The reason was glycerol and starch as plasticizers improve the mechanical properties of the composite film. Sodium alginate (SA) is a native polysaccharide with a large number of hydroxyl groups. When SA is acted as reinforcing and plasticizing agent, it can better disperse and transfer the stress on the fiber and crosslink with other ions to form more binding bonds to improve mechanical properties. The BC/SA composite film was obtained by impregnation, and then BC/SA composite film was soaked in calcium alginate (CA) solution to make BC/CA composite film (Yang, G. et al., 2017 ). The tensile test results revealed that the TS and E% of BC/SA were 1.76 and 1.07 times higher than pure BC, while BC/CA were 3.22 and 1.26 times higher than those of pure BC, respectively. It is speculated that the crosslinking between SA and BC plays a dominant role in the improvement of mechanical properties of composite materials, while the crosslinking between CA and BC further promotes the performance of composite films. The combination of SA and CA networks results in effective fiber relaxation, energy consumption and transfer under stress. The BC film was soaked in SA and CaCl 2 solution successively, and the mechanical properties of the composite film were improved, especially the E% reached 35% (Sulaeva et al., 2020 ). When SA was coated on the surface of the dehydrated BC film, a large number of hydrogen bonds were generated between them, forming a strong connection and improving the mechanical properties of the composite film (Yang et al., 2022 ). When PVA is acted as a plasticizer, it interrupts the hydrogen bonding between the fibers, resulting in fiber slippage and improving toughness. In addition, the inherent properties of PVA and the lower YM make the composite less stiff (Gea et al., 2010 ). The BC/PVA composite film could be acquired by in-situ and immersion method (Gea et al., 2010 ). The mechanical test found that the YM of the composite membrane obtained in both ways decreased and the toughness increased, especially for in-situ samples. Similarly, BC/PVA composite films were obtained by mixing BC powder and PVA, and E% was significantly increased from 209–443% (Zhao et al., 2019 ). The BC/poly caprolactone (PCL) composite film was made by impregnation and the mechanical properties were changed due to the plasticizing effect of PCL (Barud et al., 2012 ). In addition, the BC/PHB composite film was prepared by immersing BC in poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)-chloroform solutions (Barud et al., 2011 ), and were found to improve the mechanical properties (Cai and Yang, 2011 ). Table 1 shows various polymers used for improving the mechanical properties of BC and their principles. Table 1 Various polymers are used for strengthening the mechanical properties of BC Additive Experimental method Mechanical properties Applications Comments Refs. COL Immersion method; EDC a) and GT b) as cross-linking agents. The TS of BC/COL-EDC and BC/COL-GT increased by 70.8 and 57.9%, and the E% increased by 28.9 and 23.3%. - A chemical bond formed between BC molecules and both BC and COL. (Yang, Q. et al., 2017 ) Fibrin Immersion method. The TS increased by 15%; the YM or E% no significant influence. Artificial blood vessel. A chemical bond formed between BC and fibrin. (Brown et al., 2011 ) CMC c) In-situ method. E% decreases. Drug delivery. Low elastic modulus of CMC. (Fontes et al., 2018 ) PLA d) Melt polycondensation; in-situ method. The YM and TS are increased to 52% and 31%, respectively. - The promotion of BC and PLA interactions. (Ambrosio Martin et al., 2015 ) PLA Electrospinning. The rigidity increase; the E% is not significantly altered. - Enhanced dispersion and matrix-filler adhesion. (Martinez Sanz et al., 2012 ) PAM e) TEMPO oxidation. TS of the composite film is 3 times stronger than pure PAM. Drug release. BC fiber strengthens PAM mesh. (Dp et al., 2021 ) PU f) Immersion method. E% is decreased while the TS and YM increased Biomedical. The good interfacial interactions between polymers and BC. (Urbina et al., 2019 ) PP g) “Sandwich” hot-press method. The TS of BC/ at -PP is about 46 times that of at -PP; YM increased while E% decreased Food packaging; optoelectronics applications. Entanglement and physical crosslinking between BC and at -PP restrict the migration of the BC chain and hinder the change of network structure. (Wang, Q. et al., 2018 ) PEGDA h) Immersion method. Excellent compression performance. Clinical applications as soft material. Forming tight network structures. (Numata et al., 2015 ) PEO i) In-situ method. The tensile storage modulus of PEO is significantly increased. Biomedical applications. Hydrogen bonding between BC and PEO. (Brown et al., 2007) PMMA g) Impregnating method. The YM is almost twice higher than that of the neat PMMA, while TS and E% is lower than PMMA - The flexibility of the nanocomposite is limited by the strong and rigid BC network and led to breakage. (Oliver Ortega et al., 2021 ) γ-PGA/BC k) Ex-situ method. The TS of γ-PGA/BC composite is 8.16 times higher than that of γ-PGA, and the TS and E% are increasing. - γ-PGA/BC chains are intertwined to form hydrogen bonds and may lead to effective energy dissipation. (Dou et al., 2020 ) EDC a) : 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide GT b) : Glutaraldehyde CMC c) : carboxymethylcellulose PLA d) : polylactic acid PAM e) : polyacrylamide PU f) : polyurethane PP g) : polypropylene PEGDA h) : polyethylene glycol diacrylate PEO i) : polyethylene oxide PMMA g) : polymethyl methacrylate γ-PGA k) : poly (γ-glutamic acid) 2.5 Nanoparticles reinforcement In addition to polymers, nanoparticles are generally served as reinforcement to improve the mechanical properties of BC, provided that the nanoparticles are uniformly dispersed throughout the fiber network. The BC works as a carrier and stabilizer in the composite film made up of nanoparticles and BC, with a 3D network structure that provides various binding sites for the nanoparticles (Shi et al., 2013 ; Sonawane et al., 2011 ). Nanoparticles include nano-metal oxides; non-metal oxides (Barbi et al., 2021 ; Sai et al., 2020 ); metal hydroxides; nano nonmetals (Silva et al., 2017 ), etc. The BC/TiO 2 composite film was prepared by combining BC slurry with TiO 2 of various compositions (Barbi et al., 2021 ). When the TiO 2 content was 10 wt%~40 wt%, the E% of the composite film generally decreased, which was due to the large difference between the ceramic-like properties of nanoparticles and the plastic-like properties of pure BC. When the TiO 2 content was 30 wt%, the TS value of the BC/TiO 2 composite film reached the maximum, reflecting the optimal balance between the ceramic-like properties of nanoparticles and the plastic-like properties of pure BC. BC/CS-ZnO composite hydrogels was made by combining CS and ZnO (Jiang and Zhou, 2020 ). The results showed that the TS of BC/CS-ZnO composite hydrogels can reach 880 KPa, while the compressive stress was 15 times higher than that of BC hydrogels at the compression rate of 60%. This is because ZnO nanoparticles were attached to the surface of BC/CS film, making the composite membrane structure more compact and interacting to form new bonds. The BC nanofiber film (BCNF) was prepared, which was firstly soaked in punica granatum peels extract (PPE) to obtain the carrier material PPE/BCNF, and then immersed in HAuCl 4 and AgNO 3 solutions to prepare Au@PPE/BCNF and Ag@PPE/BCNF composite membranes (Deshmukh et al., 2022 ). The results demonstrated that the TS of Au@PPE/BCNF is improved relatively to BCNF, which may be attributed to metal nanoparticles presented in BCNF porous structure that can resist mechanical tension at a certain elongation. The BC/silver nanowires (AgNWs) composite films were prepared and found that the TS and YM values of the composite films both increased with the addition of AgNWs, while the E% remained essentially constant (Wan et al., 2020 ). It is speculated that the increase in TS and YM is due to the decrease in porosity and pore size by the addition of AgNWs and the entanglement formation of BC nanofibers with AgNWs (Wan et al., 2020 ). Titanium (IV) bis-(ammonium lactate) dihydroxide was added to the fermentation medium, and the cross-linking and growth of BC were controlled by polyvalent ions (Knller et al., 2020 ). The mechanical properties of obtained composite membranes were tremendously improved with YM, TS and toughness increasing by 2, 3, and 4 times compared to pure BC, respectively. After adding NaF to the culture medium, the composite films of FBC 0 , FBC 1 , FBC 2 and FBC 3 were prepared according to NaF content (Sun et al., 2020 ). The tensile tests demonstrated that TS values increased accordingly with increasing NaF concentration, while E% decreased. The FBC 3 with the highest tensile strength is 4 times greater than FBC 0 , while FBC 3 with the highest YM value is 6 times higher than that of FBC 0 . The reason is that NaF and BC fiber form a stronger connection network and thus improving the tensile strength. Non-metallic nanomaterials such as carbon-based materials, Graphene oxide (GO), SiO 2 , etc., have great potential for applications to enhance the mechanical properties of BC. Owing to the excellent flexibility of carbon-based materials, composites with excellent mechanical properties can be obtained by combining with BC (Luo et al., 2018b ; Wahid et al., 2020 ). The BC/GO composite films with various GO levels were made using the spraying approach and discovered that the mechanical properties of the composite films were better when the GO content was 0.22 wt% (Luo et al., 2018b ). When the GO component in the BC/GO composite film was 0.22 wt%, the TS and YM of the composite film reached their maximum value, which were 2.9 and 3.6 times that of pure BC film, respectively. This is due to the fact that GO nanosheets were evenly distributed in the 3D network of BC and the hydrogen bonds generated between them had strong connections (Luo et al., 2018b ). The carbon nanotube is a kind of carbon form with good hardness and flexibility, which is an ideal material with high strength. BC-multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) composite hydrogels were obtained in situ and converted into aerogels by supercritical carbon dioxide method (Kokabi and Mousavi, 2018 ). The increase in YM and decrease in TS of BC-MWCNTs aerogels were closely related to the good dispersion caused by the interaction between carbon nanotubes and the BC nanofiber matrix. The in-situ method affects strain activity and particle distribution, which limits the improvement of mechanical properties of BC (Balandin et al., 2008 ; Shao et al., 2015 ). Layer by layer (LBL) and crushing methods can be applied to better improve the mechanical properties of BC (Shao et al., 2016a ). The composite film of graphene/BC (GE/BC) was prepared by LBL assembly technique, in which GE solution was sprayed on the thinner BC film repeatedly until the desired thickness was reached (Fig. 6 a) (Luo et al., 2018a ). The composite films of GE/BC-1, GE/BC-2, and GE/BC-3 were obtained by mixing GE and BC in ratios of 1:5, 1:3, and 1:1. Compared with pure BC, the mechanical properties of BC/GE-3 composite film significantly improved with TS and YM increased by 91% and 279%, respectively (Fig. 6 b-e). This can be ascribed to the improved GE distribution of LBL technology and the GE surface contained large amounts of hydroxyl, carbonyl and epoxy functional groups, which can form strong interactions and tightly bound by BC fibers. The BC/GE paper was made by LBL technology, which shows vastly improved TS, approximately 93% (Luo et al., 2019 ). The BC/GE composite film was acquired by direct mixing of BC slurry and GE (Shao et al., 2016b ). As GE content increased from 0.5 wt% to 8 wt%, the increment of TS increased from 17.7–68.8%. 2.6 Ordered arrangement of fibers The arrangement of BC fibers is unordered, while the mechanical properties mostly determined by the arrangement of microfibrils and the degree of hydrogen bonding interactions between the fibers (Chawla et al., 2009 ). Therefore, the random distribution of BC nanofibers at the micro scale results in low structural strength (Dayal and Catchmark, 2016 ; Wan et al., 2015 ). To improve the orderly arrangement of nanofibers, researchers attempt to control the movement of strains to obtain orderly fibers, including direct current (DC) electric field (Liu et al., 2017 ; Sano et al., 2010 ), static magnetic field (Quan et al., 2020 ), microgroove mold (Chen and Chang, 2013 ; Rahman et al., 2017), rotating magnetic field (Karol et al., 2016) and so forth. DC electric field (10 mA) was applied to control the movement of strains and obtained fibers with a certain orientation (Liu et al., 2017 ). The tensile test demonstrated that the TS along the electric field increased definitively compared with the control. Similarly, The agarose microroot molds can also control the movement of strains and obtain well-arranged fibrils (Zang et al., 2014 ). The static magnetic field was also applied to adjust the orderly distribution of fibers and found that the stiffness and compression of the obtained BC film were greatly improved (Quan et al., 2020 ). However, controlling the migration of strains to improve the mechanical properties is limited due to the uncontrollability of the strain. At this point, ordered arrangement fibers obtained by wet spinning and drawing procedures have attracted plentiful attention (Yao et al., 2017 ). When BC films are at lower deformation, microfibrils rearrange along the direction of force to acquire an oriented structure, which reduces the friction of fiber movement and improves the mechanical properties (Backdahl et al., 2006 ; Clasen et al., 2010 ). The aligned BC/GEL composite film was prepared by external force stretching and solution-dipping (Fig. 7 a) (Wang et al., 2021 ). The FESEM micrographs showed that the non-stretched nanofibers of BC/GEL were randomly distributed (Fig. 7 b), while the stretched nanofibers of BC/GEL showed an increasing amount of aligned nanofibers with the increased stretching strains, with stretched strain rates of 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, respectively (Fig. 7 c-g). The aligned arrangement of the 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes was the most prominent. The mechanical test results revealed that the TS and YM values of the stretched BC/GEL membranes increased significantly (Fig. 7 h-k). Specifically, the TS and YM values of BC/GEL films with 40% stretching strains increased by 605.10% and 78.35% compared with those of non-stretched BC/GEL membranes. Notably, the 40% stretched BC/GEL membrane achieved both tensile strength and toughness improvement at the same time, while these two properties were ordinarily mutually exclusive (Ritchie, 2011 ). It was supposed that the improved mechanical properties of the 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes were related to the two factors of connection bond and aligned arrangement between fibers. On the one hand, the quantitative stretching and hot pressing form a more compact aligned arrangement, which enhanced the connection of hydrogen bonds. On the other hand, the uniform distribution of gelatin enhanced the interaction of composite membranes. Additionally, it was also found that fiber diameter was positively correlated with the stretched strain. It was supposed that the quantitative stretching increased the arrangement of fibers and strengthened the hydrogen bonding, thus forming fiber bundles with a larger diameter, which is conducive to improving the mechanical properties of composite membranes (Xiao et al., 2018 ). The aligned arrangement of BC nanofibers were prepared and significantly improved mechanical properties by quantitative stretching (Wang, S. et al., 2018 ). The tensile strength, Young’s modulus and toughness of the 40% stretched BC film increased by 417%, 322%, and 550% compared to the nonstretched BC film, making it a record high strength material. The tube-shaped BC (TBC) was prepared by cultivating in polydimethylsiloxane tubes (Rahman et al., 2017). The TBC was stretched to 120% of the original film under external force and the mechanical properties of TBC were found to be significantly improved compared to pure BC. Among these, the TS, YM and orientation indices are increased by 230%, 330% and 135%, respectively. The composite films were prepared with highly ordered helical honeycomb microstructures passing through cyclic freeze-thawing (Yu et al., 2020 ). The mechanical results demonstrated that TS and toughness were 315 MPa and 17.8 MJ/m 3 , which had greatly improved compared to that of pure BC. The prepared bioinspired hierarchical helical nanocomposite microfibers significantly improved the TS, E%, and toughness of the composite membrane, demonstrating the effectiveness of the design of bionic layered and nanocomposite helices for enhancing mechanical properties (Gao et al., 2019 ). The Lotus-Fiber-Like spiral hydrogel BC was made with toughness reaching 116.3 MJ/m 3 , which was 9 times more than the original BC hydroge (Guan et al., 2021 ). Therefore, we can find that the construction of a highly ordered structure is the key to producing high-performance structural materials. 3 Conclusion Some strategies for enhancing the mechanical properties of BC, such as the selection of strains and carbon sources, chemical modifications and incorporation reinforcement agents, and improvement ordered arrangement of fiber were described. The general mechanism of these strategies is based on changing the ultrastructure of BC and forming stronger fiber-to-fiber bonds. The mechanical properties of BC are influenced by crystallinity, porosity, and fiber diameter, whereas the disordered fiber arrangement has a significant impact. Controlling the migration of producing-strain, stretching the BC fibers, and electrostatic spinning were used to improve the ordered arrangement of the fibers. Interestingly, stretched BC film maintain their fiber alignment in a relatively ordered arrangement, which considerably improves the mechanical characteristics. Chemical modification and incorporation reinforcement agents allow BC to form hydrogen, ionic, and covalent bonds, allowing it to tolerate larger stresses. In fact, individual BC fibers have TS and YM values of 100 ~ 400 MPa and 10 ~ 20 GPa, respectively. Nevertheless, the literature demonstrate that the TS value of BC is 5 ~ 96 MPa, indicating that the mechanical capabilities of BC suffers a significant loss during the transition from nano- to macro-scale. This loss can be attributed to three factors: inherent defects in nanofibers; dislocation of nanofibers; the boundaries and voids between nanofibers. Reduced loss during fiber transition could be an excellent study topic for improving the mechanical properties of BC. Although these strategies can improve the mechanical properties of BC, there is still a large research space to reduce the loss of fiber transition from micro to macro. Declarations Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 21978219). Funding This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 21978219). Financial interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Author Contributions Yun-Ya Wang: Writing - original draft. Xue-Qing Zhao: Review & editing. Dong-Mei Li: Review & editing. Ya-Mei Wu: Review & editing. Fazli Wahid: Review & editing. Yan-Yan Xie: Review & editing. Cheng Zhong: Supervision & Funding acquisition. 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Carbohydr Polym 199:294–303 Supplementary Files Copyrightofcitedreferences.docx Fig.1tif.tif Fig.2tif.tif Fig.3tif.tif Fig.4tif.tif Fig.5tif.tif Fig.6tif.tif Fig.7tif.tif Graphicabstract.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-1783762","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":117194607,"identity":"2512ee99-bee3-4510-9547-c2e9493d7451","order_by":0,"name":"Yun-Ya Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tianjin University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yun-Ya","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":117194608,"identity":"1911615e-4ebf-436b-93d4-a2a04210d5dc","order_by":1,"name":"Xue-Qing Zhao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tianjin University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xue-Qing","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":117194609,"identity":"5ee2bec7-4f73-4bc3-b33b-450a292c4a75","order_by":2,"name":"Dong-Mei Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tianjin University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dong-Mei","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":117194610,"identity":"7f5f07b5-2464-48dc-849d-3b612513e440","order_by":3,"name":"Ya-Mei Wu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tianjin University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ya-Mei","middleName":"","lastName":"Wu","suffix":""},{"id":117194611,"identity":"5e1573f2-0a31-4cef-a52c-efd4577249d7","order_by":4,"name":"Fazli Wahid","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Electronic Science and Technology of China","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fazli","middleName":"","lastName":"Wahid","suffix":""},{"id":117194612,"identity":"5787b98e-b668-4168-a237-22ef19e553a3","order_by":5,"name":"Yan-Yan Xie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tianjin University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yan-Yan","middleName":"","lastName":"Xie","suffix":""},{"id":117194613,"identity":"8c130ab0-f7d6-474a-a7df-f61d243f29d2","order_by":6,"name":"Cheng Zhong","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyklEQVRIie3RsQrCMBCA4SuBTqlZTwSfIVJwUXwWIaCrU0dxciq6tvgyKVlrsxZ0UPoCjkUqaLVzGzfB/MOFg/umANhsPxmtx7RZXHOyQADyHVFfELY/JsXqrtdcawm3QAE7bNoJykz48e6EPBfgRJkCPMt2wp1wPPDCmhAg3lYBx3kHIbQmGXKtgDyMiPsitJTIpQDimBBMqe97G9GPc8GTMFtSzDsI26ejglYz1tPJ9VIGkyGLOsg7Z/t5JTTfZFBleGez2Wz/2RPiuj3HLyEumgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2691-0515","institution":"Tianjin University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cheng","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhong","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-06-22 09:18:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1783762/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1783762/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":23538544,"identity":"9a84f862-05fd-4999-8013-75bd4c581f26","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:22:55","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":662639,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRelated information of BC: \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Chemical structure of BC; \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e Brief metabolic diagram of BC produced by bacteria; \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e The seed fluid is prepared by culturing the bacteria under agitated conditions for 24 h; \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e An irregular block of BC is obtained by agitating culture for 48 h; \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e The BC pellicle is prepared by adding seed fluid to culture media and culturing in static condition for 48 h; \u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e The pellicle of BC is purified with 1% NaOH until it turns white; \u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e The freeze-dried FESEM micrograph shows the disordered 3D structure of BC; \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e The BC film with a thickness of 0.2 cm is immersed in gelatin solution (1 wt%) for 24 h to obtain a composite film with more uniform pore filling, indicating that the substance could enter the 3D structure of BC; \u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003e The cross-section micrograph of FESEM shows that BC has a dense layer structure\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/12898c4a360ce77f91f0d8ad.png"},{"id":23537775,"identity":"7b22a60e-b3c5-4cb3-8d1a-4e834eca1dc6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":599737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchemes for enhancing BC mechanical properties. Reproduced with permission from the Ref. (Wang et al., 2021)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/f551fe8815dcefbf89bf00f0.png"},{"id":23537779,"identity":"878fefe1-0f01-471a-a848-70ca396be593","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":732866,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCalcium modified BC composite was prepared with calcium gluconate as carbon source: \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Scheme of the synthesis route of BC/HAp nanocomposites; \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e The FESEM micrograph of BC; \u003cstrong\u003ec-e\u003c/strong\u003e BMBC of increasing mineralization time 1 day, 3 days and 5 days; \u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e CMBC of mineralization time 5 days; \u003cstrong\u003eg-i\u003c/strong\u003e The tensile stress-strain, Young’s modulus and tensile strength of BC, CMBC, and BMBC-3 days. Reproduced with permission from the Ref. (Lin S et al., 2022)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/967d08b9fbe4efcbe429188e.png"},{"id":23537778,"identity":"c7f9912f-25aa-4668-a056-0aae693bff61","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82963,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe reaction of BC under different conditions: \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Hydroxyl groups of carbon-6 generate aldehydes and carboxylic acids under TEMPO oxidation; \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e The composite film of O-BNC/PLL is prepared by EDC/NHS cross-linking; \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e The acetylated BC was obtained by acetic anhydride; \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e Synthesis of phosphorylated BC\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/1ba62e96c7425b7f95067ff8.jpg"},{"id":23537776,"identity":"f055adf8-a1b1-4ec9-94b6-66ab7ec92d7b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":224953,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe types of reinforcement agents are commonly used in \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eex-situ \u003c/em\u003emodification of BC. Adapted and reproduced with permission from the Ref. (Cazon and Vazquez, 2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/b44b48a5a46f19b0339f2a84.png"},{"id":23537787,"identity":"73e494a8-b771-4a78-aa45-ff6e3e1d6eb2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":526311,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePreparation process and mechanical properties of BC/GE composite film: \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Schematic illustration of preparation of a GE/BC nanocomposite via LBL interface culture approach; \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e Stress-strain curves of pure BC and GE/BC composite film; \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e Tensile strength of pure BC and GE/BC nanocomposite; \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e Elongation at break of pure BC and GE/BC composite film; \u003cstrong\u003ee \u003c/strong\u003eYoung’s modulus of pure BC and GE/BC composite film. Reproduced with permission from the Ref. (Luo et al., 2018a)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/8d17534348ec85efab4038a3.png"},{"id":23537780,"identity":"2fad0de0-11c2-4cd5-94be-93b8717758ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":749642,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePreparation process and mechanical properties of BC/GEL composite film: \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e Schematic illustration showing the fabrication of highly aligned BC/GEL membrane; \u003cstrong\u003eb-e\u003c/strong\u003e FESEM micrograph of the surface morphology of 0%, 20%, 30%, and 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes; \u003cstrong\u003ef-g\u003c/strong\u003e Cross-sectional images of 0% and 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes; \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e Root mean square (RMS) values of culture dish (flat), 0%, and 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes. The 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes exhibite higher RMS (Rq, 32.45 nm) than the non-stretched BC/GEL membranes (21.76 nm), indicating the enhanced surface roughness with the increasing fiber alignment; \u003cstrong\u003ei-k\u003c/strong\u003e Stress-strain, tensile strength (σ\u003csub\u003eM\u003c/sub\u003e), and Young’s modulus (Et) curves of 0%, 20%, 30% and 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes. *P \u0026lt; 0.05, **P \u0026lt; 0.01, ***P \u0026lt; 0.005. Reproduced with permission from the Ref. (Wang et al., 2021)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/254b6b583fd749fb11b98a6a.png"},{"id":23579481,"identity":"bcee98fe-1efe-4c46-9d91-27d70f0f4fa0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-07 13:14:44","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3767828,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/f8373d2e-5738-4579-ba2e-a0220f82fab1.pdf"},{"id":23538545,"identity":"5603d55c-ae02-4ce4-bdd7-5f9cead3bad8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:22:55","extension":"docx","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":228241,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Copyrightofcitedreferences.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/56320e21462b89d3131c6034.docx"},{"id":23537783,"identity":"3d990e52-11ae-4a3b-b11a-9a907482870c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"tif","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":898870,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig.1tif.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/33afcaa58cc990eb066bd3bd.tif"},{"id":23539576,"identity":"0154d717-2dc1-4a0e-a4f2-ba2823af7c41","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:32:55","extension":"tif","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":907106,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig.2tif.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/3c551dec2e5a04eb2c385828.tif"},{"id":23539148,"identity":"9ed0b481-d2c0-4ad5-b6ca-4f9eeacc668a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:27:55","extension":"tif","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1054378,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig.3tif.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/32e812a88ee8e58691f069c4.tif"},{"id":23537788,"identity":"46da4424-0d3e-4383-82f2-0f0557ded159","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"tif","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":432246,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig.4tif.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/b8ee3da77b008540d0853e64.tif"},{"id":23537789,"identity":"4bf2bdaf-7263-41bc-aecb-893513eeacb9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"tif","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":445574,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig.5tif.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/0b3c52957ed6a8857fa97b19.tif"},{"id":23537790,"identity":"63d77be2-1d5d-4d2e-8c98-aa36f0e6a333","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"tif","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":863368,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig.6tif.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/0800cd9271e85c8c52027695.tif"},{"id":23538548,"identity":"bda309a3-bfc9-42fb-a0d4-de0ca608711b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:22:55","extension":"tif","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1046202,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig.7tif.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/cd3e7ee61ac5a991a8e575ec.tif"},{"id":23537786,"identity":"6b1c951f-4165-4a6f-9b3f-e001bca5cd9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-07-06 16:17:55","extension":"docx","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":743041,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Graphicabstract.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1783762/v1/9b5e44d8ef122cb3b3b87124.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Review on the strategies for enhancing mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBC is a natural polymer found at the air/liquid interface of the culture medium (Cheng et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Iijima et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e), released by bacteria that produce acetic acid, such as \u003cem\u003eAcetobacter xylinus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAcetobacter hansenii\u003c/em\u003e (Shezad et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, BC is made up of repetitive \u0026beta;-D-glucopyranose units, which have a chair-like structure that keeps all of the -OH at the equatorial position, which is necessary for intermolecular H-bonding between two neighboring chains (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea) (Foresti et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). BC nanofibers are secreted via cell plasma membrane pores and aggregated to form microfibers, which then evolve into fibrous bands with a diameter of 40\u0026ndash;100 nm (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb) (Barud et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Cielecka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These fibrous bands then form a 3D network structure, resulting in a larger surface area and increased porosity (Dahman, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Ul-Islam et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). BC fibers can have a content of up to 99% and exist as individual fibers, which are one of the finest natural nanofibers with a surface area of 37 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Iguchi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Nishiyama et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The structure and shape of the prepared BC might vary depending on the culture circumstances, such as fibrous filaments, irregular blocks, and pellicles, due to the aerobic nature of BC-producing strains (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec-e) (Chao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The BC obtained from fermentation needs to be purified with NaOH to remove the culture media until the color turns white, then washed with deionized water to neutralize it (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ef) (Kashcheyeva et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). BC fibers have a disordered laminar porous structure that can be loaded with tiny molecules, according to field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) micrograph (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eg-i). The microstructure of the BC and hence its variable physical properties are determined by the culture circumstances chosen (Naoki et al., 1997). For example, BC pellicles generated under static culture conditions offer appealing advantages in terms of polymerization, crystallinity index, and Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus (Naoki et al., 1997; Watanabe et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, compared to plant-derived analogs, BC has better mechanical properties, a shorter growth cycle, a simpler purification method, greater purity, higher degree of polymerization (14,000\u0026ndash;16,000) (Naoki et al., 1997; Wu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and crystallinity (Shah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Ul-Islam et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). BC and plant-derived analogs have the same chemical properties but differing physical qualities due to various degrees of polymerization (Cacicedo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Romling and Galperin, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). One of the most important parameters determining mechanical properties is the crystallinity of BC (Nishiyama et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). According to the literature, BC crystallinity can reach 84\u0026ndash;90% (Barud et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Czaja et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), whereas the index of plant-derived analogs is simply 40\u0026ndash;60% (Huang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Jonas and Farah, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). This is due to the fact that different resources of cellulose have distinct crystal structures of crystalline cellulose in terms of I\u003csub\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/sub\u003e (one-chain triclinic) and I\u003csub\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/sub\u003e (two-chain monoclinic) crystalline phases (Atalla RH and DL, 1984; Imai and Sugiyama, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). It is worth noting that most plant cellulose is I\u003csub\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/sub\u003e-rich, while BC is I\u003csub\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/sub\u003e-rich (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;80%) (Sugiyama J et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The nanometer-sized compact structure of cellulose I\u003csub\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/sub\u003e chain results in a tighter arrangement of fibers and improved mechanical properties (Gullo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Yamamoto, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, BC possesses a higher purity due to the absence of lignin and hemicellulose, which impair fiber binding (Mona et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Shahriari Khalaji et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). When it comes to the production and application of BC, it is an environmentally friendly green material with inexpensive production costs, easy degradation, plentiful reactive groups, simple transformation, and renewable and sustainable resource (Klemm et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Zhan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). BC has been extensively applied for papermaking (Basta and H. El, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ciolacu and Suflet, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), wound dressings (Fontana et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Lin et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), drug controlled release (Ciolacu and Suflet, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Feng et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), food preservation and storage, environmental protection (Wahid et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zhao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), capacitors (Chen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and cosmetics (Ama et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical properties belong to the macroscopic properties of BC, which consist of strength, brittleness, toughness, plasticity, ductility, etc. The parameters describing the mechanical properties of BC mainly involve Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus (expressed as YM), elongation at break (stated as E%), tensile strength (reported as TS) etc. Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus is an inherent property of the material, and the difference in atomic level is the essential factor. For example, metals and ceramics have strong atomic bonds, while BC is prone to form hydrogen bonds with faintish bonding ability (Sun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang, X. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The universal testing machine is commonly used to measure the mechanical properties of BC (Cai et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The universal testing machine imposes a uniaxial vertical load on BC, records the size of the load and the deformation degree of BC, and then displays the data as a stress-strain graph. Due to the absence of molecular fluidity, dehydrated BC is a brittle material with no obvious plastic deformation (Arrieta et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Retegi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, in the tensile strength testing process, the brittleness of BC will accelerate the creation and propagation of cracks. Larger stress concentration leads to fracture because of the inability to redistribute stress at the crack. The highest stress that BC can endure, as well as its tensile strength, is the stress at fracture. Ductility (also called elongation) is the property of elongation (deformation) when BC is subjected to stress. There is no clear distinction between brittleness and toughness. The value of ductility (toughness) could be employed by the area of BC underneath the stress-strain curve. The specific modulus should also be paid attention to when evaluating the mechanical properties of BC. The specific modulus is the Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus of unit density. It is an essential index for determining BC carrying capacity, and is positively correlated with the rigidity of materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical properties of BC are closely related to its 3D nanostructures and affected by many factors (Fe Ng et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Nakagaito et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The intrinsic factors that affect the mechanical properties of BC include porosity, pore diameter, crystallinity, density, thickness (Cheng et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Zywicka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), degree of polymerization, specific surface area, and so on (Shah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Thiruvengadam and Vitta, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Porosity could be utilized to indicate the tightness of BC fiber. In general, higher porosity means poorer mechanical properties (Jiang and Hsieh, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Karageorgiou and Kaplan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, porosity can vary depending on the fermentation environment (Na et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang, H. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and later modifications (Huang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Laitinen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Crystallinity shows the degree of fibers\u0026rsquo; orderly arrangement and its value is proportional to the degree of orderly arrangement. The increase in BC crystallinity indicates that fibers are more ordered and compact, and have higher intermolecular interactions, leading to the increase in Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus (Cielecka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ruan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eIn-situ\u003c/em\u003e surface and crushing modifications can alter the crystallinity of BC and thus affect the mechanical properties. The advantage of the \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e surface modification is that the original fiber aggregation structure is maintained, while the crushing modification destroys the 3D structure of BC. As for density and thickness, in general, the tensile strength of BC is proportional to the magnitude of both values. Strictly speaking, the mechanical properties of BC wet film are excellent, while the mechanical properties of dehydrated BC film are poor, especially in terms of toughness (Swingler et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This can be attributed to the strong intermolecular interaction due to excessive hydrogen bonding between BC fibers, making it difficult to move between chains and leading to breakage. Fortunately, the strength and toughness of BC can be balanced by different strategies. Firstly, BC films with different pores, diameters and crystallinity can be prepared starting from strain and carbon source selection. Secondly, chemical modification or attachment of bioactive polymers and nanoparticles can be used to form more and stronger bonds. Finally, BC films with enhanced mechanical properties can be obtained by improving the orderly arrangement of fibers. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the different strategies to enhance the mechanical properties of BC.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo the best of our knowledge, there is much literature about the mechanical properties of BC (Chen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wahid et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is a lack of a comprehensive review describing the mechanical properties of BC, which is essential for the enhancement of BC performance. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of mechanical properties promotion, including the main parameters and influencing factors and focusing on different strategies for improving mechanical properties of BC.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Strategies To Enhance Mechanical Properties Of Bc","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Selection and genetic modification of BC production strains\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBC is produced by microorganisms, such as \u003cem\u003eKomagateibacter xylinus\u003c/em\u003e (known successively as \u003cem\u003eAcetobacter xylinus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eGluconacetobacter xylinus\u003c/em\u003e ) (Kumbhar et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Tsouko et al., 2015), \u003cem\u003eSarcina\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAgrobacterium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRhizobium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRhodobacter\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAzotobacte\u003c/em\u003e, etc (Augimeri et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Zeng et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Among them, \u003cem\u003eKomagateibacter xylinus (K. xylinus)\u003c/em\u003e is widely used because it can utilize a broad spectrum of carbon or nitrogen sources (Azeredo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Lu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and produce a higher yield and purity of fibers (Chen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018a\u003c/span\u003e; Ruka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The content, morphology, and structure of the cellulose produced by different strains can be varied, which affecting mechanical performance (Chen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018b\u003c/span\u003e; Wang, J et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, the selection of BC-producing strains affects the ultrastructure and diameter size of the fiber, both of which are vital factors in determining the mechanical performance of BC (Volova et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that we can enhance the mechanical properties of BC by starting with strains.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearchers have investigated the impact of various strains on BC performance in order to improve the mechanical properties of BC. For example, the effect of six different strains on the mechanical properties of BC has been investigated (Chen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018b\u003c/span\u003e). The experimental data revealed that BC produced by \u003cem\u003eK. xylinus\u003c/em\u003e ATCC 53524 had the largest fiber concentration (measured as dry weight divided by weight of the hydrated gel) as well as the highest tensile strength and stiffness. It suggests that the mechanical properties of BC are mostly determined by fiber concentration, which is helpful for the selection of BC-producing strains in experiments (Patricia et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Compared the morphological characteristics of BC produced by \u003cem\u003eL. Hilgardii\u003c/em\u003e IITRKH159 and \u003cem\u003eK. xylinus\u003c/em\u003e (Khan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and found that the BC fibrils produced by \u003cem\u003eL. Hilgardii\u003c/em\u003e IITRKH159 were thinner and their average diameter was smaller than \u003cem\u003eK. xylinus\u003c/em\u003e (Dubey et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mohammadkazemi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, the BC film produced by \u003cem\u003eL. Hilgardii\u003c/em\u003e IITRKH159 and \u003cem\u003eK. xylinus\u003c/em\u003e were enriched with I\u003csub\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/sub\u003e (Poletto et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), the BC film produced by the former has a higher crystallinity and is more ordered structure (Khan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that \u003cem\u003eL. hilgardii\u003c/em\u003e IITRKH159 appears to be a potential producer of BC and can be used in some respects as an alternative for \u003cem\u003eK. xylinus\u003c/em\u003e. Similarly, high purity BC was produced by \u003cem\u003eAcetobacter\u003c/em\u003e Pasteurianus of RSV-4 bacterium (Kumar et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBy introducing functional genes or manipulating gene expression through genetic engineering, BC membranes with a variety of mechanical properties can be created (Wang, J. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The modified strains were created by modulating the expression level of \u003cem\u003egaIU\u003c/em\u003e, an important gene that controls the carbon metabolic flow during BC production. The gaIU expression level is negatively correlated with BC porosity and positively correlated with BC crystallinity, which influenced mechanical properties to some extent (Huang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Increased the expression of colanic acid biosynthetic gene clusters in \u003cem\u003eEnterobacter\u003c/em\u003e sp. FY-07 can prepare BC with a denser and clearer network (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The trends of fracture stress and Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus of modified BC were similar to the trends of crystallinity, according to the experimental data (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The genes of A:Kan and AB::Kan were obtained by mutating \u003cem\u003emotA\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003emotB\u003c/em\u003e genes related to strain motility (Jacek et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The results showed that the compression modulus of BC film formed by the strains of A:Kan and AB::Kan was higher than that of pure BC wet film, while the tensile modulus was lower than that of pure BC wet film. It is supposed that the disruption mutants of \u003cem\u003emotA\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003emotB\u003c/em\u003e reduced the motility of strains, resulting in higher compaction of nanocellulose fibers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe generation of BC by co-culture strains has gotten a lot of attention as a way to improve mechanical properties. Co-culture is an industrial technology that streamlines production processes and maximizes advantages by culturing two or more strains simultaneously to meet specific requirements. The relationship between co-cultured strains is cooperation and competition, hence the optimum conditions for strains to show synergistic effects should be thoroughly investigated during the co-culture process. When BC films were produced in a fermentation media with bacterial and yeast symbiotic communities (Tapias et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), ethanol produced by yeast activates bacterial cellulose synthase, which improves BC mechanical properties (Gullo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; May et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The BC film obtained in Kombucha has a better mechanical strength but a lesser toughness. The discrepancy in mechanical properties could be attributed to the formation of uniform and continuous nanonetworks, and BC is plasticized due to the presence of various molecular weight components throughout the culture process (Mec et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Tapias et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). BC/polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) films were prepared by co-culture of \u003cem\u003eG. xylinus\u003c/em\u003e ATCC 700178 and PHB-producing strain \u003cem\u003eR. eutropha\u003c/em\u003e H16 (Ding et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It was found that BC/PHB films with various mechanical properties could be obtained at different strain inocula. Moreover, the trends of TS and E% were not proportional to the PHB content, which could be explained by the dense network structure formed by fine interfacial adhesion between BC fiber and PHB particles (Barud et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Fernandes et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli (E. coli)\u003c/em\u003e could synthesize mannose-rich exopolysaccharides (EPS), which differ from BC fibers only at the C2 position and have a high degree of stereochemistry similarity (Fang and Catchmark, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Wang, X. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Herein, it is predicted that EPS has a strong affinity for BC fiber in this study (Whitney et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). BC films were co-cultured with \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eGluconacetobacter hansenii\u003c/em\u003e, and it was discovered that appropriate EPS had a positive effects on its mechanical properties, such as increasing the TS value (Liu. et al., 2019). The explanation for this could be the bonding of the appropriate amount of EPS to BC fiber and filled with porous diameter, whereas excessive EPS is perfectly coated on fiber, resulting in reduced adhesion (Fang and Catchmark, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Liu and Catchmark, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The postbiotics incorporated BNC(P-BNC) film was obtained by impregnating lyophilized postbiotics of Lactobacillus plantarum with bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) (Yordshahi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). After adding postbiotics, the E% value increased from 7.5\u0026ndash;47.0%. This may be attributed to the postbiotics of lactic acid bacteria containing a variety of extracellular polysaccharides and fatty acids (Dilna et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Moradi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and the improvement of the mechanical properties of the film may be related to their plasticity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Carbon source selection\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring the growth of the microorganism, the carbon source serves as the frame of the cell and also provides the energy required for growth (Andriani et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). BC-producing strains utilize carbon sources selectively, affecting the intrinsic properties of BC. For example, the carbon source chosen has an impact on its ultrastructure, such as fiber diameter, crystallinity, and so on, which in turn has an impact on physical properties (Volova et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, the synthesis of BC could be regulated through the selection of carbon sources, and the mechanical features of BC could be shaped according to the requirements (Badshah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The direct addition of diverse compounds to the culture medium as a carbon source is a standard way for obtaining BC with multiple characteristics (Andriani et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, sugars, lipids, organic acids, protein, and other carbon sources are common. Sugars are the most commonly used carbon source, including glucose, sucrose, fructose, galactose, starch and so on (Mikkelsen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, other carbon sources, such as ethanol, can also affect fiber production (May et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe calcium-modified BC obtained by using calcium gluconate as a carbon source has good mechanical properties due to the fact that calcium gluconate changes the ultrastructure of BC, which determines the properties of BC (Lin S et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Calcium-modified BC composites were prepared using calcium gluconate by replacing glucose into the medium as the carbon source, and then BC-hydroxyapatite (BC/HAp) nanocomposites were prepared by biomimetic mineralization (BMBC) and chemical mineralization of BC (CMBC) (Lin S et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea). Among them, Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e is adsorbed on the entangled cellulose unit by forming a coordination polymer with the oxygen atoms of the cellulose unit (Koshevoy et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The FESEM micrographs showed that BC-calcium nanocomposite obtained by BMBC induces mineralization more quickly and uniformly than CMBC (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb-f). The TS of BC films generated by BMBC was better than of CMBC, and both were greater than that of BC, according to mechanical test results (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eg-i). It is speculated that the supersaturated Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e provided by calcium gluconate are well combined with the hydroxyl groups on BC, providing multiple nucleation sites for subsequent mineralization, resulting in BMBC that is more uniform and dense, with more prominent mechanical qualities (Hong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec5\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Chemical modification\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo better adapt to the demands of the application, the chemical modification of BC can precisely customize its structure (Hosakun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; O-Rak et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Chemical functionalization, which involves making new bonds and changing the linkage to improve its mechanical properties (Chun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Espino Perez et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), is partly attributable to the BC chain\u0026rsquo;s abundance of active hydroxyl groups (Azeredo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Owing to the diversity in applications, the chemical modification methods of BC include acetylation (Ifuku et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), oxidation (Chang, W.S. and Chen, H.H., 2016; Isogai and Zhou, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), benzoylation (Yan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), phosphorylation (Oshima et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), succinylation (Yin et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Etherification (Casaburi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), etc. The chemical crosslinking of BC generates a preferred crosslinking network, enhancing the molecular connections and therefore improving the structural stability and mechanical strength of the composites.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOxidation refers to the use of oxidizing agents, such as hydrogen peroxide, persulfate, potassium permanganate, and others to oxidize the hydroxyl groups in the BC structure to carbonyl or carboxyl groups, so changing the kind of functional group (Oun and Rhim, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Solomevich et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). One of the most frequent chemical approaches for functional BC is oxidation (Ch et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), which can increase intermolecular interactions (Chen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Taking 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO)-mediated oxidation as an example, TEMPO and its derivatives mediated oxidation of polysaccharides is a selective oxidation of primary alcohols, in which the hydroxyl groups of carbon-6 produce aldehydes and acids successively (Fig. 4a) (Ch et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Isogai and Kato, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Four types of BC aerogels, including non-oxidized (BC\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e and BC\u003csub\u003eNS\u003c/sub\u003e), non-silylated (BC\u003csub\u003eOXN\u003c/sub\u003e) and double-functionalized BC (BC\u003csub\u003eOXNS\u003c/sub\u003e), were prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation, nanofibrillation and silylation (Pereira et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The mechanical test results showed that BC\u003csub\u003eOXN\u003c/sub\u003e had the highest elastic modulus, tension in the deformation of 50% and smallest recovery. The BC\u003csub\u003eNS\u003c/sub\u003e were observed with the highest value of recovery, the lowest values of tension in the deformation of 50% and elasticity modulus. Analysis of the resulting aerogels showed that BC\u003csub\u003eOXN\u003c/sub\u003e had the lowest porosity and the densest structure. This is due to the enhanced inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bonding by oxidation and the freezing preparation that promotes the formation of denser protofibrils (Yang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), which is consistent with Chen\u0026rsquo;s experimental findings (Chen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). BC\u003csub\u003eNS\u003c/sub\u003e had the highest porosity and the lowest density, leading to the decline of mechanical properties. The composite of oxidized bacterial nanocellulose (O-BNC) and \u0026epsilon;-poly-L-lysine (PLL) with high carboxylic acid content was prepared by TEMPO oxidation of BNC (Fig. 4b) (Mina Shahriari-Khalaji et al., 2022). The fracture stress and E% of O-BNC/PLL increased obviously, which may be due to the favorable covalent bond between PLL and O-BNC with high carboxylic acid content (Lal and Mhaske, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). TEMPO-oxidation prepared -COONa functional group on the BC surface (Yao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), which provides cross-linking bridges for the subsequent Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e exchange (Gordeyeva et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Torres-Rendon et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The mechanical properties of the modified composite films are greatly improved due to the enhanced interfacial interaction of the metal ions with the fibers, resulting in improved mechanical properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe degree of substitution (DS) of acetylated BC was controlled between 0.04\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;2.77 by adjusting the amount of acetic anhydride (Schlufter et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). It was found that the YM of acetylated BC was lower than that of BC, which may be due to the change in stiffness of microprotofibers caused by acetylation (Fig. 4c) (Schlufter et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Carboxymethyl modified BC was obtained by monochloroacetic acid (MCA) and it was found that different concentrations of MCA increased DS, further improving the mechanical properties related to DS (Rachtanapun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The experimental data showed that the values of TS and E% increased with the increase of carboxymethylation level. It was speculated that the increase in TS value was due to the increase of DS and intermolecular forces caused by carboxymethylation, while the increase of E% value was due to the decrease of crystallinity and the increase of flexibility of cellulose structure (Adinugraha et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Rachtanapun and Rattanapanone, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Phosphorylation of BC increased DS value and preserved microfibrous structure (Fig. 4d) (Oshima et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the esterification of BC also provides a basis for improving its mechanical properties (Lee et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wang, B. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec6\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Polymer reinforcement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompared with the methods mentioned above, one of the commonly used strategies to enhance the mechanical properties of BC is to incorporate polymers as reinforcement agents (Bahrami et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Tajima et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The 3D nano-network of BC allows polymers and nanoparticles to be impregnated into its matrix and cross-linked with cellulose chains (Khan et al., 2015). The strategy of reinforcing agent filling BC is divided into \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eex-situ\u003c/em\u003e according to whether it is added during the BC film is formed. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the types of substances used for \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eex-situ\u003c/em\u003e modification to enhance the mechanical properties of BC. The \u003cem\u003eIn-situ\u003c/em\u003e approach adds polymer attached to the BC fiber network in the process of BC formation (Shah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Ul-Islam et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), which will alter the growth environment of BC and interfere with the crystallization or co-crystallization process (Ruka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The type and concentration of the polymer could alter the properties of BC to some extent, such as fiber diameter, microstructure and crystallinity, affecting its mechanical properties (Ruka et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The \u003cem\u003eex-situ\u003c/em\u003e modification refers to the reinforcement agents attached to the synthesized BC network, primarily through immersion and crushing methods (Hu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Kanjanamosit et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Polymers also serve as plasticizers, equivalent to internal lubricant, enabling excellent interfacial adhesion and strong interaction between the chains. When the composite film is stressed, the free volume of the internal structure increases due to the lubrication of the polymer, and the fluidity between the fibers is favorable, which avoids the concentration of stress. In addition, when the composite film is subjected to external forces, the embedded polymer shares the stress with BC, which improves the TS value of the composite film (Ul-Islam et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the lubrication of the polymer reduces the intermolecular friction and improves the flexibility and processability of the composite membranes (Marcilla and Beltr\u0026aacute;n, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Ul-Islam et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Composite membrane composed of BC and polymer with reduced BC-BC bond, while forming stronger plasticizer-BC bonds. The quantity of plasticizer-BC bonds is directly related to the mechanical properties of BC, for instance, the elastic modulus of BC/poly ethylene glicol (PEG) composite membrane is better than that of BC/GEL composite membrane (Sun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolymers can be divided into hydrophilic and hydrophobic according to their intrinsic feature. The BC film modified by hydrophilic polymer is conducive to absorbing water to promote the rehydration of fiber and the reorganization of the internal structure of the composite membrane (Cazon, P et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Figura and Teixeira, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The increase in the water content of the composite membrane will improve the elastic performance, whereas reducing the resistance to fracture and deformation (Caz\u0026oacute;n et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Caz\u0026oacute;n et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Glycerol (Cazon, P. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Patricia et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), poly ethylene glycol (Cai and Kim, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and gelatin are water-soluble polymers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChitosan (CS) can be used to enhance the mechanical properties of BC due to the similar structure of BC and CS leading to enhanced interfacial interactions. In addition, in order to better combine BC and CS, oxidation methods, such as TEMPO oxidation (Nge et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), graft oxidation (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e oxidation (Chang, W. and Chen, H., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), are used to introduce carboxyl on the surface of BC and form a covalent amide bond with -NH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e of CS, thus improving the mechanical properties of the composite film. Hydrogen peroxide oxidation BC (HOBC)/CS/ alginate (Alg) composite film was prepared by hydrogen peroxide with better mechanical properties (Chang, W.S. and Chen, H.H., 2016). It is speculated that the interaction between the carboxylate group of alginate and/or oxidized bacterial cellulose and the amine group of CS forms polyelectrolyte complex to improve the mechanical strength of the film (Jian et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). BC/PVA/glycerol ternary composite film was acquired by soaking BC film in a mixture of glycerol and PVA, with PVA as a reinforcing agent and glycerol as a plasticizer (Cazon, P. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The mechanical test results demonstrated that the TS of the composite film improved remarkably compared to BC reaching 49.89%, while the toughness was decreased. It is speculated that the BC/PVA/glycerol ternary composite film is overplasticized under high humidity due to the strong wettability of glycerol, resulting in the weak structure and the decrease of elasticity of the composite film. When dehydrated BC film was immersed in the mixture of glycerol and starch, mechanical tests showed that TS and YM of the composite membrane increased by 2.37 times and 1.324 times, compared with pure BC (Wan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The reason was glycerol and starch as plasticizers improve the mechanical properties of the composite film.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSodium alginate (SA) is a native polysaccharide with a large number of hydroxyl groups. When SA is acted as reinforcing and plasticizing agent, it can better disperse and transfer the stress on the fiber and crosslink with other ions to form more binding bonds to improve mechanical properties. The BC/SA composite film was obtained by impregnation, and then BC/SA composite film was soaked in calcium alginate (CA) solution to make BC/CA composite film (Yang, G. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The tensile test results revealed that the TS and E% of BC/SA were 1.76 and 1.07 times higher than pure BC, while BC/CA were 3.22 and 1.26 times higher than those of pure BC, respectively. It is speculated that the crosslinking between SA and BC plays a dominant role in the improvement of mechanical properties of composite materials, while the crosslinking between CA and BC further promotes the performance of composite films. The combination of SA and CA networks results in effective fiber relaxation, energy consumption and transfer under stress. The BC film was soaked in SA and CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e solution successively, and the mechanical properties of the composite film were improved, especially the E% reached 35% (Sulaeva et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). When SA was coated on the surface of the dehydrated BC film, a large number of hydrogen bonds were generated between them, forming a strong connection and improving the mechanical properties of the composite film (Yang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen PVA is acted as a plasticizer, it interrupts the hydrogen bonding between the fibers, resulting in fiber slippage and improving toughness. In addition, the inherent properties of PVA and the lower YM make the composite less stiff (Gea et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The BC/PVA composite film could be acquired by \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e and immersion method (Gea et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The mechanical test found that the YM of the composite membrane obtained in both ways decreased and the toughness increased, especially for \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e samples. Similarly, BC/PVA composite films were obtained by mixing BC powder and PVA, and E% was significantly increased from 209\u0026ndash;443% (Zhao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe BC/poly caprolactone (PCL) composite film was made by impregnation and the mechanical properties were changed due to the plasticizing effect of PCL (Barud et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the BC/PHB composite film was prepared by immersing BC in poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)-chloroform solutions (Barud et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), and were found to improve the mechanical properties (Cai and Yang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows various polymers used for improving the mechanical properties of BC and their principles.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ctable border=\"1\" id=\"Tab1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVarious polymers are used for strengthening the mechanical properties of BC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdditive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMechanical properties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApplications\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRefs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCOL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImmersion method; EDC \u003csup\u003ea)\u003c/sup\u003e and GT \u003csup\u003eb)\u003c/sup\u003e as cross-linking agents.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe TS of BC/COL-EDC and BC/COL-GT increased by 70.8 and 57.9%, and the E% increased by 28.9 and 23.3%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA chemical bond formed between BC molecules and both BC and COL.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Yang, Q. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFibrin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImmersion method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe TS increased by 15%; the YM or E% no significant influence.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArtificial blood vessel.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA chemical bond formed between BC and fibrin.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Brown et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCMC \u003csup\u003ec)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn-situ\u003c/em\u003e method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE% decreases.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrug delivery.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow elastic modulus of CMC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Fontes et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA \u003csup\u003ed)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMelt polycondensation; \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe YM and TS are increased to 52% and 31%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe promotion of BC and PLA interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Ambrosio Martin et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElectrospinning.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe rigidity increase; the E% is not significantly altered.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnhanced dispersion and matrix-filler adhesion.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Martinez Sanz et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePAM \u003csup\u003ee)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTEMPO oxidation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTS of the composite film is 3 times stronger than pure PAM.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDrug release.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBC fiber strengthens PAM mesh.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Dp et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePU \u003csup\u003ef)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImmersion method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE% is decreased while the TS and YM increased\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiomedical.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe good interfacial interactions between polymers and BC.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Urbina et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePP \u003csup\u003eg)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Sandwich\u0026rdquo; hot-press method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe TS of BC/\u003cem\u003eat\u003c/em\u003e-PP is about 46 times that of \u003cem\u003eat\u003c/em\u003e-PP; YM increased while E% decreased\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood packaging; optoelectronics applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntanglement and physical crosslinking between BC and \u003cem\u003eat\u003c/em\u003e-PP restrict the migration of the BC chain and hinder the change of network structure.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Wang, Q. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePEGDA \u003csup\u003eh)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImmersion method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExcellent compression performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClinical applications as soft material.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForming tight network structures.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Numata et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePEO \u003csup\u003ei)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn-situ\u003c/em\u003e method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe tensile storage modulus of PEO is significantly increased.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiomedical applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHydrogen bonding between BC and PEO.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Brown et al., 2007)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePMMA \u003csup\u003eg)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImpregnating method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe YM is almost twice higher than that of the neat PMMA, while TS and E% is lower than PMMA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe flexibility of the nanocomposite is limited by the strong and rigid BC network and led to breakage.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Oliver Ortega et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gamma;-PGA/BC \u003csup\u003ek)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEx-situ\u003c/em\u003e method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe TS of \u0026gamma;-PGA/BC composite is 8.16 times higher than that of \u0026gamma;-PGA, and the TS and E% are increasing.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gamma;-PGA/BC chains are intertwined to form hydrogen bonds and may lead to effective energy dissipation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Dou et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eEDC \u003csup\u003ea)\u003c/sup\u003e: 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGT \u003csup\u003eb)\u003c/sup\u003e: Glutaraldehyde\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCMC \u003csup\u003ec)\u003c/sup\u003e: carboxymethylcellulose\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA \u003csup\u003ed)\u003c/sup\u003e: polylactic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePAM \u003csup\u003ee)\u003c/sup\u003e: polyacrylamide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePU \u003csup\u003ef)\u003c/sup\u003e: polyurethane\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePP \u003csup\u003eg)\u003c/sup\u003e: polypropylene\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePEGDA \u003csup\u003eh)\u003c/sup\u003e: polyethylene glycol diacrylate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePEO \u003csup\u003ei)\u003c/sup\u003e: polyethylene oxide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePMMA \u003csup\u003eg)\u003c/sup\u003e: polymethyl methacrylate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gamma;-PGA \u003csup\u003ek)\u003c/sup\u003e: poly (\u0026gamma;-glutamic acid)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec7\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Nanoparticles reinforcement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition to polymers, nanoparticles are generally served as reinforcement to improve the mechanical properties of BC, provided that the nanoparticles are uniformly dispersed throughout the fiber network. The BC works as a carrier and stabilizer in the composite film made up of nanoparticles and BC, with a 3D network structure that provides various binding sites for the nanoparticles (Shi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Sonawane et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Nanoparticles include nano-metal oxides; non-metal oxides (Barbi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sai et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e); metal hydroxides; nano nonmetals (Silva et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), etc.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe BC/TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e composite film was prepared by combining BC slurry with TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e of various compositions (Barbi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). When the TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e content was 10 wt%~40 wt%, the E% of the composite film generally decreased, which was due to the large difference between the ceramic-like properties of nanoparticles and the plastic-like properties of pure BC. When the TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e content was 30 wt%, the TS value of the BC/TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e composite film reached the maximum, reflecting the optimal balance between the ceramic-like properties of nanoparticles and the plastic-like properties of pure BC. BC/CS-ZnO composite hydrogels was made by combining CS and ZnO (Jiang and Zhou, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The results showed that the TS of BC/CS-ZnO composite hydrogels can reach 880 KPa, while the compressive stress was 15 times higher than that of BC hydrogels at the compression rate of 60%. This is because ZnO nanoparticles were attached to the surface of BC/CS film, making the composite membrane structure more compact and interacting to form new bonds. The BC nanofiber film (BCNF) was prepared, which was firstly soaked in punica granatum peels extract (PPE) to obtain the carrier material PPE/BCNF, and then immersed in HAuCl\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and AgNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e solutions to prepare Au@PPE/BCNF and Ag@PPE/BCNF composite membranes (Deshmukh et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The results demonstrated that the TS of Au@PPE/BCNF is improved relatively to BCNF, which may be attributed to metal nanoparticles presented in BCNF porous structure that can resist mechanical tension at a certain elongation. The BC/silver nanowires (AgNWs) composite films were prepared and found that the TS and YM values of the composite films both increased with the addition of AgNWs, while the E% remained essentially constant (Wan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It is speculated that the increase in TS and YM is due to the decrease in porosity and pore size by the addition of AgNWs and the entanglement formation of BC nanofibers with AgNWs (Wan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Titanium (IV) bis-(ammonium lactate) dihydroxide was added to the fermentation medium, and the cross-linking and growth of BC were controlled by polyvalent ions (Knller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The mechanical properties of obtained composite membranes were tremendously improved with YM, TS and toughness increasing by 2, 3, and 4 times compared to pure BC, respectively. After adding NaF to the culture medium, the composite films of FBC\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e, FBC\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, FBC\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and FBC\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e were prepared according to NaF content (Sun et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The tensile tests demonstrated that TS values increased accordingly with increasing NaF concentration, while E% decreased. The FBC\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e with the highest tensile strength is 4 times greater than FBC\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e, while FBC\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e with the highest YM value is 6 times higher than that of FBC\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e. The reason is that NaF and BC fiber form a stronger connection network and thus improving the tensile strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon-metallic nanomaterials such as carbon-based materials, Graphene oxide (GO), SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, etc., have great potential for applications to enhance the mechanical properties of BC. Owing to the excellent flexibility of carbon-based materials, composites with excellent mechanical properties can be obtained by combining with BC (Luo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018b\u003c/span\u003e; Wahid et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The BC/GO composite films with various GO levels were made using the spraying approach and discovered that the mechanical properties of the composite films were better when the GO content was 0.22 wt% (Luo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018b\u003c/span\u003e). When the GO component in the BC/GO composite film was 0.22 wt%, the TS and YM of the composite film reached their maximum value, which were 2.9 and 3.6 times that of pure BC film, respectively. This is due to the fact that GO nanosheets were evenly distributed in the 3D network of BC and the hydrogen bonds generated between them had strong connections (Luo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018b\u003c/span\u003e). The carbon nanotube is a kind of carbon form with good hardness and flexibility, which is an ideal material with high strength. BC-multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) composite hydrogels were obtained \u003cem\u003ein situ\u003c/em\u003e and converted into aerogels by supercritical carbon dioxide method (Kokabi and Mousavi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The increase in YM and decrease in TS of BC-MWCNTs aerogels were closely related to the good dispersion caused by the interaction between carbon nanotubes and the BC nanofiber matrix. The \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e method affects strain activity and particle distribution, which limits the improvement of mechanical properties of BC (Balandin et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Shao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Layer by layer (LBL) and crushing methods can be applied to better improve the mechanical properties of BC (Shao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e). The composite film of graphene/BC (GE/BC) was prepared by LBL assembly technique, in which GE solution was sprayed on the thinner BC film repeatedly until the desired thickness was reached (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea) (Luo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018a\u003c/span\u003e). The composite films of GE/BC-1, GE/BC-2, and GE/BC-3 were obtained by mixing GE and BC in ratios of 1:5, 1:3, and 1:1. Compared with pure BC, the mechanical properties of BC/GE-3 composite film significantly improved with TS and YM increased by 91% and 279%, respectively (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb-e). This can be ascribed to the improved GE distribution of LBL technology and the GE surface contained large amounts of hydroxyl, carbonyl and epoxy functional groups, which can form strong interactions and tightly bound by BC fibers. The BC/GE paper was made by LBL technology, which shows vastly improved TS, approximately 93% (Luo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The BC/GE composite film was acquired by direct mixing of BC slurry and GE (Shao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e). As GE content increased from 0.5 wt% to 8 wt%, the increment of TS increased from 17.7\u0026ndash;68.8%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Ordered arrangement of fibers\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe arrangement of BC fibers is unordered, while the mechanical properties mostly determined by the arrangement of microfibrils and the degree of hydrogen bonding interactions between the fibers (Chawla et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the random distribution of BC nanofibers at the micro scale results in low structural strength (Dayal and Catchmark, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Wan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). To improve the orderly arrangement of nanofibers, researchers attempt to control the movement of strains to obtain orderly fibers, including direct current (DC) electric field (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sano et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), static magnetic field (Quan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), microgroove mold (Chen and Chang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Rahman et al., 2017), rotating magnetic field (Karol et al., 2016) and so forth. DC electric field (10 mA) was applied to control the movement of strains and obtained fibers with a certain orientation (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The tensile test demonstrated that the TS along the electric field increased definitively compared with the control. Similarly, The agarose microroot molds can also control the movement of strains and obtain well-arranged fibrils (Zang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The static magnetic field was also applied to adjust the orderly distribution of fibers and found that the stiffness and compression of the obtained BC film were greatly improved (Quan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHowever, controlling the migration of strains to improve the mechanical properties is limited due to the uncontrollability of the strain. At this point, ordered arrangement fibers obtained by wet spinning and drawing procedures have attracted plentiful attention (Yao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). When BC films are at lower deformation, microfibrils rearrange along the direction of force to acquire an oriented structure, which reduces the friction of fiber movement and improves the mechanical properties (Backdahl et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Clasen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The aligned BC/GEL composite film was prepared by external force stretching and solution-dipping (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea) (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The FESEM micrographs showed that the non-stretched nanofibers of BC/GEL were randomly distributed (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb), while the stretched nanofibers of BC/GEL showed an increasing amount of aligned nanofibers with the increased stretching strains, with stretched strain rates of 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, respectively (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ec-g). The aligned arrangement of the 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes was the most prominent. The mechanical test results revealed that the TS and YM values of the stretched BC/GEL membranes increased significantly (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eh-k). Specifically, the TS and YM values of BC/GEL films with 40% stretching strains increased by 605.10% and 78.35% compared with those of non-stretched BC/GEL membranes. Notably, the 40% stretched BC/GEL membrane achieved both tensile strength and toughness improvement at the same time, while these two properties were ordinarily mutually exclusive (Ritchie, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). It was supposed that the improved mechanical properties of the 40% stretched BC/GEL membranes were related to the two factors of connection bond and aligned arrangement between fibers. On the one hand, the quantitative stretching and hot pressing form a more compact aligned arrangement, which enhanced the connection of hydrogen bonds. On the other hand, the uniform distribution of gelatin enhanced the interaction of composite membranes. Additionally, it was also found that fiber diameter was positively correlated with the stretched strain. It was supposed that the quantitative stretching increased the arrangement of fibers and strengthened the hydrogen bonding, thus forming fiber bundles with a larger diameter, which is conducive to improving the mechanical properties of composite membranes (Xiao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The aligned arrangement of BC nanofibers were prepared and significantly improved mechanical properties by quantitative stretching (Wang, S. et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The tensile strength, Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus and toughness of the 40% stretched BC film increased by 417%, 322%, and 550% compared to the nonstretched BC film, making it a record high strength material. The tube-shaped BC (TBC) was prepared by cultivating in polydimethylsiloxane tubes (Rahman et al., 2017). The TBC was stretched to 120% of the original film under external force and the mechanical properties of TBC were found to be significantly improved compared to pure BC. Among these, the TS, YM and orientation indices are increased by 230%, 330% and 135%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe composite films were prepared with highly ordered helical honeycomb microstructures passing through cyclic freeze-thawing (Yu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The mechanical results demonstrated that TS and toughness were 315 MPa and 17.8 MJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, which had greatly improved compared to that of pure BC. The prepared bioinspired hierarchical helical nanocomposite microfibers significantly improved the TS, E%, and toughness of the composite membrane, demonstrating the effectiveness of the design of bionic layered and nanocomposite helices for enhancing mechanical properties (Gao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The Lotus-Fiber-Like spiral hydrogel BC was made with toughness reaching 116.3 MJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, which was 9 times more than the original BC hydroge (Guan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, we can find that the construction of a highly ordered structure is the key to producing high-performance structural materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eSome strategies for enhancing the mechanical properties of BC, such as the selection of strains and carbon sources, chemical modifications and incorporation reinforcement agents, and improvement ordered arrangement of fiber were described. The general mechanism of these strategies is based on changing the ultrastructure of BC and forming stronger fiber-to-fiber bonds. The mechanical properties of BC are influenced by crystallinity, porosity, and fiber diameter, whereas the disordered fiber arrangement has a significant impact. Controlling the migration of producing-strain, stretching the BC fibers, and electrostatic spinning were used to improve the ordered arrangement of the fibers. Interestingly, stretched BC film maintain their fiber alignment in a relatively ordered arrangement, which considerably improves the mechanical characteristics. Chemical modification and incorporation reinforcement agents allow BC to form hydrogen, ionic, and covalent bonds, allowing it to tolerate larger stresses. In fact, individual BC fibers have TS and YM values of 100\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;400 MPa and 10\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20 GPa, respectively. Nevertheless, the literature demonstrate that the TS value of BC is 5\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;96 MPa, indicating that the mechanical capabilities of BC suffers a significant loss during the transition from nano- to macro-scale. This loss can be attributed to three factors: inherent defects in nanofibers; dislocation of nanofibers; the boundaries and voids between nanofibers. Reduced loss during fiber transition could be an excellent study topic for improving the mechanical properties of BC. Although these strategies can improve the mechanical properties of BC, there is still a large research space to reduce the loss of fiber transition from micro to macro.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 21978219).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 21978219).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinancial interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYun-Ya Wang:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing - original draft. \u003cstrong\u003eXue-Qing Zhao:\u003c/strong\u003e Review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eDong-Mei Li:\u003c/strong\u003e Review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eYa-Mei Wu:\u003c/strong\u003e Review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eFazli Wahid:\u003c/strong\u003e Review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eYan-Yan Xie:\u003c/strong\u003e Review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eCheng Zhong:\u003c/strong\u003e Supervision \u0026amp; Funding acquisition. All authors have commented on previous editions of the manuscript. All authors read and approve the final draft.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdinugraha MP, Marseno DW, Haryadi (2005) Synthesis and characterization of sodium carboxymethylcellulose from cavendish banana pseudo stem (Musa cavendishii LAMBERT). Carbohydr Polym 62(2):164\u0026ndash;169\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAma B, Ps C, Sag D, Rk A, Sa E, Mb F, Abg H (2021) Nanocelluloses as skin biocompatible materials for skincare, cosmetics, and healthcare: Formulations, regulations, and emerging applications. Carbohydr. Polym\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmbrosio Martin J, Fabra M, Lopez Rubio A, Lagaron J (2015) Melt polycondensation to improve the dispersion of bacterial cellulose into polylactide via melt compounding: enhanced barrier and mechanical properties. 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Carbohydr Polym 199:294\u0026ndash;303\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"BC, mechanical properties, enhancing, strategies","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1783762/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1783762/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBacterial cellulose (BC) is a pure biopolymer with abundant sources. BC has been used in wound dressings, artificial blood vessels, bone tissue engineering, and other applications because of its microporosity, excellent water retention, thermal stability, and biocompatibility. Despite this, the mechanical qualities of dehydrated BC are poor, and its strength and toughness are insufficient for the application. The mechanical properties of BC are influenced by the three-dimensional (3D) nano-network structure, which includes porosity, pore diameter, and the ordered arrangement of fibers, among other factors. Essentially, the quantity and kind of cross-linking in the 3D network play a critical role in improving mechanical characteristics. Selection and modification of production strains, surface chemical modification, physical mixing with reinforcement, and improving the ordered arrangement of fibers are some of the tactics discussed in this review for improving the mechanical properties of BC. Various improvement methods and their effects on mechanical characteristics are addressed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Review on the strategies for enhancing mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-07-06 16:17:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1783762/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6b1727d3-7041-4f9b-b1b2-ac99adb82b6a","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 6th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-07-07T13:14:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-07-06 16:17:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1783762","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1783762","identity":"rs-1783762","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}