Meet your match: The moderating role of self-surveillance and body shame in the relationships between dating app use and mental health outcomes amongst Australian men

Meet your match: The moderating role of self-surveillance and body shame in the relationships between dating app use and mental health outcomes amongst Australian men | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Meet your match: The moderating role of self-surveillance and body shame in the relationships between dating app use and mental health outcomes amongst Australian men Zac Bowman, Murray Drummond, Ivanka Prichard, Jasmine Petersen This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8244855/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Mental health is amongst one of the largest concerns for men in Australia. The use of dating apps has been identified as a contributor to poorer mental health outcomes in men. This study aimed to enhance knowledge of the relationship between dating app use (gay vs mainstream) and mental health by identifying whether pre-existing levels of self-surveillance and body shame had a moderating effect. Australian men (aged 18 to 62, M = 35.30 years; 63% self-identified as a sexual minority) who used dating apps (n=266) were surveyed on their dating app behaviours, self-surveillance, body shame, mental health, and self-esteem. Overall, gay dating app users reported significantly poorer mental health and self-esteem. After controlling for age and sexuality, body shame significantly moderated the relationships between app type and mental health and self-esteem. Specifically, mainstream dating app users with high body shame reported poorer mental health outcomes than gay dating app users. Amongst those with low levels of body shame, mainstream dating app use was associated with better self-esteem and mental health outcomes than gay dating app use. Conversely, there was no significant moderating effect of self-surveillance on these relationships. These findings provide evidence that pre-existing levels of body shame in combination with different types of app use play a role in men’s mental health outcomes. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. INTRODUCTION The recent proliferation of mobile dating applications (apps) and online dating has led researchers to consider the impact these platforms may have on user’s mental health. Mental health refers to the psychosocial functioning of an individual and their ability to appropriately cope with normal life stressors (World Health Organization, 2022 ). Globally, over a billion people are currently living with a mental health disorder, such as depression or generalised anxiety (World Health Organization, 2025 ). Poor mental health has become a rising concern for men in Australia, with over three quarters of suicidal deaths in Australia being men across all age brackets (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2023 ). Furthermore, almost 60% of Australians who self-identified as a sexual minority had experienced a 12 month mental disorder, compared to only 20% of heterosexual individuals (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2023 ). Interestingly, men and sexual minority individuals are amongst the highest users of dating apps (Barrada & Castro, 2020 ). The use of dating apps has been associated with mental health and wellbeing concerns in men (Bowman et al., 2025 ). In a recent systematic review, 8 of the 9 studies that examined mental health outcomes in exclusively male samples found significant relationships between men’s dating app use and poorer mental wellbeing (Bowman et al., 2025 ). In a survey of male dating app users, Sparks et al. ( 2023 ) identified a significant positive correlation between perceived popularity on dating apps and depressive symptoms. Breslow et al. ( 2020 ) also found that using a greater number of dating apps was related to lower self-esteem in a sample of sexual minority men. Mixed gender studies have also suggested that dating app use is linked with poorer mental health. For example, Strübel and Petrie ( 2017 ) identified that male Tinder users had significantly poorer self-esteem than both male and female nonusers. A prominent explanation for the prevalence of mental health concerns in male dating app users is the possibility of objectification on these platforms. Objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 ) outlines an individual’s tendency to adopt an external view of themselves and their bodies as a result of habitual surveillance and sexualisation. This process – known as self-objectification – increases the likelihood that these individuals will think about or look at their appearance and report feelings of bodily shame (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 ). Whilst originally developed to explain the prevalence of body image concerns in women, objectification theory is also relevant to both gay and heterosexual men (Davids et al., 2019 ; Davids et al., 2015 ). Men have the tendency to self-objectify as a result of exposure to objectifying conditions like the viewing of idealised bodies (Brasil et al., 2024 ), sexualised clothing (Martins et al., 2007 ), and external gaze (Bernard et al., 2018 ). Gay men are also more likely to experience objectifying conditions due to the prevalence of sexualised bodies in gay social media (Jankowski et al., 2014 ) and the inclination for gay men to objectify their peers (Szymanski et al., 2019 ). In addition, gay men are more susceptible to self-objectifying when exposed to objectifying experiences such as wearing less clothing (Martins et al., 2007 ). According to Objectification Theory, the experience of self-objectification may lead to both self-surveillance and body shame. Self-surveillance is the tendency to habitually monitor and think about outward appearance, whereas body shame is an individual’s feelings of shame towards their outward appearance (Davids et al., 2019 ). Research has highlighted the role that pre-existing levels of self-surveillance and body shame may have in the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes (Kidd et al., 2024 ). For example, social media thinness pressures significantly predicted self-surveillance and body shame, which in turn predicted psychological distress (Kidd et al., 2024 ). A similar study reported that self-surveillance significantly moderated the relationship between ‘selfie’ posting on social media sites and disordered eating behaviours (Cohen et al., 2018 ).That is, pre-existing heightened levels of self-surveillance increased the likelihood that posting selfies on social media was related to disordered eating (Cohen et al., 2018 ). Image-based social media platforms such as dating apps can expose users to sexually objectified media, which can compound mental health and body image concerns (Konings et al., 2024 ). For example, men who use dating apps are more likely to view and post unclothed images (Miller, 2020 ). Higher levels of self-objectification– namely, self-surveillance – is recognised to increase susceptibility to objectifying media online (Cohen et al., 2018 ). Men are likely to use two types of dating apps when looking for partners online; mainstream dating apps and gay dating apps. Gay dating apps are specifically marketed towards sexual minority men and comprise apps such as Grindr and Scruff (Zervoulis et al., 2020 ). Conversely, mainstream dating apps have no sexuality-specific demographic and consist of apps like Tinder and Hinge (Qian et al., 2023 ). Despite the objectifying nature of all dating apps (Breslow et al., 2020 ), gay dating apps possess several innate differences that may heighten exposure to sexualised media more so than mainstream dating apps, including features such as image sharing, the grid interface, and sexualised profile tags (Anderson et al., 2018 ). Mainstream dating apps employ a swipe-based model, which requires users to accept or reject profiles one at a time and match before chatting. Sending pictures or videos in private chat is also unavailable on these mainstream platforms (Holtzhausen et al., 2020 ). Conversely, gay dating apps employ a grid model where all profiles are displayed together and do not require matching before messaging. Pictures and images are able to be sent on gay dating apps, with preventions in place to limit screenshotting (Grindr, 2025 ). Mainstream dating apps encourage men to share hobbies or personality interests on their profiles, whilst gay dating apps encourage users to express sexual preferences, positions, and body type (Cöbek et al., 2025 ). In a study of Australian sexual minority men, Anderson et al. ( 2018 ) reported that men with sexualised profile photos engaged in more objectification-relevant online behaviours such as increased Grindr use and discussing HIV status. In addition, a study of Canadian men reported that features specific to Grindr, including nude image sharing, profile labels, and sexualised profiles were likely to compound already heightened levels of sexual objectification in gay men and negatively impact body image (Filice et al., 2019 ). The specific features found on gay dating apps may also contribute to the high volume of men looking for sex on these platforms (Filice et al., 2019 ). This, in turn, may compound the risk of mental health or body image concerns in users with pre-existing heightened levels of self-objectification (Steele et al., 2025 ; Zervoulis et al., 2020 ). 1.1. The present study Overall, research suggests that the use of dating apps may have negative implications for the mental health outcomes of men (Strübel & Petrie, 2017 ; Zervoulis et al., 2020 ). There is also evidence to suggest that the type of dating app men use may be related to poorer mental health outcomes (Filice et al., 2019 ). Previous literature suggests that self-objectification outcomes such as self-surveillance and body shame may play a moderating role in this relationship (Cohen et al., 2018 ; Salomon & Brown, 2019 ). This research, however, was conducted in the context of social media broadly (e.g., Facebook users). As such, this study aimed to determine whether trait levels of self-surveillance or body shame moderate the relationship between use of different app types and mental wellbeing outcomes. It was predicted that: (1) gay dating app users would have poorer levels of mental health and self-esteem than mainstream dating app users; and (2) this relationship would be moderated by self-surveillance and body shame such that higher levels of self-surveillance and body shame would strengthen the negative relationship between gay dating app use and mental health. 2. METHODS 2.1. Design This study was a cross-sectional, quantitative research design. Data was collected via a large online survey using Qualtrics (Qualtrics, 2020 ) which was administered Australia-wide, with ethics approved by [redacted for review]. Participants were only able to complete the survey after informed consent was provided, with the right to withdraw at any time. 2.2. Participants Participants comprised Australian males over the age of 18 recruited via social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, X, and Grindr) and physical posters around the city of Adelaide, South Australia. Originally, the survey collected 3255 clicks. However, after removing incomplete responses (n = 407), bots (n = 2269), men who did not use dating apps (n = 59), or who used both gay and mainstream dating apps (n = 253), the final sample consisted of 266 men. Procedure Data was collected between June and August 2024. The survey incorporated the measures listed below and took approximately 10 minutes to complete. Participants were giving the chance to enter a raffle to win one of six AUD50 gift cards in recognition of their time. 2.3. Measures 2.3.1. Demographics Participants were first asked demographic questions, including their age, gender identity, sexual orientation, ethnicity, relationship status, postcode, and level of education. 2.3.2. Dating app use To ascertain dating app use, participants were asked whether currently or had previously used dating apps consistent with Echevarria et al. ( 2022 ). Respondents who answered yes were then asked to select which dating apps they used from a list of popular gay and mainstream dating apps. App use was then categorised as either mainstream dating app use or gay dating app use. 2.3.3. Self-surveillance To measure self-surveillance, the surveillance subscale of the objectified body consciousness scale (OBCS) was utilised (McKinley & Hyde, 1996 ). The subscale comprised 8 items pertaining to the surveillance of the body (e.g. “During the day, I think about how I look many times”). Participants responded on a 7-point Likert scale with options ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree . A higher overall mean score indicated higher levels of self-surveillance. The subscale demonstrated good internal consistency within this sample of men, α = .83. 2.3.4. Body shame To measure body shame, the body shame subscale was used from the objectified body consciousness scale (OBCS) (McKinley & Hyde, 1996 ). The subscales consisted of 8 items each that asked participants to agree or disagree with statements regarding feelings of shame towards their body (e.g. “When I’m not the size I should be, I feel ashamed”). Response options ranged from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree , with a final score averaged from all 8 items. A higher score overall indicated higher levels of body shame or surveillance. The subscale indicated good internal consistency within the sample, α = .81. 2.3.5. Mental health The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale – 21 items (DASS-21) was used to measure mental health (Henry & Crawford, 2005 ). The scale consists of three, 7-item subscales measuring depression, anxiety, and stress. Participants were asked to indicate how often statements applied to them in the past 7 days, with response options ranging from (0) did not apply to me at all to (3) applied to me very much or most of the time. A final score was calculated by summing all items to create a mental health score following (Henry & Crawford, 2005 ), with a higher score indicating poorer mental health. The total scale demonstrated high internal consistency, α = .95. 2.3.6. Self-esteem The Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES) was used to measure self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965 ). The RSES consists of 10 items, where participants indicate their agreement with statements on a scale ranging from (0) strongly disagree to (3) strongly agree . Several items required reverse scoring. All items were summed, with a lower score overall indicating poorer self-esteem. The RSES demonstrated good reliability within this sample, α = .87. 2.4. Statistical analysis The data were analysed using IBM SPSS statistics (IBM, 2023 ). An a-priori power analysis using G*Power (Buchner, 2020 ) indicated that the sample size was sufficient to detect medium effect size ( d \(\:\ge\:\) .5) with 90% power and alpha level of 0.05 for a moderation analysis. Descriptive statistics were created for the total sample and both subgroups (mainstream dating app users, gay dating app users). A series of independent samples t-tests and chi-square tests were used to examine differences in demographic factors between the two subgroups. Finally, a series of moderation analyses were conducted to examine whether self-surveillance and body shame moderated the relationship between app type use and mental health outcomes. App type (mainstream vs. gay dating apps) was used as the independent variable and both mental health and self-esteem were dependent variables. Self-surveillance and body shame were tested as moderators. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Sample Characteristics The final sample consisted of 266 men, with 129 (48.4%) gay dating app users and 137 (51.5%) mainstream app users (demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1). The average age of the total sample was 35.30 years ( SD = 12.08). Overall, 63.16% ( n = 169) of the sample were sexual minority, while 36.84% (n = 98) self-reported being heterosexual. Men who used gay dating apps were significantly older ( M = 41.98 years, SD = 12.63) than men who used mainstream dating apps ( M = 29.00 years, SD = 7.17). Most men who used gay dating apps self-reported being of a sexual minority (n = 119; 92.25%), whilst the majority of mainstream dating app users identified as heterosexual (n = 88; 64.23%). Given there were significant between group differences in age, t (264) = -10.38, p < . 001, and sexuality, χ 2 (1, n = 266) = 91.09, p < . 001, these variables were controlled for in all subsequent analyses. As also shown in Table 1, men who accessed gay dating apps reported significantly poorer mental health and self-esteem than users of mainstream dating apps. There were no significant between group differences among users of different app types in relation to self-surveillance and body shame. Table One: Group differences among users of different app types Gay dating app user n = 129 Mainstream dating app user n = 137 p -value Sexuality , n (%) Sexual minority 119 (92.24%) 49 (35.76%) < .001 Straight 10 (7.76%) 88 (64.23%) < .001 Age , M (SD) 41.98 (12.64) 29.00 (7.17) < .001 Self-surveillance , M (SD) 4.37 (1.13) 4.14 (1.08) .461 Body shame , M (SD) 3.74 (1.23) 3.79 (1.01) .084 Mental health , M (SD) 48.78 (13.75) 44.91 (14.58) .023 Self-esteem , M (SD) 21.44 (6.49) 25.74 (6.17) < .001 3.2. Moderation analysis 3.2.1. Self-surveillance Two moderation analyses were conducted to ascertain the moderating effect of self-surveillance on the relationship between app type and mental health and self-esteem. Age and sexual orientation were included as covariates. In relation to mental health, there was no main effect of app type, F (5, 260) = .41, p = .949, or self-surveillance, F (5,260) = .09, p = .467. Self-surveillance did not moderate the relationship between app type and mental health, F (5, 260) = .44, p = .504. Within the self-esteem model, there was no main effect of app type, F (5, 260) = -3.61, p = .247, or self-surveillance, F (5,260) = − .05, p = .412, on self-esteem. There was also no significant moderator effect of self-surveillance on the relationship between app type and self-esteem, F (5, 260) = .02, p = .874 3.2.2. Body shame Two moderation analyses examined the interaction between app type and body shame on mental health and self-esteem. Age and sexuality were used as covariates. In relation to mental health, there was a significant main effect of app type, F (5,260) = 19.05, p = .001, and body shame, F (5,260) = .64, p < .001. Body shame also significantly moderated the relationship between app type and mental health, F (5, 260) = 16.02, p < .001. Within the self-esteem model, there was a significant main effect of app type, F (5,260) = -10.30, p < .001, and body shame, F (5,260) = − .22, p < .001, on self-esteem. The interaction between app type and body shame was significant, F (5, 260) = 12.02, p < .001. Simple slopes analyses (see Figs. 1 and 2 ) were calculated as -1 standard deviation (low body shame), average (medium body shame) and + 1 standard deviation (high body shame). The analyses showed that among individuals with low body shame, mainstream dating app use was associated with better mental health outcomes ( p = .033) and higher self-esteem (p < .001). Conversely, among individuals with high body shame, mainstream dating app use was associated with poorer mental health outcomes ( p = .042). Amid users with low trait body shame, the use of gay dating apps was associated with poorer mental health (p = .033) and self-esteem (p < .001). No significant relationships were found for the medium body shame conditions. 4. DISCUSSION The aim of this study was to identify the role of body shame and self-surveillance in the relationship between type of dating app use (mainstream vs gay) and mental health outcomes. As predicted, men who accessed gay dating apps reported significantly poorer mental health and self-esteem outcomes than men who used mainstream dating apps. Body shame, but not self-surveillance, was found to moderate these relationships. Mainstream dating app users with reported poorer mental health outcomes amongst users with high trait body shame. Amongst users with low body shame, mainstream dating app users report significantly better mental health and self-esteem than gay dating app users. The findings of the present study suggest that self-surveillance does not play a role in the relationship between dating app use (mainstream vs gay) and mental health or self-esteem outcomes. Although self-surveillance has been linked with these outcomes in existing social media literature broadly (Lyu et al., 2025 ; Peat & Muehlenkamp, 2011 ; Teng et al., 2019 ). The present study indicates that these findings may not generalise to dating apps. It is possible that the negative mental health outcomes seen in dating app use are a result of external causes rather than internal. External sources such as rejection and dating app facilitated sexual violence may be the underlying mechanism for poorer mental health outcomes (Echevarria et al., 2023 ; Musan, 2020 ), rather than internal evaluation processes such as self-surveillance. Future research should ascertain whether external instances, such as frequency of rejection or perceived popularity, moderate the relationship between dating app use and mental health. Amongst users with high pre-existing levels of body shame, mainstream dating app users reported significantly poorer mental health outcomes. This indicates that body shame may underpin the relationship between mainstream dating app use and poor mental health outcomes. This finding is surprising, as gay dating apps are purported to expose users to more sexually objectifying experiences than mainstream dating apps (Filice et al., 2019 ) and potentially foster poorer mental health outcomes (Anderson et al., 2018 ). Our finding in relation to the connection between heightened pre-existing levels of body shame and mental health outcomes within mainstream dating app users may be explained by the requirement for users to match before being able to chat – a feature only present on these platforms specifically. Matching only occurs when two users are attracted to one another, facilitating the idea that appearance is most important on mainstream dating apps (Thomas, Binder, & Matthes, 2023 ). Consequently, lacking matches on mainstream dating apps may be perceived as a form of appearance-related rejection (Blake et al., 2022 ; Pronk & Denissen, 2020 ). Men with pre-existing heightened levels of body shame may be more susceptible to this appearance-related rejection and as a result be more vulnerable to mental health concerns. A lack of matches on mainstream dating apps may also increase the likelihood that men are engaging in passive social media use which has been linked to poorer mental health and wellbeing (Cheng et al., 2023 ; Thomas, Binder, Stevic, et al., 2023). Passive social media use refers to a lack of active socialising behaviours on social media platforms. This includes behaviours such as excessive swiping or scrolling rather than social behaviours like commentating, chatting, or making posts (Cheng et al., 2023 ). Passive social media use has been correlated with body shame and poorer? mental health within a sample of male social media users (Hanna et al., 2017 ). Amongst users with low pre-existing levels of body shame, mainstream dating app users reported higher self-esteem and better mental health. That is, mainstream dating app users with low body shame also had increased feelings of self-worth and decreased depressive, anxious, and distress symptoms. This finding is consistent with the literature, which has reported that low feelings of shame towards the body are correlated with positive feelings of self-worth and mental health (Woodward et al., 2019 ). This may be a result of mainstream dating app users being exposed to less objectifying content which can aid in protecting users’ wellbeing when combined with less feelings of bodily shame. Conversely, this may indicate a protective role of low body shame in men’s mental health. That is, reduced feelings of bodily shame may protect mainstream dating app users from mental health risks commonly associated with the platforms. Among those with low body shame, the use of gay dating apps was associated with poorer mental health and self-esteem. This suggests that men who use gay dating apps and report low pre-existing feelings of shame towards their body are more likely to have poorer mental health and self-esteem. This is surprising given evidence indicating that high self-objectification is linked to poorer wellbeing outcomes such as self-esteem within users of gay dating apps (Breslow et al., 2020 ; Filice et al., 2019 ; Zervoulis et al., 2020 ). It is possible that men with less bodily shame feel more comfortable accessing gay dating apps, which have a reputation of having body-oriented content (Miller, 2020 ). After accessing gay dating apps, there could be alternate explanations for poorer wellbeing outcomes in these users. For example, increased use of gay dating apps can be related to increased loneliness and decreased sense of community, both of which were linked to poorer wellbeing (Zervoulis et al., 2020 ). The prevalent discrimination on gay dating apps may also be a facilitator of low mental health and self-esteem within this population of men (Steele et al., 2025 ). This research has important implications for future research and practice. Firstly, the results suggest that body shame may affect the relationship between dating app use and mental health outcomes. That is, pre-existing levels of low body shame more be related to improved mental health and self-esteem in mainstream dating app users. Thus, these findings importantly suggest that the mental health of mainstream dating app users may be improved by alleviating feelings of shame towards their body. Protecting the health and wellbeing of these men is especially important due to the disproportionate prevalence of mental health concerns within users of dating apps (Holtzhausen et al., 2020 ; Strübel & Petrie, 2017 ). As such, these findings may inform future interventions, that focus on body shame, to protect dating app users. Future research is required to ascertain why low body shame is linked with poorer mental health and self-esteem amongst gay dating app users. Researchers should consider men’s experiences on dating apps, including perceived success, actual success, and rejection when investigating relationships with mental health rather than general dating app use. This study also identified that app type should be taken into account regarding dating app policy and practice. Our findings indicate that the unique features of different apps could be linked to body image and mental health. As such, blanket policies seeking to protect users may be ineffective for certain app types. Limiting sexual violence on dating apps, for example, is much easier on mainstream dating apps due to their preventative chat moderation and inability to image share. Therefore, app developers, policymakers, and governing bodies should work in conjunction to understand how code and conduct can be shaped to each app to create the most effective solutions. It is important to examine the findings of this study within the context of its limitations. The sample collected was diverse in age, sexuality, and residence, allowing for a generalisable sample for Australian men. However, the sample was predominantly white and therefore only represents one ethnic perspective on dating apps and mental health. Future research should seek to include more ethnically diverse perspectives, particularly since dating apps have been cited as a racially discriminative environment (Wade et al., 2021 ; Wade & Pear, 2022 ). This study was also of a cross-sectional, quantitative design, limiting the ability to ascertain the effect of dating app use on body image and mental health. It is evident that both longitudinal and experimental research is required to ascertain whether usage conditions affect these outcomes. Furthermore, qualitative research would aid in deepening the knowledge of these relationships. For instance, gaining perspectives from sexual minority men on whether their exposure to objectifying experiences differed between dating app platforms. 5. CONCLUSION The aim of this study was to determine whether self-surveillance and body shame moderate the relationship between different types of dating app use and mental health outcomes. The results suggest a moderating effect of body shame but not self-surveillance. More specifically, users of mainstream dating apps with low levels of pre-existing body shame were more likely to report better mental health and self-esteem. However, this was not the case for users of gay dating apps who reported poorer mental health and self-esteem outcomes when combined with low trait levels of body shame. Mainstream dating app users with high trait body shame also reported poorer mental health than gay dating app users. These results highlight the differential impacts of self-surveillance and body shame on the relationship between different types of dating app use and mental health and self-esteem outcomes. Furthermore, trait body shame may be a protective factor in these wellbeing risks. Importantly, the findings of this study suggest that trait levels of body shame may be an important target for intervention in male dating app users in order to protect their mental health and self-esteem. Declarations All participants were fully informed of the purpose and content of this study and provided consent prior to participating. The study was approved by the human research ethics committee of the primary researcher’s university [redacted for review] which reviews applications in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. There is no funding to declare. There is no clinical trial number for this study. Author Contribution Z.B. developed and acquired data, conducted data analysis, wrote the main manuscriptM.D., I.P., J.P. all aided in conceptualising and supervising data acquisition, and reviewing manuscript Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from Flinders university, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for the current study and so are not publicly available. The data are, however, available upon request and with the permission of Flinders University References Anderson, J. R., Holland, E., Koc, Y., & Haslam, N. (2018). iObjectify: Self- and other-objectification on Grindr, a geosocial networking application designed for men who have sex with men. European Journal of Social Psychology , 48 (5), 600–613. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2350 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2023). 5th October 2023). National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing . 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The influence of Grindr, a geosocial networking application, on body image in gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men: An exploratory study [Empirical Study; Quantitative Study]. Body Image , 31 , 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.08.007 Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 21 (2), 173–206. Grindr (2025). Albums . Retrieved July 7th 2025 from https://help.grindr.com/hc/en-us/articles/4414580688787-Albums#h_01FTRQMC7YBBR9D9EV5FBZX20A Hanna, E., Ward, L. M., Seabrook, R. C., Jerald, M., Reed, L., Giaccardi, S., & Lippman, J. R. (2017). Contributions of social comparison and self-objectification in mediating associations between Facebook use and emergent adults' psychological well-being. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking , 20 (3), 172–179. Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British journal of clinical psychology , 44 (2), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657 Holtzhausen, N., Fitzgerald, K., Thakur, I., Ashley, J., Rolfe, M., & Pit, S. W. (2020). Swipe-based dating applications use and its association with mental health outcomes: A cross-sectional study [Empirical Study; Quantitative Study]. BMC Psychology Vol 8 2020, ArtID 22 , 8 . https://doi.org/https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-0373-1 IBM (2023). IBM SPSS Statistics . https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics Jankowski, G. S., Fawkner, H., Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2014). Appearance potent? A content analysis of UK gay and straight men's magazines. Body Image , 11 (4), 474–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.07.010 Kidd, C., Loxton, N. J., Uhlmann, L. R., & Donovan, C. L. (2024). Integrating social media, body shame and psychological distress within the Elaborated Sociocultural Model. Body Image , 50 , 101723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101723 Konings, F., Sumter, S. R., & Vandenbosch, L. (2024). A linkage study investigating sexualized self-presentation on mobile dating apps and user traits. Body Image , 51 , 101781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101781 Lyu, Z., Zheng, P., & Kou, D. (2025). Social Comparison and Female Adolescents’ Selfie Behaviors: Body Surveillance as the Mediator and Self-Esteem as the Moderator. Psychological reports , 128 (2), 920–937. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231162006 Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Kirkbride, A. (2007). Those speedos become them: The role of self-objectification in gay and heterosexual men's body image. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 33 (5), 634–647. McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale: Development and Validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 20 (2), 181–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x Miller, B. (2020). A picture is worth 1000 messages: Investigating face and body photos on mobile dating apps for men who have sex with men [Empirical Study; Quantitative Study]. Journal of Homosexuality , 67 (13), 1798–1822. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2019.1610630 Musan, E. (2020). Does online dating harm your mental wellbeing? The relationship between online dating rejection and mental wellbeing and the moderating role of self-compassion University of Twente]. Peat, C. M., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2011). Self-Objectification, Disordered Eating, and Depression: A Test of Mediational Pathways. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 35 (3), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311400389 Pronk, T. M., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2020). A Rejection Mind-Set: Choice Overload in Online Dating. Social psychological & personality science , 11 (3), 388–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619866189 Qian, S., Siteng, H., Yu, H., & Xi, C. (2023). User review analysis of dating apps based on text mining User review analysis of dating apps based on text mining. PloS one , 18 (4). Qualtrics (2020). Qualtrics . In (Version August, 2024) https://www.qualtrics.com Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image . Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400876136 Salomon, I., & Brown, C. S. (2019). The Selfie Generation: Examining the Relationship Between Social Media Use and Early Adolescent Body Image. The Journal of early adolescence , 39 (4), 539–560. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431618770809 Sparks, B., Zidenberg, A. M., & Olver, M. E. (2023). An Exploratory Study of Incels' Dating App Experiences, Mental Health, and Relational Well-Being. Journal of Sex Research . https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2023.2249775 Steele, A. R., Hadad, S., Ingham, J. T., Megahey, R. B., Nilan, G. F., Phillpott, J. E., Vinson, S., & Monson, O. (2025). You don't look for love on grindr, that's for sure': a qualitative investigation into dating app use of Australian same-sex attracted men. Psychology and Sexuality , 16 (1), 232–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2024.2378721 Strübel, J., & Petrie, T. A. (2017). Love me Tinder: Body image and psychosocial functioning among men and women [Empirical Study; Quantitative Study]. Body Image , 21 , 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.02.006 Szymanski, D. M., Mikorski, R., & Dunn, T. L. (2019). Predictors of sexual minority men’s sexual objectification of other men. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 36 (11–12), 3631–3650. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519832669 Teng, F., Gao, W., Huang, X., & Poon, K. T. (2019). Body Surveillance Predicts Men’s and Women’s Perceived Loneliness: A Serial Mediation Model. Sex Roles , 81 (1–2), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0977-6 Thomas, M. F., Binder, A., & Matthes, J. (2023). The psychological influence of dating app matches: The more matches the merrier? New Media & Society . https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231161598 Thomas, M. F., Binder, A., Stevic, A., & Matthes, J. (2023). 99 + matches but a spark ain't one: Adverse psychological effects of excessive swiping on dating apps. Telematics and Informatics , 78 , 101949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2023.101949 Wade, R. M., Bouris, A. M., Neilands, T. B., & Harper, G. W. (2021). Racialized Sexual Discrimination (RSD) and Psychological Wellbeing among Young Sexual Minority Black Men (YSMBM) Who Seek Intimate Partners Online [Article]. Sexuality Research and Social Policy . https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00676-6 Wade, R. M., & Pear, M. M. (2022). Online Dating and Mental Health among Young Sexual Minority Black Men: Is Ethnic Identity Protective in the Face of Sexual Racism? International Journal of Environmental Research & Public Health [Electronic Resource] , 19 (21), 01. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114263 Woodward, K., McIlwain, D., & Mond, J. (2019). Feelings about the self and body in eating disturbances: The role of internalized shame, self-esteem, externalized self-perceptions, and body shame. Self and Identity , 18 (2), 159–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1403373 World Health Organization (2022). World mental health report: Transforming mental health for all (W. H. Organization, Ed.) https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/356119/9789240049338-eng.pdf?sequence=1 World Health Organization (2025). Over a billion people living with mental health conditions – services require urgent scale-up . Retrieved November 12 from https://www.who.int/news/item/02-09-2025-over-a-billion-people-living-with-mental-health-conditions-services-require-urgent-scale-up#:~:text=More%20than%201%20billion%20people,addressing%20mental%20health%20conditions%20worldwide Zervoulis, K., Smith, D. S., Reed, R., & Dinos, S. (2020). Use of 'gay dating apps' and its relationship with individual well-being and sense of community in men who have sex with men [Empirical Study; Quantitative Study]. Psychology & Sexuality , 11 (1–2), 88–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2019.1684354 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8244855","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":616176865,"identity":"bdb6ddf1-ae0c-4dec-85c8-6725ceb2fc18","order_by":0,"name":"Zac Bowman","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAxCRYGAjx898uOEAAxtEVIKglg8VacaSbYkkaGGcceZw4oZjiQ0MRGkxZ+8x3czblsa4+Rhj4+GCMpt8+Qbmg7d5GOxAJmAFlj1nzG7zttkwmx1jbDg841ya5YYDbMnWPAzJOLUY3MjdBtSSxmZ2v7HhMG/bYQMDBh4zaR4GZkJaDvMYtzGCtPw3kG/g/wbUUo9Xy02g9yUM2MBaDhgwHOBhA2o5jMcv57/dAAaygQTILzznkg0MDrMZW84xOG6MS4s5e1vaDWBU1ve3MR/+zFNmZyDf3vzwxpuKallcWrAAZrCDiVc/CkbBKBgFowATAACiGlvSN/Zu1wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Flinders University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zac","middleName":"","lastName":"Bowman","suffix":""},{"id":616176868,"identity":"807cd29c-f6ac-48af-9de2-c20cd8ee49aa","order_by":1,"name":"Murray Drummond","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Flinders University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Murray","middleName":"","lastName":"Drummond","suffix":""},{"id":616176871,"identity":"8ea4a4be-61ec-4d7e-b081-798a356d878d","order_by":2,"name":"Ivanka Prichard","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Flinders University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ivanka","middleName":"","lastName":"Prichard","suffix":""},{"id":616176874,"identity":"89d4d965-661e-44d3-b930-93211fc2ee5e","order_by":3,"name":"Jasmine Petersen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Flinders University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jasmine","middleName":"","lastName":"Petersen","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-01 00:23:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8244855/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8244855/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106340470,"identity":"591410f2-c9ae-43e7-860d-936458cf85a2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 15:33:58","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70371,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInteraction between dating app use and body shame on men’s mental health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8244855/v1/7be3e2ae8d46b68cc9945ef7.png"},{"id":106340468,"identity":"bd66dae4-2d04-42fc-9af0-b69adbf5e0a3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 15:33:56","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39789,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInteraction between dating app use and body shame on men’s self-esteem outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8244855/v1/0f88da76907668a83b3385b4.png"},{"id":106403907,"identity":"4093da3d-8d2e-4291-8d2a-e3b35907940c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:15:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":857829,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8244855/v1/9cff2d6d-4a88-4c8d-8f39-139d34bd011d.pdf"},{"id":106340469,"identity":"3369ba5f-5f55-4121-8202-c36313a7a4b3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 15:33:58","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18957,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8244855/v1/33b694c6895b2054308536d3.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Meet your match: The moderating role of self-surveillance and body shame in the relationships between dating app use and mental health outcomes amongst Australian men","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe recent proliferation of mobile dating applications (apps) and online dating has led researchers to consider the impact these platforms may have on user\u0026rsquo;s mental health. Mental health refers to the psychosocial functioning of an individual and their ability to appropriately cope with normal life stressors (World Health Organization, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, over a billion people are currently living with a mental health disorder, such as depression or generalised anxiety (World Health Organization, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Poor mental health has become a rising concern for men in Australia, with over three quarters of suicidal deaths in Australia being men across all age brackets (Australian Bureau of Statistics, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, almost 60% of Australians who self-identified as a sexual minority had experienced a 12 month mental disorder, compared to only 20% of heterosexual individuals (Australian Bureau of Statistics, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Interestingly, men and sexual minority individuals are amongst the highest users of dating apps (Barrada \u0026amp; Castro, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of dating apps has been associated with mental health and wellbeing concerns in men (Bowman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In a recent systematic review, 8 of the 9 studies that examined mental health outcomes in exclusively male samples found significant relationships between men\u0026rsquo;s dating app use and poorer mental wellbeing (Bowman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In a survey of male dating app users, Sparks et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) identified a significant positive correlation between perceived popularity on dating apps and depressive symptoms. Breslow et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) also found that using a greater number of dating apps was related to lower self-esteem in a sample of sexual minority men. Mixed gender studies have also suggested that dating app use is linked with poorer mental health. For example, Str\u0026uuml;bel and Petrie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) identified that male Tinder users had significantly poorer self-esteem than both male and female nonusers. A prominent explanation for the prevalence of mental health concerns in male dating app users is the possibility of objectification on these platforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eObjectification theory (Fredrickson \u0026amp; Roberts, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) outlines an individual\u0026rsquo;s tendency to adopt an external view of themselves and their bodies as a result of habitual surveillance and sexualisation. This process \u0026ndash; known as self-objectification \u0026ndash; increases the likelihood that these individuals will think about or look at their appearance and report feelings of bodily shame (Fredrickson \u0026amp; Roberts, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Whilst originally developed to explain the prevalence of body image concerns in women, objectification theory is also relevant to both gay and heterosexual men (Davids et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Davids et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Men have the tendency to self-objectify as a result of exposure to objectifying conditions like the viewing of idealised bodies (Brasil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), sexualised clothing (Martins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), and external gaze (Bernard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Gay men are also more likely to experience objectifying conditions due to the prevalence of sexualised bodies in gay social media (Jankowski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and the inclination for gay men to objectify their peers (Szymanski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, gay men are more susceptible to self-objectifying when exposed to objectifying experiences such as wearing less clothing (Martins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). According to Objectification Theory, the experience of self-objectification may lead to both self-surveillance and body shame. Self-surveillance is the tendency to habitually monitor and think about outward appearance, whereas body shame is an individual\u0026rsquo;s feelings of shame towards their outward appearance (Davids et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Research has highlighted the role that pre-existing levels of self-surveillance and body shame may have in the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes (Kidd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For example, social media thinness pressures significantly predicted self-surveillance and body shame, which in turn predicted psychological distress (Kidd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). A similar study reported that self-surveillance significantly moderated the relationship between \u0026lsquo;selfie\u0026rsquo; posting on social media sites and disordered eating behaviours (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).That is, pre-existing heightened levels of self-surveillance increased the likelihood that posting selfies on social media was related to disordered eating (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImage-based social media platforms such as dating apps can expose users to sexually objectified media, which can compound mental health and body image concerns (Konings et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For example, men who use dating apps are more likely to view and post unclothed images (Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Higher levels of self-objectification\u0026ndash; namely, self-surveillance \u0026ndash; is recognised to increase susceptibility to objectifying media online (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Men are likely to use two types of dating apps when looking for partners online; mainstream dating apps and gay dating apps. Gay dating apps are specifically marketed towards sexual minority men and comprise apps such as Grindr and Scruff (Zervoulis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, mainstream dating apps have no sexuality-specific demographic and consist of apps like Tinder and Hinge (Qian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Despite the objectifying nature of all dating apps (Breslow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), gay dating apps possess several innate differences that may heighten exposure to sexualised media more so than mainstream dating apps, including features such as image sharing, the grid interface, and sexualised profile tags (Anderson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Mainstream dating apps employ a swipe-based model, which requires users to accept or reject profiles one at a time and match before chatting. Sending pictures or videos in private chat is also unavailable on these mainstream platforms (Holtzhausen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, gay dating apps employ a grid model where all profiles are displayed together and do not require matching before messaging. Pictures and images are able to be sent on gay dating apps, with preventions in place to limit screenshotting (Grindr, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Mainstream dating apps encourage men to share hobbies or personality interests on their profiles, whilst gay dating apps encourage users to express sexual preferences, positions, and body type (C\u0026ouml;bek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In a study of Australian sexual minority men, Anderson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) reported that men with sexualised profile photos engaged in more objectification-relevant online behaviours such as increased Grindr use and discussing HIV status. In addition, a study of Canadian men reported that features specific to Grindr, including nude image sharing, profile labels, and sexualised profiles were likely to compound already heightened levels of sexual objectification in gay men and negatively impact body image (Filice et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The specific features found on gay dating apps may also contribute to the high volume of men looking for sex on these platforms (Filice et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This, in turn, may compound the risk of mental health or body image concerns in users with pre-existing heightened levels of self-objectification (Steele et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Zervoulis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1. The present study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, research suggests that the use of dating apps may have negative implications for the mental health outcomes of men (Str\u0026uuml;bel \u0026amp; Petrie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zervoulis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). There is also evidence to suggest that the type of dating app men use may be related to poorer mental health outcomes (Filice et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Previous literature suggests that self-objectification outcomes such as self-surveillance and body shame may play a moderating role in this relationship (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Salomon \u0026amp; Brown, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This research, however, was conducted in the context of social media broadly (e.g., Facebook users). As such, this study aimed to determine whether trait levels of self-surveillance or body shame moderate the relationship between use of different app types and mental wellbeing outcomes. It was predicted that: (1) gay dating app users would have poorer levels of mental health and self-esteem than mainstream dating app users; and (2) this relationship would be moderated by self-surveillance and body shame such that higher levels of self-surveillance and body shame would strengthen the negative relationship between gay dating app use and mental health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was a cross-sectional, quantitative research design. Data was collected via a large online survey using Qualtrics (Qualtrics, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) which was administered Australia-wide, with ethics approved by [redacted for review]. Participants were only able to complete the survey after informed consent was provided, with the right to withdraw at any time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants comprised Australian males over the age of 18 recruited via social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, X, and Grindr) and physical posters around the city of Adelaide, South Australia. Originally, the survey collected 3255 clicks. However, after removing incomplete responses (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;407), bots (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2269), men who did not use dating apps (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;59), or who used both gay and mainstream dating apps (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;253), the final sample consisted of 266 men.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eProcedure\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData was collected between June and August 2024. The survey incorporated the measures listed below and took approximately 10 minutes to complete. Participants were giving the chance to enter a raffle to win one of six AUD50 gift cards in recognition of their time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Demographics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were first asked demographic questions, including their age, gender identity, sexual orientation, ethnicity, relationship status, postcode, and level of education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Dating app use\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ascertain dating app use, participants were asked whether currently or had previously used dating apps consistent with Echevarria et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Respondents who answered yes were then asked to select which dating apps they used from a list of popular gay and mainstream dating apps. App use was then categorised as either mainstream dating app use or gay dating app use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. Self-surveillance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo measure self-surveillance, the surveillance subscale of the objectified body consciousness scale (OBCS) was utilised (McKinley \u0026amp; Hyde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The subscale comprised 8 items pertaining to the surveillance of the body (e.g. \u0026ldquo;During the day, I think about how I look many times\u0026rdquo;). Participants responded on a 7-point Likert scale with options ranging from (1) \u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e to (7) \u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e. A higher overall mean score indicated higher levels of self-surveillance. The subscale demonstrated good internal consistency within this sample of men, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.83.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.4. Body shame\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo measure body shame, the body shame subscale was used from the objectified body consciousness scale (OBCS) (McKinley \u0026amp; Hyde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The subscales consisted of 8 items each that asked participants to agree or disagree with statements regarding feelings of shame towards their body (e.g. \u0026ldquo;When I\u0026rsquo;m not the size I should be, I feel ashamed\u0026rdquo;). Response options ranged from (1) \u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e to (7) \u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e, with a final score averaged from all 8 items. A higher score overall indicated higher levels of body shame or surveillance. The subscale indicated good internal consistency within the sample, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.5. Mental health\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale \u0026ndash; 21 items (DASS-21) was used to measure mental health (Henry \u0026amp; Crawford, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The scale consists of three, 7-item subscales measuring depression, anxiety, and stress. Participants were asked to indicate how often statements applied to them in the past 7 days, with response options ranging from (0) \u003cem\u003edid not apply to me at all\u003c/em\u003e to (3) \u003cem\u003eapplied to me very much or most of the time.\u003c/em\u003e A final score was calculated by summing all items to create a mental health score following (Henry \u0026amp; Crawford, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), with a higher score indicating poorer mental health. The total scale demonstrated high internal consistency, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.95.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.6. Self-esteem\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES) was used to measure self-esteem (Rosenberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e). The RSES consists of 10 items, where participants indicate their agreement with statements on a scale ranging from (0) \u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e to (3) \u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e. Several items required reverse scoring. All items were summed, with a lower score overall indicating poorer self-esteem. The RSES demonstrated good reliability within this sample, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.87.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data were analysed using IBM SPSS statistics (IBM, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). An a-priori power analysis using G*Power (Buchner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) indicated that the sample size was sufficient to detect medium effect size (\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\ge\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.5) with 90% power and alpha level of 0.05 for a moderation analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were created for the total sample and both subgroups (mainstream dating app users, gay dating app users). A series of independent samples t-tests and chi-square tests were used to examine differences in demographic factors between the two subgroups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, a series of moderation analyses were conducted to examine whether self-surveillance and body shame moderated the relationship between app type use and mental health outcomes. App type (mainstream vs. gay dating apps) was used as the independent variable and both mental health and self-esteem were dependent variables. Self-surveillance and body shame were tested as moderators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Sample Characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe final sample consisted of 266 men, with 129 (48.4%) gay dating app users and 137 (51.5%) mainstream app users (demographic characteristics are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;1). The average age of the total sample was 35.30 years (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.08). Overall, 63.16% (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;169) of the sample were sexual minority, while 36.84% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;98) self-reported being heterosexual. Men who used gay dating apps were significantly older (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41.98 years, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.63) than men who used mainstream dating apps (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;29.00 years, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.17). Most men who used gay dating apps self-reported being of a sexual minority (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;119; 92.25%), whilst the majority of mainstream dating app users identified as heterosexual (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;88; 64.23%). Given there were significant between group differences in age, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(264) = -10.38, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.\u003c/em\u003e001, and sexuality, \u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (1, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;266)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;91.09,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.\u003c/em\u003e001, these variables were controlled for in all subsequent analyses. As also shown in Table 1, men who accessed gay dating apps reported significantly poorer mental health and self-esteem than users of mainstream dating apps. There were no significant between group differences among users of different app types in relation to self-surveillance and body shame.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 68.661%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable One: Group differences among users of different app types\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 31.9778%;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGay dating app user\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cstrong\u003e129\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMainstream dating app user\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cstrong\u003e=\u0026thinsp;137\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 31.9778%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSexuality\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" style=\"width: 23.1495%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSexual minority\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e119 (92.24%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49 (35.76%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" style=\"width: 23.1495%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStraight\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (7.76%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88 (64.23%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 24.7213%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.98 (12.64)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.00 (7.17)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 24.7213%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelf-surveillance\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.37 (1.13)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.14 (1.08)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.461\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 24.7213%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBody shame\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.74 (1.23)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.79 (1.01)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.084\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 24.7213%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMental health\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.78 (13.75)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.91 (14.58)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" style=\"width: 24.7213%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelf-esteem\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" style=\"width: 20.1486%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.44 (6.49)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" style=\"width: 25.0071%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.74 (6.17)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" style=\"width: 7.2878%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Moderation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Self-surveillance\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTwo moderation analyses were conducted to ascertain the moderating effect of self-surveillance on the relationship between app type and mental health and self-esteem. Age and sexual orientation were included as covariates. In relation to mental health, there was no main effect of app type, F (5, 260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.41, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.949, or self-surveillance, F (5,260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.467. Self-surveillance did not moderate the relationship between app type and mental health, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e (5, 260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.44, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.504. Within the self-esteem model, there was no main effect of app type, F (5, 260) = -3.61, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.247, or self-surveillance, F (5,260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.412, on self-esteem. There was also no significant moderator effect of self-surveillance on the relationship between app type and self-esteem, F (5, 260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.874\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Body shame\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTwo moderation analyses examined the interaction between app type and body shame on mental health and self-esteem. Age and sexuality were used as covariates. In relation to mental health, there was a significant main effect of app type, F (5,260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.05, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001, and body shame, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e (5,260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.64, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. Body shame also significantly moderated the relationship between app type and mental health, F (5, 260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. Within the self-esteem model, there was a significant main effect of app type, F (5,260) = -10.30, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, and body shame, F (5,260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, on self-esteem. The interaction between app type and body shame was significant, F (5, 260)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSimple slopes analyses (see Figs. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) were calculated as -1 standard deviation (low body shame), average (medium body shame) and +\u0026thinsp;1 standard deviation (high body shame). The analyses showed that among individuals with low body shame, mainstream dating app use was associated with better mental health outcomes (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.033) and higher self-esteem (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Conversely, among individuals with high body shame, mainstream dating app use was associated with poorer mental health outcomes (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.042). Amid users with low trait body shame, the use of gay dating apps was associated with poorer mental health (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.033) and self-esteem (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). No significant relationships were found for the medium body shame conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to identify the role of body shame and self-surveillance in the relationship between type of dating app use (mainstream vs gay) and mental health outcomes. As predicted, men who accessed gay dating apps reported significantly poorer mental health and self-esteem outcomes than men who used mainstream dating apps. Body shame, but not self-surveillance, was found to moderate these relationships. Mainstream dating app users with reported poorer mental health outcomes amongst users with high trait body shame. Amongst users with low body shame, mainstream dating app users report significantly better mental health and self-esteem than gay dating app users.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of the present study suggest that self-surveillance does not play a role in the relationship between dating app use (mainstream vs gay) and mental health or self-esteem outcomes. Although self-surveillance has been linked with these outcomes in existing social media literature broadly (Lyu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Peat \u0026amp; Muehlenkamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Teng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The present study indicates that these findings may not generalise to dating apps. It is possible that the negative mental health outcomes seen in dating app use are a result of external causes rather than internal. External sources such as rejection and dating app facilitated sexual violence may be the underlying mechanism for poorer mental health outcomes (Echevarria et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Musan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), rather than internal evaluation processes such as self-surveillance. Future research should ascertain whether external instances, such as frequency of rejection or perceived popularity, moderate the relationship between dating app use and mental health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmongst users with high pre-existing levels of body shame, mainstream dating app users reported significantly poorer mental health outcomes. This indicates that body shame may underpin the relationship between mainstream dating app use and poor mental health outcomes. This finding is surprising, as \u003cem\u003egay\u003c/em\u003e dating apps are purported to expose users to more sexually objectifying experiences than mainstream dating apps (Filice et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and potentially foster poorer mental health outcomes (Anderson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Our finding in relation to the connection between heightened pre-existing levels of body shame and mental health outcomes within mainstream dating app users may be explained by the requirement for users to match before being able to chat \u0026ndash; a feature only present on these platforms specifically. Matching only occurs when two users are attracted to one another, facilitating the idea that appearance is most important on mainstream dating apps (Thomas, Binder, \u0026amp; Matthes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, lacking matches on mainstream dating apps may be perceived as a form of appearance-related rejection (Blake et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pronk \u0026amp; Denissen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Men with pre-existing heightened levels of body shame may be more susceptible to this appearance-related rejection and as a result be more vulnerable to mental health concerns. A lack of matches on mainstream dating apps may also increase the likelihood that men are engaging in passive social media use which has been linked to poorer mental health and wellbeing (Cheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Thomas, Binder, Stevic, et al., 2023). Passive social media use refers to a lack of active socialising behaviours on social media platforms. This includes behaviours such as excessive swiping or scrolling rather than social behaviours like commentating, chatting, or making posts (Cheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Passive social media use has been correlated with body shame and poorer? mental health within a sample of male social media users (Hanna et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmongst users with low pre-existing levels of body shame, mainstream dating app users reported higher self-esteem and better mental health. That is, mainstream dating app users with low body shame also had increased feelings of self-worth and decreased depressive, anxious, and distress symptoms. This finding is consistent with the literature, which has reported that low feelings of shame towards the body are correlated with positive feelings of self-worth and mental health (Woodward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This may be a result of mainstream dating app users being exposed to less objectifying content which can aid in protecting users\u0026rsquo; wellbeing when combined with less feelings of bodily shame. Conversely, this may indicate a protective role of low body shame in men\u0026rsquo;s mental health. That is, reduced feelings of bodily shame may protect mainstream dating app users from mental health risks commonly associated with the platforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong those with low body shame, the use of gay dating apps was associated with poorer mental health and self-esteem. This suggests that men who use gay dating apps and report low pre-existing feelings of shame towards their body are more likely to have poorer mental health and self-esteem. This is surprising given evidence indicating that high self-objectification is linked to poorer wellbeing outcomes such as self-esteem within users of gay dating apps (Breslow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Filice et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zervoulis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It is possible that men with less bodily shame feel more comfortable accessing gay dating apps, which have a reputation of having body-oriented content (Miller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). After accessing gay dating apps, there could be alternate explanations for poorer wellbeing outcomes in these users. For example, increased use of gay dating apps can be related to increased loneliness and decreased sense of community, both of which were linked to poorer wellbeing (Zervoulis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The prevalent discrimination on gay dating apps may also be a facilitator of low mental health and self-esteem within this population of men (Steele et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research has important implications for future research and practice. Firstly, the results suggest that body shame may affect the relationship between dating app use and mental health outcomes. That is, pre-existing levels of low body shame more be related to improved mental health and self-esteem in mainstream dating app users. Thus, these findings importantly suggest that the mental health of mainstream dating app users may be improved by alleviating feelings of shame towards their body. Protecting the health and wellbeing of these men is especially important due to the disproportionate prevalence of mental health concerns within users of dating apps (Holtzhausen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Str\u0026uuml;bel \u0026amp; Petrie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). As such, these findings may inform future interventions, that focus on body shame, to protect dating app users. Future research is required to ascertain why low body shame is linked with poorer mental health and self-esteem amongst gay dating app users. Researchers should consider men\u0026rsquo;s experiences on dating apps, including perceived success, actual success, and rejection when investigating relationships with mental health rather than general dating app use. This study also identified that app type should be taken into account regarding dating app policy and practice. Our findings indicate that the unique features of different apps could be linked to body image and mental health. As such, blanket policies seeking to protect users may be ineffective for certain app types. Limiting sexual violence on dating apps, for example, is much easier on mainstream dating apps due to their preventative chat moderation and inability to image share. Therefore, app developers, policymakers, and governing bodies should work in conjunction to understand how code and conduct can be shaped to each app to create the most effective solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is important to examine the findings of this study within the context of its limitations. The sample collected was diverse in age, sexuality, and residence, allowing for a generalisable sample for Australian men. However, the sample was predominantly white and therefore only represents one ethnic perspective on dating apps and mental health. Future research should seek to include more ethnically diverse perspectives, particularly since dating apps have been cited as a racially discriminative environment (Wade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wade \u0026amp; Pear, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This study was also of a cross-sectional, quantitative design, limiting the ability to ascertain the effect of dating app use on body image and mental health. It is evident that both longitudinal and experimental research is required to ascertain whether usage conditions affect these outcomes. Furthermore, qualitative research would aid in deepening the knowledge of these relationships. For instance, gaining perspectives from sexual minority men on whether their exposure to objectifying experiences differed between dating app platforms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to determine whether self-surveillance and body shame moderate the relationship between different types of dating app use and mental health outcomes. The results suggest a moderating effect of body shame but not self-surveillance. More specifically, users of mainstream dating apps with low levels of pre-existing body shame were more likely to report better mental health and self-esteem. However, this was not the case for users of gay dating apps who reported poorer mental health and self-esteem outcomes when combined with low trait levels of body shame. Mainstream dating app users with high trait body shame also reported poorer mental health than gay dating app users. These results highlight the differential impacts of self-surveillance and body shame on the relationship between different types of dating app use and mental health and self-esteem outcomes. Furthermore, trait body shame may be a protective factor in these wellbeing risks. Importantly, the findings of this study suggest that trait levels of body shame may be an important target for intervention in male dating app users in order to protect their mental health and self-esteem.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e All participants were fully informed of the purpose and content of this study and provided consent prior to participating. The study was approved by the human research ethics committee of the primary researcher\u0026rsquo;s university [redacted for review] which reviews applications in line with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research. There is no funding to declare. There is no clinical trial number for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eZ.B. developed and acquired data, conducted data analysis, wrote the main manuscriptM.D., I.P., J.P. all aided in conceptualising and supervising data acquisition, and reviewing manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from Flinders university, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for the current study and so are not publicly available. The data are, however, available upon request and with the permission of Flinders University\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnderson, J. R., Holland, E., Koc, Y., \u0026amp; Haslam, N. 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Use of 'gay dating apps' and its relationship with individual well-being and sense of community in men who have sex with men [Empirical Study; Quantitative Study]. \u003cem\u003ePsychology \u0026amp; Sexuality\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(1\u0026ndash;2), 88\u0026ndash;102. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2019.1684354\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/19419899.2019.1684354\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8244855/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8244855/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Mental health is amongst one of the largest concerns for men in Australia. The use of dating apps has been identified as a contributor to poorer mental health outcomes in men. This study aimed to enhance knowledge of the relationship between dating app use (gay vs mainstream) and mental health by identifying whether pre-existing levels of self-surveillance and body shame had a moderating effect. Australian men (aged 18 to 62, M = 35.30 years; 63% self-identified as a sexual minority) who used dating apps (n=266) were surveyed on their dating app behaviours, self-surveillance, body shame, mental health, and self-esteem. Overall, gay dating app users reported significantly poorer mental health and self-esteem. After controlling for age and sexuality, body shame significantly moderated the relationships between app type and mental health and self-esteem. Specifically, mainstream dating app users with high body shame reported poorer mental health outcomes than gay dating app users. Amongst those with low levels of body shame, mainstream dating app use was associated with better self-esteem and mental health outcomes than gay dating app use. Conversely, there was no significant moderating effect of self-surveillance on these relationships. These findings provide evidence that pre-existing levels of body shame in combination with different types of app use play a role in men’s mental health outcomes.","manuscriptTitle":"Meet your match: The moderating role of self-surveillance and body shame in the relationships between dating app use and mental health outcomes amongst Australian men","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-07 15:33:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8244855/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4890e8b9-f97a-4e9a-83ea-ada91c2bdd15","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T15:33:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-07 15:33:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8244855","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8244855","identity":"rs-8244855","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}