Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Psychosocial Problems: Mediated by Parenting Practices?

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Lea Pühler, Felix Vogel This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8385922/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Maternal depressive symptoms (MDS) and dysfunctional parenting practices are established risk factors for adolescent psychosocial problems (APP). Moreover, MDS are known to be related to more dysfunctional parenting. Yet, this study is the first to examine the mediating role of the parenting practices of psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement between MDS and APP. Data was collected from N = 280 biological and non-biological mothers of adolescents aged 12–17 from the US, UK and Germany. They completed self-report questionnaires on MDS, parenting practices and five APP domains. We performed Kendall's rank correlation analysis and used Hayes' PROCESS macro for parallel mediation analysis. Study design and hypotheses were preregistered. MDS were correlated with higher use of psychological control and inconsistent discipline but exhibited no link to involvement. Psychological control and inconsistent discipline correlated with higher total APP scores, while involvement was associated with lower APP scores. The parenting practices differed in the number and type of correlating APP domains. Both psychological control and the combined parenting practices mediated the relationship between MDS and APP, with small indirect effects. Mothers suffering from depression tend to apply psychological control and inconsistent discipline while raising adolescent children, which are linked to increased APP. In contrast, the mothers’ involvement seems unrelated to their depressive symptoms. Interventions helping mothers with depressive symptoms to avoid psychological control and inconsistent discipline may lower the risk of APP. maternal depressive symptoms parenting practices psychological control adolescent psychosocial problems mediation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Having a parent with a lifetime diagnosis of depression nearly doubles the risk of developing a mental disorder before the age of 20, resulting in a prevalence of 53% among affected offspring (Rasic et al., 2014 ). Mental disorders in youth are particularly detrimental given their high persistence: 40% of German children and adolescents with psychosocial problems remained affected after 6 years (Klasen et al., 2003 ). To develop effective prevention programs and interventions to reduce this risk, research needs to identify modifiable mediators between maternal depressive symptoms (MDS) and adolescent psychosocial problems (APP). One of the most influential mediation frameworks in this field is the Integrative Model of the Transmission of Risk to Children of Depressed Mothers (S.H. Goodman & Gotlib, 1999 ), whose mechanisms have been empirically supported across numerous studies (see S.H. Goodman & Tully, 2007 , for a review). The model defines four groups of mediators between MDS and APP: (1) heritability, (2) innate neuroregulatory mechanisms, (3) exposure to dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors, and affect, and (4) exposure to stressful environments. With respect to modifiability, heritability and neuroregulatory mechanisms can be excluded due to their biological determination. Stressful environmental conditions, although relevant, are strongly shaped by contextual factors and therefore difficult to change through psychological interventions. In contrast, a promising and modifiable mediator is children’s exposure to dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors, and affect. S.H. Goodman and Gotlib ( 1999 ) propose that MDS are associated with such dysfunctional patterns, which interfere with the mothers’ parenting skills. Through impaired parenting and social learning processes, children acquire similarly dysfunctional patterns, thereby heightening their risk for APP. Although the four groups of mediators proposed in the model have been empirically tested in various studies, existing research has rarely examined which specific parenting practices might mediate the association between MDS and APP. Identifying these mediators is crucial as it allows the development of targeted, mechanism-based parenting interventions. Prior research found that the parenting practices of psychological control (eg., Papp et al., 2005 ), inconsistent discipline (eg., Dette-Hagenmeyer & Reichle, 2014 ) and involvement (eg., Eckshtain et al., 2010 ) are connected to MDS and APP. Yet, indirect effects of MDS on APP through parenting practices have seldom been examined, and even more rarely with a focus on adolescents. No study has yet explored whether psychological control is linked to adolescent prosocial behavior. Similarly, there is a research gap on the relationships between involvement and prosocial behavior, hyperactivity/inattention, and peer relationship problems. The current study addresses these gaps by examining whether psychological control, inconsistent discipline and involvement mediate the relationship between MDS and psychosocial problems in adolescents from the US, UK and Germany (see Fig. 1 ). Associations between MDS and APP (c’ Path) Depression in mothers is especially prevalent and consequential, as there are more affected mothers than fathers: In Germany, women have a 1.7 times higher risk of developing a depressive disorder compared to men (Bromet et al., 2011 ). In the US, every tenth minor was raised by a mother who suffered from major depression within the past year (Ertel et al., 2011 ). Applying the same rate to Germany, nearly 1.5 million children and adolescents would be parented by a depressed mother each year (Federal Statistical Office, 2024). Since mothers still spend more time caring for their children than fathers do (Raley et al., 2012), their psychopathology can have a stronger impact than that of fathers (Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994). A meta-analysis found that maternal psychopathology was more strongly correlated with children’s internalizing problems than paternal psychology, while no significant gender difference emerged for externalizing problems (Connell & Goodman, 2002 ). For these reasons, we focused specifically on depressive symptoms in mothers. It is well-established that increased levels of depressive symptoms in mothers, such as loss of interest, fatigue, and inappropriate guilt feeling (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), are associated with psychosocial problems in offspring. In a review of nearly 200 studies, 68% of youth raised by depressed mothers experience more internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety, depressive moods) than children parented by nondepressed mothers (S.H. Goodman et al., 2011 ). A similar proportion was affected by externalizing problems such as aggression and conduct problems. Additionally, some studies have linked MDS to social difficulties in adolescents, including peer relationship problems (Maruyama et al., 2019 ) and reduced prosocial behavior (Hay & Pawlby, 2003 ). These correlations are considered small according to Cohen’s ( 1988 ) guidelines for effect sizes, which will be applied throughout this article. The evidence linking MDS not only with adolescents' internalizing problems, but with a broad range of psychosocial problems (APP) aligns with the concept of multifinality (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996 ). Importantly, the relationship between MDS and APP is bidirectional. A review of longitudinal studies found that MDS predicts APP (S.H. Goodman et al., 2020 ), while several studies indicated that APP also predict MDS (Gross et al., 2008 ; Pardini, 2008 ; Sellers et al., 2016 ). Thus, being raised by a depressed mother increases the risk of APP, while parenting an adolescent with APP also increases the risk of developing depressive symptoms. Adolescence is a particularly sensitive period during which the parental environment can recalibrate stress-mediating systems like the HPA axis (Gunnar et al., 2019 ). Nonetheless, fewer studies have examined the link between MDS and psychosocial problems in adolescents, compared to the amount of research concentrating on children or mixed developmental stages. Importantly, studies spanning multiple developmental stages may obscure crucial developmental differences (S.H. Goodman & Gotlib, 1999 ) and confound results (Reigstad et al., 2023 ), highlighting the need for further research focused exclusively on adolescents. Conducting one of the few studies focusing on adolescents, Brennan et al. (2003) found that maternal depression was related to adolescents’ depression as well as internalizing and externalizing disorders. In accordance with the Integrative Model of the Transmission of Risk to Children of Depressed Mothers , both environmental and genetic factors contribute to the transmission of depression (Sullivan et al., 2000 ). A study of over 5,000 UK twin pairs found that shared environmental influences - including parental characteristics - accounted for 48% of the variance in the association between home environment and adolescents' depressive symptoms. 12% of variance were attributed to unique environmental factors and 40% to genetics (Hannigan et al., 2017 ). Consistently, interventions successfully reduce APP by treating parental depression, which improves environmental, but not genetic influences (Gunlicks & Weissman, 2008 ). Unlike genetic factors, environmental factors like parenting practices are modifiable (Yap, 2014), making them promising potential mediators in the relationship between MDS and APP. Associations between MDS and Parenting Practices (a Path) Depressive symptoms include dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors and affect, which impair parenting by causing difficulties in being an adequate social partner for one’s child and in fulfilling their emotional and social needs (S.H. Goodman & Gotlib, 1999 ). This association between MDS and dysfunctional parenting practices is empirically supported, forming the a path of the mediation model. Analyzing 46 observational studies, Lovejoy et al. ( 2000 ) found a medium correlation between maternal depression and increased negative parenting, while correlations with increased disengaged and reduced positive parenting were small. Again, meta-analyses like this often include youth from various developmental stages. Highlighting the need for studies with adolescents, the parenting skills required for adolescents can differ significantly from those needed for younger children and might pose particular challenges for mothers with depression (Reigstad et al., 2023 ). As parenting is a broad construct, we focus specifically on parenting practices , defined as “specific, goal-directed behaviors” applied by caregivers to socialize their children (Darling & Steinberg, 1993 ). Notably, parenting practices are changeable (Yap, 2014) and directly influence offspring behavior and traits (Darling & Steinberg, 1993 ). Because of these characteristics, parenting practices may be more suitable for interventions and more comprehensible than parenting styles, which are broader and exert an indirect influence (Lee et al., 2006 ). More specifically, we focus on psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and parental involvement, as prior research linked them to both MDS and APP. Empirical evidence on the relationship between MDS and dysfunctional parenting practices towards adolescents is scarce but reveals significant correlations. Notably, all available studies were conducted in the U.S., highlighting the need for research in diverse cultural contexts. Psychological control is characterized by intrusive parental attempts to manipulate children's behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. Common features include shaming, guilt induction and conditional loving (Barber, 1996 ). In a community sample of parents with children aged 8 to 16, parental depressive symptoms were associated with increased use of psychological control (Papp et al., 2005 ). Inconsistent discipline refers to a lack of consistent rule enforcement (Shelton et al., 1996 ). A link between depressive symptoms and higher levels of inconsistent discipline was found in parents from a community sample (Papp et al., 2005 ), mothers of preadolescents (Zalewski et al., 2017 ) and parents of diabetic adolescents (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ). In contrast, involvement is a positive parenting practice, which includes helping offspring with their hobbies or playing together (Shelton et al., 1996 ). Parents of adolescents with diabetes showed reduced involvement when experiencing depressive symptoms (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ). Correlations across these studies were small to medium, ranging from r = − .14 (Zalewski et al., 2017 ) to r = − .37 (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ). Associations between Parenting Practices and APP (b Path) Dysfunctional parenting negatively affects the child’s development of both social and cognitive skills and, through social learning processes, adolescents can acquire dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors and affect from their mothers (S.H. Goodman & Gotlib, 1999 ). In fact, research shows that dysfunctional parenting is associated with an increased risk of adolescents exhibiting psychosocial problems, as well as reduced intellectual and emotional functioning, with small correlations found in longitudinal studies (S.H. Goodman et al., 2020 ). This relation forms the b path of the mediation model and is considered bidirectional (Pinquart, 2017a , 2017b ). Strong evidence links maternal psychological control to increased internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescents (e.g., Gorostiaga et al., 2019 ; Pinquart, 2017a , 2017b ; Seiffge-Krenke et al., 2018 ). However, many meta-analyses spanned a wide range from infancy to adolescence, potentially underestimating parental factors which are more relevant in later developmental stages than in early childhood (Yap, 2014). While research on psychological control and social problems is scarce, one Turkish study found that adolescents’ loneliness and aggression in social relationships increased with their perceived level of psychological control applied by their mothers. To our knowledge, the potential link between maternal psychological control and adolescent prosocial behavior has remained unexplored. Overall, correlations between psychological control and APP were small and relatively consistent, ranging from r = .21 (Koçak et al., 2017 ) to r = .28 (Seiffge‐Krenke et al., 2018). Findings on the association between inconsistent discipline and APP are mixed. A review linked it to increased depressive symptoms in 12-18-year-olds (Yap, 2014). Studies from Romania (Balan et al., 2017 ) and Mexico (Robert, 2009 ) reported a relationship with higher internalizing symptoms, which was not found among Germans aged 5 to 15 (Jäkel et al., 2015 ). Regarding externalizing symptoms, a positive link was found in a Mexican sample (Robert, 2009 ), while a German study associated inconsistent discipline with hyperactivity/inattention but not conduct problems (Jäkel et al., 2015 ). Another German study also found no link to conduct problems but unexpectedly associated the parenting practice with positive outcomes, such as reduced aggression (Essau et al., 2006 ). Overall, correlations between inconsistent discipline and APP were mostly small, ranging from r = .25 (Yap, 2014) to r = .28 (Balan et al., 2017 ), except for medium correlations ( r = .45 − .48) reported by Robert ( 2009 ). Involvement was examined in meta-analyses as a component of parental warmth, showing mostly small correlations with fewer depressive (Gorostiaga et al., 2019 ), internalizing (Pinquart, 2017b ) and externalizing symptoms in children and adolescents (Pinquart, 2017a ). Few studies focused on involvement alone but those which did found similar associations (e.g. Eckshtain et al., 2010 ; Robert, 2009 ), including one with German adolescents (Essau et al., 2006 ). To our knowledge, no study has assessed its link to adolescents’ prosocial behavior or peer relationship problems. Correlations between involvement and APP were small to medium, ranging from r = − .12 (Robert, 2009 ) to r = − .38 (Essau et al., 2006 ). Parenting Practices as Mediators between MDS & APP As discussed above and in the Integrative Model of the Transmission of Risk to Children of Depressed Mothers , the associations between MDS, parenting practices and APP are well-established. Research on psychotherapy informs us that interventions targeting parenting behavior often improve psychopathology in children, caregivers, or both. This was the case for 90% of assessed parenting interventions in a review by Everett et al. ( 2021 ). Nonetheless, few studies have examined inconsistent discipline, psychological control and involvement as mediators between MDS and psychosocial problems in offspring. Even fewer studies were conducted with adolescents, not children. One broad meta-analysis of longitudinal data found a small indirect effect (ab cs = .016) of maternal depression on child functioning through parenting, but included youth from infancy to adolescence (S.H. Goodman et al., 2020 ). To evaluate mediation through parenting practices as a broader construct, researchers combined rejection, psychological control and lax control into a single score of maternal parenting (Du Rocher Schudlich & Cummings, 2007). This approach is useful to gain a holistic view of parenting and can increase reliability. Conversely, it does not facilitate the identification of specific relevant parenting practices, thereby complicating the derivation of practical implications for intervention. The researchers found that maternal parenting mediated the relationship between maternal dysphoria and child adjustment, but they did not report whether the mediation was full or partial. The study was conducted in the US and involved a community sample of children aged 8 to 16 and their parents. Studies examining psychological control as a mediator between MDS and APP have been rare but found significant effects. As reported by Papp et al. ( 2005 ), psychological control fully mediated the link between parental distress and adjustment problems in offspring aged 8 to 16. This study was the only one to explore the indirect effect through parenting practices in a community sample involving adolescents. Its informative value is limited by the sample spanning multiple developmental stages and by the lack of reported standardized coefficients. In Finnish parents and their 6- to 7-year-old children, a diary study design allowed for a precise measurement of daily parenting practices and child distress, which reduces recall bias (Aunola et al., 2015 ). The researchers found that psychological control fully mediated the relationship between MDS and children’s daily distress, with a completely standardized indirect effect of ab cs = .15. Evidence regarding inconsistent discipline as a mediator between MDS and APP is mixed. In a study from Germany, this parenting practice mediated the relationship between depressive symptoms in parents and adjustment in elementary school children (Dette-Hagenmeyer & Reichle, 2014 ). The authors did not report whether the mediation was full or partial, and the sample mostly consisted of educated middle-class native speakers without a migrant background. Barry et al. ( 2009 ) sampled boys between 9 and 12 years who were rated as aggressive by their teachers. They found that inconsistent discipline partially mediated the relation between maternal distress and youth aggression, but not attention problems (Barry et al., 2009 ). Importantly, these findings might not be generalizable to girls and community samples. In a sample of diabetic adolescents, inconsistent discipline did not mediate between depressive symptoms in parents and offspring (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ). Notably, the researchers chose the same measures of depressive symptoms and parenting practices as used in our current study, while their findings might not be generalizable to a community sample. Papp et al. ( 2005 ) also found no indirect effect of maternal psychological distress on adjustment problems in offspring through a similar construct named the “Firm Control / Lax Control factor” (Papp et al., 2005 ). We found only one study which examined involvement as a mediator between MDS and APP, specifically depressive symptoms in offspring: Eckshtain et al. ( 2010 ) reported an indirect effect through involvement, but did not specify whether the mediation was partial or full. Current study Since subclinical depression is more prevalent than depressive disorders (RKI, 2017 ) and accompanied by similar psychosocial deficits (S.H. Goodman & Tully, 2009 ), we include all levels of depressive symptoms in our analysis. With this approach, we can add to the existing body of research, which has predominantly focused on clinical (Brennan et al., 2002 ; S.H. Goodman et al., 2011 , 2020 ). Given that MDS are associated with multiple parenting deficits and that dysfunctional parenting relates to various APP domains (S.H. Goodman et al., 2020 ), we employ a differentiated design encompassing three parenting practices and five APP domains. These APP domains include internalizing problems (emotional and peer problems), as well as externalizing problems (conduct problems and hyperactivity / inattention) and prosocial behavior, as proposed by A. Goodman et al., 2010 . This multidimensional approach further enables us to explore, for the first time, the association between psychological control and prosocial behavior, as well as potential links between involvement and theAPP domains of peer relationship problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and prosocial behavior. As preregistered, our hypotheses were as follows (see Fig. 2 ): (H1) MDS are positively associated with APP. (H2) MDS are negatively related to involvement, and positively to inconsistent discipline and psychological control. (H3) Involvement is negatively associated with MDS, whereas inconsistent discipline and psychological control are associated with higher levels of APP. (H4) Involvement, inconsistent discipline and psychological control mediate the relationship between MDS and the APP total difficulties Score. Materials and methods Participants To detect the necessary sample size, we conducted a power analysis using the “Monte Carlo Power Analysis for Indirect Effects” (Schoemann et al., 2017 ). We aimed to achieve a power of .80 at the standard .05 alpha error probability for three parallel mediators. Due to the scarce number of similar studies, we had to use effect sizes from five different studies. Four of these studies were conducted with younger offspring (Burke et al., 2008 ; Dette-Hagenmeyer & Reichle, 2014 ; Essau et al., 2006 ; Papp et al., 2005 ) and two of them involved youth who were clinically referred for physical or mental reasons (Burke et al., 2008 ; Eckshtain et al., 2010 ). For exact power analysis input, see supplementary material A. The resulting minimum sample size was 181. Prior research indicated that correlations in the present sample might be smaller than those in the studies used for the power analysis. Associations between MDS, parenting, and APP were weaker in samples of older children, compared to younger ones (S.H. Goodman et al., 2011 , 2020 ). These correlations were also smaller in community versus clinical samples (S.H. Goodman et al., 2011 ; Gorostiaga et al., 2019 ). Due to these findings, we chose a target sample size of N = 250. Participants were biological and non-biological mothers of adolescents aged 12 to 17. Inclusion criteria were sufficient proficiency in English or German according to one’s own assessment and the mother’s regular cohabitation with the adolescent. 295 participants started the questionnaire, but eleven datasets were incomplete and therefore omitted. Four mothers were excluded because they did not pass the following attention check: “If you answer this questionnaire attentively, do not respond with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, but ‘maybe’”. Therefore, the final sample size was N = 280, including 209 mothers from the US and UK and 71 mothers from Germany. The majority of participants resided with their partner (70% in heterosexual, 2.1% in homosexual relationship), while 12.1% were single mothers. Most participants (60.7%) held a university degree, and 31.4% had a migrant background. The average age of mothers was 41.8 years ( SD = 8.6), and nearly all (90.4%) reported on their biological child. Among adolescents, 49.3% identified as female, 49.6% as male, and 1.1% as diverse, with a mean age of 13.6 years ( SD = 1.9). 39.3% of adolescents were only children, 35.7% had one sibling and 25.0% had more than one sibling. More detailed demographic data is provided in supplementary material B. Procedure This cross-sectional, correlational study was preregistered on Open Science Framework prior to any data collection ( osf.io/9tsaf/ ). It was part of a larger project on parenting and psychopathology in families, which included caregivers of any gender (not only mothers) and more questionnaires than analyzed for the research questions discussed here. Data was gathered between April and July 2024, initially in Germany and later in the US and UK, as data collection progressed slowly. Participants were recruited through Facebook advertisements ( www.facebook.com ) and the Prolific recruitment platform ( www.prolific.com ). They were informed about the study and that it also served as a screening for financially compensated follow-up interviews with both the parent and the adolescent. After providing informed consent by clicking a button, each mother completed a 45- to 55-minute online questionnaire on the survey platform Unipark ( www.unipark.com ). The questionnaire was available in English or German, based on the participant's country of residence. Mothers with more than one child in the relevant age range were asked to decide on one child about whom they would answer the questions. As compensation, each parent received feedback about their scores on the assessed scales, along with explanations of the measured constructs. Additionally, five vouchers worth €50 each were raffled among the participants of the entire project. Participants who completed the questionnaire through Prolific were additionally compensated with €4.50. Procedures were approved by the Local Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology and Human Movement Science of the University of Hamburg (approval number: 2024_016). Measures Demographic data Questions about marital status and parental education were adapted from Beckmann et al. ( 2016 ) and translated for the English version of the questionnaire. Maternal depressive Symptoms (MDS) MDS during the past seven days were assessed using the depression scale of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI-18; Derogatis, 2000 ). For the German questionnaire, the translation by G. Franke ( 2000 ) was utilized. The BSI-18 is a shortened version of the BSI instrument (Derogatis; 1993 ) designed to assess distress due to psychopathological symptoms among adults. The depression scale consists of six items such as “During the past 7 days, how much were you distressed by feeling no interest in things?”. Usually, these questions are answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4. As Unipark does not allow for items to be coded as “0”, we applied a range from 1 (“not at all”) to 5 (“extremely”). A score was computed, with higher values indicating more MDS. Prior studies indicate good reliability and validity: The internal consistency found in a representative German sample (G. H. Franke et al., 2017 ) was classified as reliable according to Taber ( 2018 ). His categorization of internal consistency will be applied throughout this report. Additionally, the applied scale showed large correlations ( r = 0.63–0.78) with the depression scale of the established “Gesundheitsfragebogen für Patienten” (PHQ-D; Gräfe et al., 2004 ). In the present sample, internal consistency was reliable with ω t = .88. Parenting Practices Measures of psychological control were obtained via the Psychological Control Scale (PCS; Barber et al., 2012 ). The PCS is a combination of items from the CRPBI psychological control/psychological autonomy subscale (Schaefer, 1965 ) and further items to assess the hypothesized components of this parenting practice (Barber et al., 2005 ). The original questionnaire, designed for youth self-report, utilizes a 3-point Likert scale. Following the methodology of Kuppens et al. ( 2009 ), we reworded the items for parent self-report and implemented a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “never true”; 5 = “always true”) for improved consistency with other scales and a more precise assessment of variance. The PCS consists of eight items (e.g., “I am less friendly with my child if he / she does not see things my way”). No German version was available, so we translated the items ourselves (see supplementary material C). A mean was calculated, with higher values referring to high psychological control. Internal consistency was high in previous studies (Barber et al., 2012 ). Convergent and discriminant validity were displayed in large correlations with the 24-item Parental Autonomy Support Scale (P-PASS; Mageau et al., 2015 ). Specifically, the PCS was positively correlated with controlling parenting as measured by the P-PASS, and negatively with autonomy-supportive parenting. In the present sample, internal consistency was high (ω t = .81). Inconsistent Discipline and Involvement were assessed with the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Frick, 1991 ) or its German version (Essau et al., 2006 ) as appropriate. Six items measure inconsistent discipline (e.g., “You threatened to punish your child and then do not actually punish them”) and ten items evaluate involvement (e.g., “You play games or do other fun things with your child”). Answers were provided on a 5-point Likert scale spanning from 1 (= “never”) to 5 (= “nearly always”). For each parenting practice, a score was computed, with higher values indicating more frequent use of inconsistent discipline or involvement, respectively. In a German sample, internal consistency was acceptable for inconsistent discipline and good for involvement (Essau et al., 2006 ). The same study also replicated the factor structure of the APQ through an exploratory factor analysis. In the current sample, both involvement (ω t = .81) and inconsistent discipline (ω t = .73) demonstrated high internal consistency. Adolescent Psychosocial Problems (APP) Mothers reported their children's psychosocial problems using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; R. Goodman, 1997 ) or its German version (Klasen et al., 2003 ). The SDQ consists of five scales with five items: Emotional problems, e.g., „Often unhappy, depressed or tearful” Conduct problems, e.g., „Often loses temper Hyperactivity/inattention, e.g., „Restless, overactive, cannot stay still for long” Peer relationship problems, e.g., „Gets along better with adults than with other youth” Prosocial behavior, e.g., „Helpful if someone is hurt, upset or feeling ill” Responses were provided on a 3-point Likert scale which typically ranges from 0 to 2 but had to be recoded as follows: 1 (= “not true”) to 3 (= “certainly true”). For each APP domain, a score was calculated. A higher score referred to more current problems, except for prosocial behavior, where a high score signified increased prosocial behavior. Additionally, a “total difficulty score” was formed by adding up the values in each domain except prosocial behavior. In a representative German sample, internal consistency ranged from satisfactory to high (α = .60 − .76), depending on the scale (Woerner et al., 2002 ). The same study confirmed factorial validity, with all factor loadings exceeding .40 for their intended scale. In the present sample, internal consistency was high for emotional problems (ω t = .80), hyperactivity/inattention (ω t = .80) and prosocial behavior (ω t = .79). Moreover, it was satisfactory for peer problems (ω t = .71) and conduct problems (ω t = .60). Data Analysis The analysis script and data are publicly available on the Open Science Framework (osf.io/9tsaf). We performed all analyses using R Statistical Software (v4.1.1; RCore Team, 2021), with the significance level set to α = .05. Means and scores were computed with the packages dplyr (Wickham et al., 2023 ), tidyselect (Henry & Wickham, 2022 ) and stringr (Wickham, 2023 ). The BSI and SDQ Likert scales typically start at “0” but since Unipark does not allow this, all scales started at “1”. To ensure comparability with prior research, we adjusted the BSI and SDQ scores back to their original scales, beginning with “0”. The psych package (Revelle, 2024 ) was used for computing McDonald's omega (ω t ) and standard deviations, as well as evaluating normality: skewness and kurtosis values within the range of +/- 2.0 are considerd sufficiently normal for applying parametric statistics (Fein et al., 2022 ). Multiple tests were conducted to compare the US/UK with the German sample. For nominal demographic data, Fisher’s exact test was used, as it offers greater accuracy than the chi-square test when expected frequencies are small, particularly for sample sizes below 1000 (McDonald, n.d.). Monte Carlo simulation was employed to estimate p-values for larger contingency table since exact calculations were computationally too intensive. We applied independent t-tests to compare metric demographic data between the samples. Of the five t-test assumptions (Fein et al., 2022 ), two were inherently met by the study design: (1) continuous scales and (2) independence of groups and observations. The remaining assumptions − (3) normal distribution, (4) absence of spurious outliers, and (5) homogeneity of variances - were checked. As proposed by Fein et al. ( 2022 ), we used Levene’s test to assess variance homogeneity, implemented though the car package (Fox & Weisberg, 2019 ). For comparing descriptive statistics between samples, we used Bonferroni-corrected independent T-tests or Welch’s T-test if Levene’s test indicated unequal variances. We conducted a correlation analysis with MDS, parenting practices and APP using Kendall’s rank correlation τ b . This nonparametric statistic is considered more accurate and stable than the widely-used Spearman correlation, as it provides robust protection against false positive results and generates narrow confidence intervals (Arndt et al., 1999 ). It also accounts for ties (Puka, 2011 ), which was important since there were more participants than possible values, making identical observations inevitable. τ b requires a linear relation between the variables and at least ordinal level data (Puka, 2011 ). To assess linearity, scatterplots were created with the ggplot2 package (Wickham, 2016 ). The applied Likert scales met the criterion of being ordinal (Wu & Leung, 2017 ). A mediation analysis with three parallel mediators was conducted using the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2013 ). According to Fein et al. ( 2022 ), mediation analysis requires five assumptions: (1) continuous scales, (2) linearity, (3) no multicollinearity, (4) no spurious outliers, and (5) an approximate normal distribution. Assumption (1) was partially met, as the debate on the continuity of Likert scales includes both valid pro and contra arguments (see Wu & Leung, 2017 ). Assumption (2) was tested with scatterplots, (3) with τ b ; correlations above τ b = .8 indicate multicollinearity (Shrestha, 2020 ). To evaluate assumption (4), we constructed boxplots, defining outliers as values which deviate by at least 1.5 times the interquartile range (IQR). Spurious outliers do not represent accurate responses, whereas non-spurious outliers are reasonable given the context of the question (Fein et al., 2022 ). Assumption (5) was less relevant as PROCESS applies bootstrapping which does not assume normality, an advantage over other mediation methods (Hayes, 2013 ). The author states that for models using observed variables, PROCESS yields results identical to those from structural equation modeling (SEM) but is easier and more intuitive to use (Hayes et al., 2017 ). Indirect effects were tested using 10,000 bootstrap samples, and were considered significant when the 95% bias-corrected confidence interval did not include zero. We conducted two post-hoc Mantel tests to assess the roles of country of residence and gender in the correlations between study variables. The Mantel test assumes independent correlation matrices and linear relationships (Bakker, 2024 ) and was implemented through the vegan package (Oksanen et al., 2022 ). First, we compared correlations between the US/UK sample ( N = 209) and the German sample ( N = 71). Second, correlations were compared between mothers ( N = 280) and fathers ( N = 104) from the US, UK, and Germany, based on data collected as part of the larger project associated with this study. Results Preliminary Analyses MDS, all parenting practices and all APP domains were normally distributed. Scatterplots showed that relationships between these variables were approximately linear (see supplementary material D for more details). There was no evidence of multicollinearity, as the maximum intercorrelation between outcome variables was τ b = .64. The Boxplots, presented in supplementary material E, identified 25 outliers. Among these, 22 were individuals who scored considerably higher on MDS, dysfunctional parenting practices or APP than most other participants. The remaining three outliers were mothers reporting notably lower use of dysfunctional parenting practices compared to the majority of participants. Specifically, they scored higher on involvement (one outlier) or lower on psychological control (two outliers). Given the variability inherent in a community sample, which likely includes some individuals with considerably high or low scores, all outliers were considered non-spurious. All assumptions for the applied statistical tests were met. The US/UK and German samples differed only in parental education and migrant background. Regarding descriptive characteristics, the only differences were in emotional problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and total difficulties. Further details are provided in supplementary material F and G. Correlation Analyses (H1-H3) H1: MDS and APP Descriptive statistics and correlations are presented in Table 1 . Kendall’s rank correlation analysis yielded a positive correlation between MDS and total difficulties (τ b = .28, p = 001). Additionally, MDS were positively correlated with all APP domains except prosocial behavior, which showed a non-significant negative correlation (τ b = − .09, p = .046). Significant correlations ranged from τ b = .12 for peer relationship problems to τ b = .28 for both emotional problems and total difficulties. Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Kendall’s Rank Correlation Coefficients for Study Variables Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Maternal depressive symptoms 4.27 4.73 — 2. Psychological control 1.59 0.48 .12 ** — 3. Inconsistent Discipline 13.79 3.81 .15 ** .29 ** — 4. Involvement 40.38 5.45 −.07 −.24 ** −.04 — 5. Emotional problems 2.69 2.42 .28 ** .14 ** .09 * −.02 — 6. Conduct problems 1.66 1.49 .19 ** .13 ** .17 ** −.06 .29 ** — 7. Hyperactivity/ inattention 8. Peer relationship problems b 9. Prosocial behavior 10.Total difficulties 3.60 2.28 7.43 10.23 2.61 2.12 2.25 6.35 .15 ** .21 ** −.09 .28 ** .09 * .14 ** −.15 ** .16 ** .15 ** .11 * −.02 .15 ** −.14 ** −.05 .17 ** −.10 * .29 ** .36 ** − .14 ** .64 ** .28 ** .22 ** −.22 ** .49 ** — .19 ** −.22 ** .58 ** — −.16 ** .53 ** — −.24 ** * p < .05. ** p < .01. H2: MDS and Parenting Practices MDS were positively correlated with psychological control (τb = .12, p = .005) and inconsistent discipline (τb = .15, p = .001), but the association with involvement was non-significant (τb = –.07, p = .122). H3: Parenting Practices and APP Psychological control was negatively correlated with prosocial behavior (τb = − .15, p = .001) and positively correlated with all other APP domains and total difficulties. Correlations ranged from τ b = .09 for hyperactivity/inattention to τ b = .16 for total difficulties. Inconsistent discipline showed significant positive correlations with total difficulties and four out of five APP domains, excluding prosocial behavior (τ b = − .02, p = 0.722). Correlations between inconsistent discipline and APP ranged from τ b = .09 for hyperactivity/inattention to τ b = .17 for conduct problems. Involvement was negatively correlated with hyperactivity/inattention (τ b = .14, p = .002) and positively with prosocial behavior (τ b = .17, p = .001), but unrelated to other APP domains and total difficulties. Intercorrelations among Parenting Practices Psychological control was positively correlated with inconsistent discipline (τ b = .29, p = .001) and negatively with involvement (τ b = − .24, p = .001). No significant correlation was found between inconsistent discipline and involvement (τb = –.04, p = .370). Parenting Practices as Mediators between MDS and Total Difficulties (H4) The overall indirect effect of MDS on total difficulties, mediated by psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement was significant ( ab cs = .04, 95% CI [0.0058. 0.0813]). When examining each parenting practice individually, only psychological control emerged as a significant mediator ( ab cs = .02, 95% CI [0.0003, 0.0551). As MDS had a direct effect on total difficulties (ß = .32, t = 1.70, p < .01), psychological control is regarded as a partial mediator. In contrast, no significant indirect effects were found through inconsistent discipline ( ab cs = .015, 95% CI [-0.0115, .0496]) or involvement ( ab cs = .003, 95% CI [-0.0063, 0.0184]). The empirical mediation model is shown in Fig. 3 . Post-hoc-tests The Mantel test indicated no significant differences in the correlations between study variables for mothers from the US/UK compared to German mothers ( r = .87, p = .001). Similarly, no differences were found between all participating mothers and fathers ( r = .93, p = .001). Discussion This study examined the associations between MDS, parenting practices, and APP, focusing on psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement. By distinguishing between multiple APP domains, our study provides a more nuanced understanding of how subclinical depressive symptoms in mothers relate to adolescent functioning across three Western countries (US, UK, Germany). Associations between MDS and APP (c’ Path) MDS were associated with higher total difficulties and problems in all APP domains except for prosocial behavior. Consistent with H1, these results indicate that depressive symptoms in mothers are linked to an increased risk of adolescents experiencing psychosocial problems. The only deviation from H1 was the nonsignificant link to reduced prosocial behavior. Significant correlations were small. Our findings on the associations of MDS with internalizing, externalizing, and total difficulties align with the review by S.H. Goodman et al. ( 2011 ). In contrast, the nonsignificant link to prosocial behavior differs from studies on 11-year-olds showing a correlation between higher MDS and lower prosocial behavior (Hay & Pawlby, 2003 ; Maruyama et al., 2019 ). Given that adolescents in our sample were older (12–17 years), age may moderate this relationship, as parental influence on prosocial behavior typically declines while peer influence increases during adolescence. Overall, these findings underscore MDS as a meaningful risk factor for psychosocial problems in adolescents. Associations between MDS and Parenting Practices (a Path) MDS were positively correlated with psychological control and inconsistent discipline, but unrelated to involvement. Thus, H2 was only supported for two out of three parenting practices. In accordance with S.H. Goodman and Gotlib ( 1999 ), our findings strengthen the assumption that depressive symptoms are associated with difficulties in fulfilling one’s child’s emotional needs and being an adequate social partner (e.g., setting up consistent rules), but the adolescents’ social needs seem to be fulfilled through involvement regardless of MDS. The significant correlations were small, aligning with effect sizes observed in studies involving adolescents from a community sample (Papp et al., 2005 ), preadolescents (Zalewski et al., 2017 ), and a meta-analysis of observational studies with parents of children and adolescents (Lovejoy et al., 2000 ). In contrast, Eckshtain et al. ( 2010 ) reported medium correlations between depressive symptoms in mothers of diabetic adolescents and their use of inconsistent discipline and involvement. This discrepancy may suggest a stronger relationship between MDS and dysfunctional parenting practices in the presence of additional stressors such as an adolescent’s chronic illness. The nonsignificant link between MDS and involvement contrasts with meta-analytic findings associating maternal depression with lower positive parenting (Lovejoy et al., 2000 ). Notably, the meta-analysis also included mothers with diagnosed depression, suggesting that symptom severity might moderate the relationship between MDS and positive parenting. Our results also differ from the medium correlation between MDS and involvement in parents of diabetic adolescents (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ), further emphasizing the role of additional stressors. Importantly, involvement assesses shared activities (e.g., playing games; Frick, 1991 )), whereas psychological control and inconsistent discipline captured interactional characteristics (e.g., making empty threats; Frick, 1991 ). This indicates that MDS relate less to the frequency of joint activities and more to dysfunctional interactions. Notably, involvement may be shaped more by factors independent of MDS, such as adolescent age or maternal time and financial resources. Possibly, mothers with subclinical depressive symptoms are able to maintain joint activities, whereas those with severe depression may struggle to do so. Overall, these findings suggest that mothers with depressive symptoms could benefit from interventions targeting psychological control and inconsistent discipline. At this level of symptom severity, interventions focused on increasing involvement may not be necessary. Parenting practices showed small correlations with one another, suggesting that psychologically controlling mothers tend to use inconsistent discipline and demonstrate lower involvement. In contrast, there was no association between inconsistent discipline and involvement. These small correlations imply that dysfunctional parenting practices can co-occur, yet not all mothers with depressive symptoms adopt the same practices, highlighting the need for personalized interventions. Associations between Parenting Practices and APP (b Path) All three parenting practices were associated with increased total difficulties: Adolescents exposed to psychological control and inconsistent discipline exhibited more difficulties, while those raised by involved mothers showed fewer difficulties. However, the parenting practices differed in the number and type of APP domains they correlated with: Psychological control was associated with all five APP domains, inconsistent discipline with four (excluding prosocial behavior) and involvement with two (hyperactivity/inattention and prosocial behavior). Thus, H3 was partially supported, supporting the transmission of dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors and affect through parenting (S.H. Goodman & Gotlib, 1999 ). All significant correlations between parenting practices and APP were small. These findings show that parenting practices matter for adolescents´ psychosocial wellbeing. Adolescents raised by psychologically controlling mothers exhibited higher internalizing and externalizing problems, aligning with meta-analytic findings (Gorostiaga et al., 2019 ; Pinquart, 2017b , 2017a ; Seiffge-Krenke et al., 2018 ). While prior research linked psychological control to loneliness and relational aggression (Koçak et al., 2017 ), this study was the first to examine the – significant – link to reduced prosocial behavior. Exposure to inconsistent discipline was associated with increased internalizing and externalizing problems, but showed no connection to prosocial behavior. The link to internalizing problems aligns with most prior research (Balan et al., 2017 ; Robert, 2009 ; Yap, 2014) but contrasts with a study among German children and adolescents (Jäkel et al., 2015 ). Like Jäkel et al., we observed an association between inconsistent discipline and hyperactivity/inattention. However, in contrast to their results, we also found a link with conduct problems. Moreover, our results diverge from a study of 10- to 14-years old Germans, in which inconsistent discipline was unrelated to conduct problems but associated with positive outcomes (Essau et al., 2006 ). Regarding the absence of a link to prosocial behavior, our findings align with Jäkel et al. ( 2015 ). Overall, these discrepancies suggest the presence of moderators, such as age. Being the first to examine these relationships, the found that involvement was associated with decreased hyperactivity/inattention and increased prosocial behavior, with small correlations. We also uniquely explored the link to peer relationship problems, which was non-significant, as were the links to conduct and emotional problems. These findings contrast with previous research reporting associations with reduced depressive symptoms (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ), lower internalizing problems (Robert, 2009 ), and fewer conduct problems (Essau et al., 2006 ). Notably, youth in these studies were either younger than the current sample (Essau et al., 2006 ; Robert, 2009 ) or had diabetes (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ), suggesting age and chronic illness may moderate the relationship between involvement and APP. The link between dysfunctional parenting practices and increased APP has three key implications: (1) Negative parenting practices were associated with more APP domains than the positive practice of involvement. Although this study was correlational and the relationship between parenting practices and APP is known to be bidirectional (Pinquart, 2017a , 2017b ), this difference suggests that avoiding negative parenting practices may be paramount in preventing APP. (2) Interactional characteristics of parenting (i.e., psychological control and inconsistent discipline) were linked to more APP domains than joint parent-adolescent activities (i.e., involvement). This implies that parenting programs may have a broader effect on psychosocial well-beings of adolescents if they focus on improving interactional dynamics. (3) While inconsistent discipline was linked to internalizing and externalizing problems, psychological control was additionally associated with lower prosocial behavior. This suggests that parenting programs reducing psychological control may improve a broad range of APP. Conversely, programs targeting inconsistent discipline may help alleviate internalizing and externalizing problems, while an emphasis on increasing involvement may specifically improve hyperactivity/inattention and prosocial behavior. Parenting Practices as Mediators between MDS and APP Taken together, psychological control, inconsistent discipline and involvement mediated the relationship between MDS and APP. When examining parenting practices individually, the only significant indirect effect was through psychological control, providing partial support for H4. However, the lower bounds of the confidence intervals for all three parenting practices were very close to zero: psychological control was barely significant (lower bound: 0.0003), while inconsistent discipline (lower bound: -0.0115) and involvement were near significance. Although these differences are statistically notable, they are unlikely to be clinically meaningful. The mediation analysis showed that depressed mothers used psychological control, which was related to psychosocial problems among their adolescent offspring. This finding is in accordance with previous studies among 8- to 16-year olds (Papp et al., 2005 ) and children aged 6 to 7 (Aunola et al., 2015 ), highlighting the relevance of this parenting practice across multiple developmental stages. Among the mediation studies discussed in the introduction, only Aunola et al. ( 2015 ) reported the completely standardized indirect effect ab cs , calculated as the product of the ß coefficients for the a path and the b path (Preacher & Kelley, 2011 ). This effect is typically small in magnitude (S.H. Goodman et al., 2020 ): If both ß coefficients are .3, their product would be ab cs = .09. To better reflect this scale, Kenny ( 2024 ) recommended modifying Cohen's (1988) effect size standards by squaring them, categorizing an ab cs of 01 as small, .09 as medium, and .25 as large. Using this framework, the indirect effects found in this study - through all three parenting practices ( ab cs = .04) and through psychological control ( ab cs = .02) - are both considered small. For comparison, we calculated ab cs values for the other discussed mediation studies, excluding Papp et al. ( 2005 ) and Barry et al. ( 2009 ) as they did not report the necessary ß coefficients. In the present study, the indirect effect through all three parenting practices ( ab cs = .04) is smaller than the medium effect ( ab cs = .22) found in a US sample of youth aged 8–16, based on a combined parenting score of rejection, psychological control, and lax control (Du Rocher Schudlich & Cummings, 2007). Similarly, the indirect effect through psychological control ( ab cs = .02) is smaller than prior medium indirect effects found through inconsistent discipline in German elementary school children ( ab cs = .13-.16; Dette-Hagenmeyer & Reichle, 2014 ) and through involvement in a U.S. adolescents with diabetes ( ab cs = .11; Eckshtain et al., 2010 ). It is also smaller than the medium effect through psychological control ( ab cs = .15) in Finnish 6- and 7-year-olds (Aunola et al., 2015 ). This difference may stem from Aunola et al.’s use of a diary study design in which parenting and children’s negative emotions were assessed daily. The smaller effect sizes in the present study could reflect an underestimation of the relationship between parenting and APP through measurements without temporal reference or in hindsight. Another explanation is a possible moderating effect of adolescent age, as adolescents might cope better with psychological control than children. Inconsistent discipline was correlated with both MDS and APP but did not emerge as a significant mediator. Similarly, several U.S. studies found no significant indirect effect through inconsistent discipline across diverse samples: Adolescents with diabetes (Eckshtain et al., 2010 ), a community sample of youth aged 8 to 16 (Papp et al., 2005 ) and, with attention problems as outcome measure, boys from a project for aggressive children (Barry et al., 2009 ). However, our results contrast with findings among German elementary schoolchildren (Dette-Hagenmeyer & Reichle, 2014 ) and those concerning aggression as an outcome in Barry et al. ( 2009 ), in which inconsistent discipline was a significant mediator. While involvement correlated with hyperactivity/inattention, prosocial behavior and total difficulties, it was unrelated to MDS and therefore not a mediator. In contrast, Eckshtain et al. ( 2010 ) found that MDS indirectly affected adolescents’ depressive symptoms through involvement, again suggesting that additional stressors like a chronic illness may act as potential moderators. Overall, our findings suggest that psychological control and inconsistent discipline are closely associated with the psychosocial well-being of adolescents with depressed mothers, even in a subclinical sample. Therefore, prevention programs and interventions for mothers with depressive symptoms could benefit from increasing awareness about the relevance of these parenting practices and helping develop the necessary skills to avoid them. Post-hoc Tests: Role of Country of Residence and Gender Post-hoc Mantel tests showed that correlations between parental depressive symptoms, dysfunctional parenting practices, and APP did not differ based on the mother’s country of residence (US/UK vs. Germany) or the gender of the participating parent (mothers vs. fathers). Although prior studies have found significant cultural differences in the expression of depression (Chang et al., 2017 ), parenting behaviors (Roskam, 2013 ), and the relationship between parenting and offspring psychopathology (Varela et al., 2009 ), the results of this study appear consistent across multiple Western industrialized countries. The finding that depressive symptoms were similarly related to parenting and APP for both mothers and fathers aligns with meta-analytical evidence: Wilson & Durbin ( 2009 ) found that the association between depressive symptoms and parenting behaviors did not vary by gender. Additionally, Connell & S.H. Goodman (2002) observed no gender difference in the relationship between parental psychopathology and children’s internalizing problems. However, the present study also contrasts with this same meta-analysis, which identified a small gender difference in the link to externalizing problems. Strengths and Limitations This study was the first to examine psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement as mediators between MDS and psychosocial problems in adolescents from the US, UK, and Germany. While only a few previous studies have explored similar mediation processes—psychological control in children aged 8–16 (Papp et al., 2005 ) and involvement in adolescents with chronic illness (Eckshtain et al., 2010 )—our study extends this work by differentiating between multiple parenting practices and multiple domains of adolescent psychosocial functioning, including prosocial behavior, hyperactivity/inattention, and peer relationship problems. Notably, the link between psychological control and prosocial behavior in adolescents, as well as the relationship between involvement and several APP domains, has not been previously examined. These contributions are particularly relevant, as the role of parental factors may change across developmental stages (Yap, 2014). Methodologically, the study offers several strengths. First, APP was measured in five distinct domains as well as a total difficulties score, allowing for a nuanced understanding of associations with MDS and parenting. Second, examining specific parenting practices rather than composite or broad parenting styles (Du Rocher Schudlich & Cummings, 2007; Lee et al., 2006 ) facilitates actionable implications, as these practices are both specific (Darling & Steinberg, 1993 ) and modifiable (Yap, 2014). Third, by recruiting a community sample and assessing depressive symptoms rather than requiring a formal diagnosis, the study captures subclinical depression, which is more prevalent than depressive disorders and still associated with significant psychosocial risk (RKI, 2017 ). Despite these strengths, several limitations should be considered. First, the study relied on a cross-sectional design, which precludes causal conclusions and limits the ability to evaluate temporal directionality. Nevertheless, by assessing multiple parenting practices and specific APP domains, the study provides an important differentiated first step in understanding potential mechanisms linking maternal depressive symptoms to adolescent outcomes. Future longitudinal and multi-informant designs are needed to test causal pathways and bidirectional associations. Second, all variables were assessed via maternal report, which introduces potential biases. Parent-reported internalizing problems may underestimate adolescents’ experiences, particularly for girls (Collishaw et al., 2009 ), although mothers with depressive symptoms may also over-report problems (Gartstein et al., 2009 ; S.H. Goodman et al., 2011 ). Similarly, parents may underreport dysfunctional parenting due to social desirability (Morsbach & Prinz, 2006 ), whereas adolescents’ perceptions of parenting may be more predictive of psychosocial outcomes (Pinquart, 2017a ). Despite these limitations, parent reports provide valuable first insights into family dynamics and can guide hypotheses for future multi-informant studies. Behavioral observations and adolescent self-reports should be incorporated in subsequent research. Third, the study focused solely on maternal depressive symptoms, without accounting for the psychopathology or parenting behaviors of other caregivers. Evidence suggests that depressive symptoms in both parents pose higher risk and that multiple caregivers influence adolescent psychosocial outcomes (Mikkonen et al., 2016 ; Van Der Bruggen et al., 2008 ). Future studies should consider the broader family system. Finally, practical constraints limited our power estimation: the scarcity of comparable adolescent community samples required using effect sizes from five different studies, leading us to slightly over-recruit (N = 250) to account for potential underestimation. Overall, while cross-sectional and single-informant limitations restrict causal inference, the differentiated assessment of parenting practices and adolescent outcomes provides a meaningful first step in clarifying which aspects of maternal behavior may be most relevant for adolescent psychosocial functioning, guiding future research and prevention efforts. Conclusion This study identified two mediators in the relationship between MDS and APP: (1) the combined parenting practices of psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement taken together, and (2) psychological control considered singularly. The results suggest that depressed mothers tend to use psychological control and inconsistent discipline with their adolescent children, both of which are associated with increased APP. While involvement was linked to three out of five APP domains, it was unrelated to MDS, thus not serving as a mediator. These findings indicate that targeting psychological control and inconsistent discipline may be a promising approach for prevention and intervention programs targeting mothers with depressive symptoms. As the relationships between MDS, parenting practices, and APP did not differ by country of residence or gender of the participant, such interventions may be effective for caregivers of all genders across Western industrialized cultures. Future research should utilize multi-informant diary designs to assess the influence of moderators on these mediations and to identify other parenting mediators in the relationship between MDS and APP. Understanding which aspects of parenting are relevant for the link between MDS and APP can enable the development of more effective interventions, ultimately reducing psychopathology within families. Declarations Declaration of Interest The authors report there are no competing interests to declare. No funding was received for this study. Data Availability Statement The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in the Open Science Framework storage at https://osf.io/9tsaf/files/osfstorage. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8385922","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":628449370,"identity":"22035e1c-b3c0-4a01-bd54-fa5859d7ebbe","order_by":0,"name":"Lea Pühler","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAz0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPgh1QIYfRCUUEKGFDaqFR7IBpMWAFC0GB0A0UVrYm5895qm4w2N8fnXihwcGDPL8YgcIaOE5Zm7Mc+YZj9mNt5slgA4znDk7gYAWiQQzad62w0AtZzeAtCQY3CakRf75N2nef4d5jGec3fyDOC0SPEBbGg7zGPD3biPSFp6ccsM5xw7zSNzg3WaRYCBB2C/87Me3PXhTc1iOv//s5ps/Kmzk+aUJaGGAR40EWKUEQeVIWvgPEKV6FIyCUTAKRiAAANysQGcHUSMUAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Universität Hamburg","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lea","middleName":"","lastName":"Pühler","suffix":""},{"id":628449371,"identity":"8f22a12f-431a-41cc-92e7-739d722c43be","order_by":1,"name":"Felix Vogel","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Felix","middleName":"","lastName":"Vogel","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-17 12:53:39","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8385922/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8385922/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107834328,"identity":"87d1aedc-4505-4ff7-ac57-fc01e4ba289d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-26 15:44:20","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59550,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePaths of the Hypothesized Mediation Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8385922/v1/6399bf0b6c6bf2add5446324.png"},{"id":107834330,"identity":"e4517828-b94e-4a54-b8e5-a41332e63600","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-26 15:44:20","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69575,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypothesized parallel Mediation Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. \u003c/em\u003e(+) indicates a positive ß coefficient; (-) indicates a negative ß coefficient.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8385922/v1/21c72cf6f95cc6f0dba25c10.png"},{"id":107834329,"identity":"ad51f618-cda1-485a-8d86-47c3fbdffd40","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-26 15:44:20","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67310,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmpirical Mediation Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. \u003c/em\u003eStandardized coefficients are depicted; dashed lines indicate nonsignificant correlations; \u003cbr\u003e\n*\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .05. **\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8385922/v1/1bbb3ceee79d85a490f18939.png"},{"id":108006326,"identity":"ab9d4e16-8354-4c5c-9b8d-f0ca57a63c9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 12:55:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":748976,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8385922/v1/b4e0961e-7eb6-4280-bf26-e09ee20ce438.pdf"},{"id":107834327,"identity":"8f173f26-12b0-417c-95b7-a42ff77c183b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-26 15:44:20","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1337372,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"supplementarymaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8385922/v1/656d3f177b6ebb0e609be3fa.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Psychosocial Problems: Mediated by Parenting Practices?","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eHaving a parent with a lifetime diagnosis of depression nearly doubles the risk of developing a mental disorder before the age of 20, resulting in a prevalence of 53% among affected offspring (Rasic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Mental disorders in youth are particularly detrimental given their high persistence: 40% of German children and adolescents with psychosocial problems remained affected after 6 years (Klasen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo develop effective prevention programs and interventions to reduce this risk, research needs to identify modifiable mediators between maternal depressive symptoms (MDS) and adolescent psychosocial problems (APP). One of the most influential mediation frameworks in this field is the \u003cem\u003eIntegrative Model of the Transmission of Risk to Children of Depressed Mothers\u003c/em\u003e (S.H. Goodman \u0026amp; Gotlib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), whose mechanisms have been empirically supported across numerous studies (see S.H. Goodman \u0026amp; Tully, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, for a review). The model defines four groups of mediators between MDS and APP: (1) heritability, (2) innate neuroregulatory mechanisms, (3) exposure to dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors, and affect, and (4) exposure to stressful environments. With respect to modifiability, heritability and neuroregulatory mechanisms can be excluded due to their biological determination. Stressful environmental conditions, although relevant, are strongly shaped by contextual factors and therefore difficult to change through psychological interventions. In contrast, a promising and modifiable mediator is children\u0026rsquo;s exposure to dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors, and affect. S.H. Goodman and Gotlib (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) propose that MDS are associated with such dysfunctional patterns, which interfere with the mothers\u0026rsquo; parenting skills. Through impaired parenting and social learning processes, children acquire similarly dysfunctional patterns, thereby heightening their risk for APP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the four groups of mediators proposed in the model have been empirically tested in various studies, existing research has rarely examined which specific parenting practices might mediate the association between MDS and APP. Identifying these mediators is crucial as it allows the development of targeted, mechanism-based parenting interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior research found that the parenting practices of psychological control (eg., Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), inconsistent discipline (eg., Dette-Hagenmeyer \u0026amp; Reichle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and involvement (eg., Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) are connected to MDS and APP. Yet, indirect effects of MDS on APP through parenting practices have seldom been examined, and even more rarely with a focus on adolescents. No study has yet explored whether psychological control is linked to adolescent prosocial behavior. Similarly, there is a research gap on the relationships between involvement and prosocial behavior, hyperactivity/inattention, and peer relationship problems. The current study addresses these gaps by examining whether psychological control, inconsistent discipline and involvement mediate the relationship between MDS and psychosocial problems in adolescents from the US, UK and Germany (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAssociations between MDS and APP (c’ Path)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepression in mothers is especially prevalent and consequential, as there are more\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eaffected mothers than fathers: In Germany, women have a 1.7 times higher risk of developing a depressive disorder compared to men (Bromet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In the US, every tenth minor was raised by a mother who suffered from major depression within the past year (Ertel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Applying the same rate to Germany, nearly 1.5\u0026nbsp;million children and adolescents would be parented by a depressed mother each year (Federal Statistical Office, 2024). Since mothers still spend more time caring for their children than fathers do (Raley et al., 2012), their psychopathology can have a stronger impact than that of fathers (Rothbaum \u0026amp; Weisz, 1994). A meta-analysis found that maternal psychopathology was more strongly correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s internalizing problems than paternal psychology, while no significant gender difference emerged for externalizing problems (Connell \u0026amp; Goodman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). For these reasons, we focused specifically on depressive symptoms in mothers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is well-established that increased levels of depressive symptoms in mothers, such as loss of interest, fatigue, and inappropriate guilt feeling (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), are associated with psychosocial problems in offspring. In a review of nearly 200 studies, 68% of youth raised by depressed mothers experience more internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety, depressive moods) than children parented by nondepressed mothers (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). A similar proportion was affected by externalizing problems such as aggression and conduct problems. Additionally, some studies have linked MDS to social difficulties in adolescents, including peer relationship problems (Maruyama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and reduced prosocial behavior (Hay \u0026amp; Pawlby, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). These correlations are considered small according to Cohen\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) guidelines for effect sizes, which will be applied throughout this article. The evidence linking MDS not only with adolescents' internalizing problems, but with a broad range of psychosocial problems (APP) aligns with the concept of multifinality (Cicchetti \u0026amp; Rogosch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, the relationship between MDS and APP is bidirectional. A review of longitudinal studies found that MDS predicts APP (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), while several studies indicated that APP also predict MDS (Gross et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Pardini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sellers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, being raised by a depressed mother increases the risk of APP, while parenting an adolescent with APP also increases the risk of developing depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdolescence is a particularly sensitive period during which the parental environment can recalibrate stress-mediating systems like the HPA axis (Gunnar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, fewer studies have examined the link between MDS and psychosocial problems in adolescents, compared to the amount of research concentrating on children or mixed developmental stages. Importantly, studies spanning multiple developmental stages may obscure crucial developmental differences (S.H. Goodman \u0026amp; Gotlib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) and confound results (Reigstad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting the need for further research focused exclusively on adolescents. Conducting one of the few studies focusing on adolescents, Brennan et al. (2003) found that maternal depression was related to adolescents\u0026rsquo; depression as well as internalizing and externalizing disorders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn accordance with the \u003cem\u003eIntegrative Model of the Transmission of Risk to Children of Depressed Mothers\u003c/em\u003e, both environmental and genetic factors contribute to the transmission of depression (Sullivan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). A study of over 5,000 UK twin pairs found that shared environmental influences - including parental characteristics - accounted for 48% of the variance in the association between home environment and adolescents' depressive symptoms. 12% of variance were attributed to unique environmental factors and 40% to genetics (Hannigan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Consistently, interventions successfully reduce APP by treating parental depression, which improves environmental, but not genetic influences (Gunlicks \u0026amp; Weissman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Unlike genetic factors, environmental factors like parenting practices are modifiable (Yap, 2014), making them promising potential mediators in the relationship between MDS and APP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociations between MDS and Parenting Practices (a Path)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepressive symptoms include dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors and affect, which impair parenting by causing difficulties in being an adequate social partner for one\u0026rsquo;s child and in fulfilling their emotional and social needs (S.H. Goodman \u0026amp; Gotlib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). This association between MDS and dysfunctional parenting practices is empirically supported, forming the a path of the mediation model. Analyzing 46 observational studies, Lovejoy et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) found a medium correlation between maternal depression and increased negative parenting, while correlations with increased disengaged and reduced positive parenting were small. Again, meta-analyses like this often include youth from various developmental stages. Highlighting the need for studies with adolescents, the parenting skills required for adolescents can differ significantly from those needed for younger children and might pose particular challenges for mothers with depression (Reigstad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs parenting is a broad construct, we focus specifically on \u003cem\u003eparenting practices\u003c/em\u003e, defined as \u0026ldquo;specific, goal-directed behaviors\u0026rdquo; applied by caregivers to socialize their children (Darling \u0026amp; Steinberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, parenting practices are changeable (Yap, 2014) and directly influence offspring behavior and traits (Darling \u0026amp; Steinberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Because of these characteristics, parenting practices may be more suitable for interventions and more comprehensible than parenting styles, which are broader and exert an indirect influence (Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). More specifically, we focus on psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and parental involvement, as prior research linked them to both MDS and APP. Empirical evidence on the relationship between MDS and dysfunctional parenting practices towards adolescents is scarce but reveals significant correlations. Notably, all available studies were conducted in the U.S., highlighting the need for research in diverse cultural contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePsychological control\u003c/em\u003e is characterized by intrusive parental attempts to manipulate children's behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. Common features include shaming, guilt induction and conditional loving (Barber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). In a community sample of parents with children aged 8 to 16, parental depressive symptoms were associated with increased use of psychological control (Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eInconsistent discipline\u003c/em\u003e refers to a lack of consistent rule enforcement (Shelton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). A link between depressive symptoms and higher levels of inconsistent discipline was found in parents from a community sample (Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), mothers of preadolescents (Zalewski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and parents of diabetic adolescents (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, \u003cem\u003einvolvement\u003c/em\u003e is a positive parenting practice, which includes helping offspring with their hobbies or playing together (Shelton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Parents of adolescents with diabetes showed reduced involvement when experiencing depressive symptoms (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Correlations across these studies were small to medium, ranging from \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.14 (Zalewski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) to \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.37 (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAssociations between Parenting Practices and APP (b Path)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDysfunctional parenting negatively affects the child\u0026rsquo;s development of both social and cognitive skills and, through social learning processes, adolescents can acquire dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors and affect from their mothers (S.H. Goodman \u0026amp; Gotlib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). In fact, research shows that dysfunctional parenting is associated with an increased risk of adolescents exhibiting psychosocial problems, as well as reduced intellectual and emotional functioning, with small correlations found in longitudinal studies (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This relation forms the b path of the mediation model and is considered bidirectional (Pinquart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrong evidence links maternal psychological control to increased internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescents (e.g., Gorostiaga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pinquart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017b\u003c/span\u003e; Seiffge-Krenke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, many meta-analyses spanned a wide range from infancy to adolescence, potentially underestimating parental factors which are more relevant in later developmental stages than in early childhood (Yap, 2014). While research on psychological control and social problems is scarce, one Turkish study found that adolescents\u0026rsquo; loneliness and aggression in social relationships increased with their perceived level of psychological control applied by their mothers. To our knowledge, the potential link between maternal psychological control and adolescent prosocial behavior has remained unexplored. Overall, correlations between psychological control and APP were small and relatively consistent, ranging from \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.21 (Ko\u0026ccedil;ak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) to \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.28 (Seiffge‐Krenke et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings on the association between inconsistent discipline and APP are mixed. A review linked it to increased depressive symptoms in 12-18-year-olds (Yap, 2014). Studies from Romania (Balan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and Mexico (Robert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) reported a relationship with higher internalizing symptoms, which was not found among Germans aged 5 to 15 (J\u0026auml;kel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding externalizing symptoms, a positive link was found in a Mexican sample (Robert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), while a German study associated inconsistent discipline with hyperactivity/inattention but not conduct problems (J\u0026auml;kel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Another German study also found no link to conduct problems but unexpectedly associated the parenting practice with positive outcomes, such as reduced aggression (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, correlations between inconsistent discipline and APP were mostly small, ranging from \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.25 (Yap, 2014) to \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.28 (Balan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), except for medium correlations (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.45 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.48) reported by Robert (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvolvement was examined in meta-analyses as a component of parental warmth, showing mostly small correlations with fewer depressive (Gorostiaga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), internalizing (Pinquart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017b\u003c/span\u003e) and externalizing symptoms in children and adolescents (Pinquart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e). Few studies focused on involvement alone but those which did found similar associations (e.g. Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Robert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), including one with German adolescents (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). To our knowledge, no study has assessed its link to adolescents\u0026rsquo; prosocial behavior or peer relationship problems. Correlations between involvement and APP were small to medium, ranging from \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12 (Robert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) to \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.38 (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParenting Practices as Mediators between MDS \u0026 APP\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs discussed above and in the \u003cem\u003eIntegrative Model of the Transmission of Risk to Children of Depressed Mothers\u003c/em\u003e, the associations between MDS, parenting practices and APP are well-established. Research on psychotherapy informs us that interventions targeting parenting behavior often improve psychopathology in children, caregivers, or both. This was the case for 90% of assessed parenting interventions in a review by Everett et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, few studies have examined inconsistent discipline, psychological control and involvement as mediators between MDS and psychosocial problems in offspring. Even fewer studies were conducted with adolescents, not children. One broad meta-analysis of longitudinal data found a small indirect effect (ab\u003csub\u003ecs\u003c/sub\u003e = .016) of maternal depression on child functioning through parenting, but included youth from infancy to adolescence (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). To evaluate mediation through parenting practices as a broader construct, researchers combined rejection, psychological control and lax control into a single score of maternal parenting (Du Rocher Schudlich \u0026amp; Cummings, 2007). This approach is useful to gain a holistic view of parenting and can increase reliability. Conversely, it does not facilitate the identification of specific relevant parenting practices, thereby complicating the derivation of practical implications for intervention. The researchers found that maternal parenting mediated the relationship between maternal dysphoria and child adjustment, but they did not report whether the mediation was full or partial. The study was conducted in the US and involved a community sample of children aged 8 to 16 and their parents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies examining psychological control as a mediator between MDS and APP have been rare but found significant effects. As reported by Papp et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), psychological control fully mediated the link between parental distress and adjustment problems in offspring aged 8 to 16. This study was the only one to explore the indirect effect through parenting practices in a community sample involving adolescents. Its informative value is limited by the sample spanning multiple developmental stages and by the lack of reported standardized coefficients. In Finnish parents and their 6- to 7-year-old children, a diary study design allowed for a precise measurement of daily parenting practices and child distress, which reduces recall bias (Aunola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The researchers found that psychological control fully mediated the relationship between MDS and children\u0026rsquo;s daily distress, with a completely standardized indirect effect of ab\u003csub\u003ecs\u003c/sub\u003e = .15.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence regarding inconsistent discipline as a mediator between MDS and APP is mixed. In a study from Germany, this parenting practice mediated the relationship between depressive symptoms in parents and adjustment in elementary school children (Dette-Hagenmeyer \u0026amp; Reichle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The authors did not report whether the mediation was full or partial, and the sample mostly consisted of educated middle-class native speakers without a migrant background. Barry et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) sampled boys between 9 and 12 years who were rated as aggressive by their teachers. They found that inconsistent discipline partially mediated the relation between maternal distress and youth aggression, but not attention problems (Barry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Importantly, these findings might not be generalizable to girls and community samples. In a sample of diabetic adolescents, inconsistent discipline did not mediate between depressive symptoms in parents and offspring (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, the researchers chose the same measures of depressive symptoms and parenting practices as used in our current study, while their findings might not be generalizable to a community sample. Papp et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) also found no indirect effect of maternal psychological distress on adjustment problems in offspring through a similar construct named the \u0026ldquo;Firm Control / Lax Control factor\u0026rdquo; (Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe found only one study which examined involvement as a mediator between MDS and APP, specifically depressive symptoms in offspring: Eckshtain et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) reported an indirect effect through involvement, but did not specify whether the mediation was partial or full.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCurrent study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince subclinical depression is more prevalent than depressive disorders (RKI, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and accompanied by similar psychosocial deficits (S.H. Goodman \u0026amp; Tully, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), we include all levels of depressive symptoms in our analysis. With this approach, we can add to the existing body of research, which has predominantly focused on clinical (Brennan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Given that MDS are associated with multiple parenting deficits and that dysfunctional parenting relates to various APP domains (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), we employ a differentiated design encompassing three parenting practices and five APP domains. These APP domains include internalizing problems (emotional and peer problems), as well as externalizing problems (conduct problems and hyperactivity / inattention) and prosocial behavior, as proposed by A. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e. This multidimensional approach further enables us to explore, for the first time, the association between psychological control and prosocial behavior, as well as potential links between involvement and theAPP domains of peer relationship problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and prosocial behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs preregistered, our hypotheses were as follows (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(H1) MDS are positively associated with APP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(H2) MDS are negatively related to involvement, and positively to inconsistent discipline and psychological control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(H3) Involvement is negatively associated with MDS, whereas inconsistent discipline and psychological control are associated with higher levels of APP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(H4) Involvement, inconsistent discipline and psychological control mediate the relationship between MDS and the APP total difficulties Score.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":" \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo detect the necessary sample size, we conducted a power analysis using the \u0026ldquo;Monte Carlo Power Analysis for Indirect Effects\u0026rdquo; (Schoemann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). We aimed to achieve a power of .80 at the standard .05 alpha error probability for three parallel mediators. Due to the scarce number of similar studies, we had to use effect sizes from five different studies. Four of these studies were conducted with younger offspring (Burke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Dette-Hagenmeyer \u0026amp; Reichle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and two of them involved youth who were clinically referred for physical or mental reasons (Burke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). For exact power analysis input, see supplementary material A. The resulting minimum sample size was 181.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior research indicated that correlations in the present sample might be smaller than those in the studies used for the power analysis. Associations between MDS, parenting, and APP were weaker in samples of older children, compared to younger ones (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These correlations were also smaller in community versus clinical samples (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Gorostiaga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Due to these findings, we chose a target sample size of N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;250.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were biological and non-biological mothers of adolescents aged 12 to 17. Inclusion criteria were sufficient proficiency in English or German according to one\u0026rsquo;s own assessment and the mother\u0026rsquo;s regular cohabitation with the adolescent. 295 participants started the questionnaire, but eleven datasets were incomplete and therefore omitted. Four mothers were excluded because they did not pass the following attention check: \u0026ldquo;If you answer this questionnaire attentively, do not respond with \u0026lsquo;yes\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;no\u0026rsquo;, but \u0026lsquo;maybe\u0026rsquo;\u0026rdquo;. Therefore, the final sample size was \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;280, including 209 mothers from the US and UK and 71 mothers from Germany.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of participants resided with their partner (70% in heterosexual, 2.1% in homosexual relationship), while 12.1% were single mothers. Most participants (60.7%) held a university degree, and 31.4% had a migrant background. The average age of mothers was 41.8 years (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.6), and nearly all (90.4%) reported on their biological child. Among adolescents, 49.3% identified as female, 49.6% as male, and 1.1% as diverse, with a mean age of 13.6 years (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.9). 39.3% of adolescents were only children, 35.7% had one sibling and 25.0% had more than one sibling. More detailed demographic data is provided in supplementary material B.\u003c/p\u003e \n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional, correlational study was preregistered on Open Science Framework prior to any data collection (\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eosf.io/9tsaf/\u003c/span\u003e). It was part of a larger project on parenting and psychopathology in families, which included caregivers of any gender (not only mothers) and more questionnaires than analyzed for the research questions discussed here. Data was gathered between April and July 2024, initially in Germany and later in the US and UK, as data collection progressed slowly. Participants were recruited through Facebook advertisements (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ewww.facebook.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.facebook.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e and the Prolific recruitment platform (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ewww.prolific.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.prolific.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e).\u003c/span\u003e They were informed about the study and that it also served as a screening for financially compensated follow-up interviews with both the parent and the adolescent. After providing informed consent by clicking a button, each mother completed a 45- to 55-minute online questionnaire on the survey platform Unipark (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ewww.unipark.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.unipark.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e).\u003c/span\u003e The questionnaire was available in English or German, based on the participant's country of residence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMothers with more than one child in the relevant age range were asked to decide on one child about whom they would answer the questions. As compensation, each parent received feedback about their scores on the assessed scales, along with explanations of the measured constructs. Additionally, five vouchers worth \u0026euro;50 each were raffled among the participants of the entire project. Participants who completed the questionnaire through Prolific were additionally compensated with \u0026euro;4.50. Procedures were approved by the Local Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology and Human Movement Science of the University of Hamburg (approval number: 2024_016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eDemographic data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuestions about marital status and parental education were adapted from Beckmann et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and translated for the English version of the questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMaternal depressive Symptoms (MDS)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDS during the past seven days were assessed using the depression scale of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI-18; Derogatis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). For the German questionnaire, the translation by G. Franke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) was utilized. The BSI-18 is a shortened version of the BSI instrument (Derogatis; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e) designed to assess distress due to psychopathological symptoms among adults. The depression scale consists of six items such as \u0026ldquo;During the past 7 days, how much were you distressed by feeling no interest in things?\u0026rdquo;. Usually, these questions are answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4. As Unipark does not allow for items to be coded as \u0026ldquo;0\u0026rdquo;, we applied a range from 1 (\u0026ldquo;not at all\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;extremely\u0026rdquo;). A score was computed, with higher values indicating more MDS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior studies indicate good reliability and validity: The internal consistency found in a representative German sample (G. H. Franke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) was classified as reliable according to Taber (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). His categorization of internal consistency will be applied throughout this report. Additionally, the applied scale showed large correlations (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.63\u0026ndash;0.78) with the depression scale of the established \u0026ldquo;Gesundheitsfragebogen f\u0026uuml;r Patienten\u0026rdquo; (PHQ-D; Gr\u0026auml;fe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In the present sample, internal consistency was reliable with ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.88.\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParenting Practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasures of \u003cem\u003epsychological control\u003c/em\u003e were obtained via the Psychological Control Scale (PCS; Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The PCS is a combination of items from the CRPBI psychological control/psychological autonomy subscale (Schaefer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e) and further items to assess the hypothesized components of this parenting practice (Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The original questionnaire, designed for youth self-report, utilizes a 3-point Likert scale. Following the methodology of Kuppens et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), we reworded the items for parent self-report and implemented a 5-point Likert scale (1 = \u0026ldquo;never true\u0026rdquo;; 5 = \u0026ldquo;always true\u0026rdquo;) for improved consistency with other scales and a more precise assessment of variance. The PCS consists of eight items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I am less friendly with my child if he / she does not see things my way\u0026rdquo;). No German version was available, so we translated the items ourselves (see supplementary material C). A mean was calculated, with higher values referring to high psychological control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternal consistency was high in previous studies (Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Convergent and discriminant validity were displayed in large correlations with the 24-item Parental Autonomy Support Scale (P-PASS; Mageau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, the PCS was positively correlated with controlling parenting as measured by the P-PASS, and negatively with autonomy-supportive parenting. In the present sample, internal consistency was high (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInconsistent Discipline\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eInvolvement\u003c/em\u003e were assessed with the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Frick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) or its German version (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) as appropriate. Six items measure inconsistent discipline (e.g., \u0026ldquo;You threatened to punish your child and then do not actually punish them\u0026rdquo;) and ten items evaluate involvement (e.g., \u0026ldquo;You play games or do other fun things with your child\u0026rdquo;). Answers were provided on a 5-point Likert scale spanning from 1 (= \u0026ldquo;never\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (= \u0026ldquo;nearly always\u0026rdquo;). For each parenting practice, a score was computed, with higher values indicating more frequent use of inconsistent discipline or involvement, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a German sample, internal consistency was acceptable for inconsistent discipline and good for involvement (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The same study also replicated the factor structure of the APQ through an exploratory factor analysis. In the current sample, both involvement (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81) and inconsistent discipline (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.73) demonstrated high internal consistency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAdolescent Psychosocial Problems (APP)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMothers reported their children's psychosocial problems using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; R. Goodman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) or its German version (Klasen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The SDQ consists of five scales with five items:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotional problems, e.g., \u0026bdquo;Often unhappy, depressed or tearful\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eConduct problems, e.g., \u0026bdquo;Often loses temper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eHyperactivity/inattention, e.g., \u0026bdquo;Restless, overactive, cannot stay still for long\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeer relationship problems, e.g., \u0026bdquo;Gets along better with adults than with other youth\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eProsocial behavior, e.g., \u0026bdquo;Helpful if someone is hurt, upset or feeling ill\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponses were provided on a 3-point Likert scale which typically ranges from 0 to 2 but had to be recoded as follows: 1 (= \u0026ldquo;not true\u0026rdquo;) to 3 (= \u0026ldquo;certainly true\u0026rdquo;). For each APP domain, a score was calculated. A higher score referred to more current problems, except for prosocial behavior, where a high score signified increased prosocial behavior. Additionally, a \u0026ldquo;total difficulty score\u0026rdquo; was formed by adding up the values in each domain except prosocial behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a representative German sample, internal consistency ranged from satisfactory to high (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.60 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.76), depending on the scale (Woerner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The same study confirmed factorial validity, with all factor loadings exceeding .40 for their intended scale. In the present sample, internal consistency was high for emotional problems (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.80), hyperactivity/inattention (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.80) and prosocial behavior (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.79). Moreover, it was satisfactory for peer problems (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.71) and conduct problems (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.60).\u003c/p\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis script and data are publicly available on the Open Science Framework (osf.io/9tsaf). We performed all analyses using R Statistical Software (v4.1.1; RCore Team, 2021), with the significance level set to α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05. Means and scores were computed with the packages dplyr (Wickham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), tidyselect (Henry \u0026amp; Wickham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and stringr (Wickham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The BSI and SDQ Likert scales typically start at \u0026ldquo;0\u0026rdquo; but since Unipark does not allow this, all scales started at \u0026ldquo;1\u0026rdquo;. To ensure comparability with prior research, we adjusted the BSI and SDQ scores back to their original scales, beginning with \u0026ldquo;0\u0026rdquo;. The psych package (Revelle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) was used for computing McDonald's omega (ω\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) and standard deviations, as well as evaluating normality: skewness and kurtosis values within the range of +/- 2.0 are considerd sufficiently normal for applying parametric statistics (Fein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple tests were conducted to compare the US/UK with the German sample. For nominal demographic data, Fisher\u0026rsquo;s exact test was used, as it offers greater accuracy than the chi-square test when expected frequencies are small, particularly for sample sizes below 1000 (McDonald, n.d.). Monte Carlo simulation was employed to estimate p-values for larger contingency table since exact calculations were computationally too intensive. We applied independent t-tests to compare metric demographic data between the samples. Of the five t-test assumptions (Fein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), two were inherently met by the study design: (1) continuous scales and (2) independence of groups and observations. The remaining assumptions \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;(3) normal distribution, (4) absence of spurious outliers, and (5) homogeneity of variances - were checked. As proposed by Fein et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), we used Levene\u0026rsquo;s test to assess variance homogeneity, implemented though the car package (Fox \u0026amp; Weisberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For comparing descriptive statistics between samples, we used Bonferroni-corrected independent T-tests or Welch\u0026rsquo;s T-test if Levene\u0026rsquo;s test indicated unequal variances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted a correlation analysis with MDS, parenting practices and APP using Kendall\u0026rsquo;s rank correlation τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e. This nonparametric statistic is considered more accurate and stable than the widely-used Spearman correlation, as it provides robust protection against false positive results and generates narrow confidence intervals (Arndt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). It also accounts for ties (Puka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), which was important since there were more participants than possible values, making identical observations inevitable. τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e requires a linear relation between the variables and at least ordinal level data (Puka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). To assess linearity, scatterplots were created with the ggplot2 package (Wickham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The applied Likert scales met the criterion of being ordinal (Wu \u0026amp; Leung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA mediation analysis with three parallel mediators was conducted using the PROCESS macro (Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). According to Fein et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), mediation analysis requires five assumptions: (1) continuous scales, (2) linearity, (3) no multicollinearity, (4) no spurious outliers, and (5) an approximate normal distribution. Assumption (1) was partially met, as the debate on the continuity of Likert scales includes both valid pro and contra arguments (see Wu \u0026amp; Leung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Assumption (2) was tested with scatterplots, (3) with τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e; correlations above τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.8 indicate multicollinearity (Shrestha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). To evaluate assumption (4), we constructed boxplots, defining outliers as values which deviate by at least 1.5 times the interquartile range (IQR). Spurious outliers do not represent accurate responses, whereas non-spurious outliers are reasonable given the context of the question (Fein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Assumption (5) was less relevant as PROCESS applies bootstrapping which does not assume normality, an advantage over other mediation methods (Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The author states that for models using observed variables, PROCESS yields results identical to those from structural equation modeling (SEM) but is easier and more intuitive to use (Hayes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Indirect effects were tested using 10,000 bootstrap samples, and were considered significant when the 95% bias-corrected confidence interval did not include zero.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted two post-hoc Mantel tests to assess the roles of country of residence and gender in the correlations between study variables. The Mantel test assumes independent correlation matrices and linear relationships (Bakker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and was implemented through the vegan package (Oksanen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). First, we compared correlations between the US/UK sample (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;209) and the German sample (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;71). Second, correlations were compared between mothers (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;280) and fathers (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;104) from the US, UK, and Germany, based on data collected as part of the larger project associated with this study.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreliminary Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDS, all parenting practices and all APP domains were normally distributed. Scatterplots showed that relationships between these variables were approximately linear (see supplementary material D for more details). There was no evidence of multicollinearity, as the maximum intercorrelation between outcome variables was τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.64. The Boxplots, presented in supplementary material E, identified 25 outliers. Among these, 22 were individuals who scored considerably higher on MDS, dysfunctional parenting practices or APP than most other participants. The remaining three outliers were mothers reporting notably \u003cem\u003elower\u003c/em\u003e use of dysfunctional parenting practices compared to the majority of participants. Specifically, they scored higher on involvement (one outlier) or lower on psychological control (two outliers). Given the variability inherent in a community sample, which likely includes some individuals with considerably high or low scores, all outliers were considered non-spurious. All assumptions for the applied statistical tests were met.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe US/UK and German samples differed only in parental education and migrant background. Regarding descriptive characteristics, the only differences were in emotional problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and total difficulties. Further details are provided in supplementary material F and G.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCorrelation Analyses (H1-H3)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eH1: MDS and APP\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and correlations are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Kendall\u0026rsquo;s rank correlation analysis yielded a positive correlation between MDS and total difficulties (τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.28, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;001). Additionally, MDS were positively correlated with all APP domains except prosocial behavior, which showed a non-significant negative correlation (τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.046). Significant correlations ranged from τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.12 for peer relationship problems to τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.28 for both emotional problems and total difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans, Standard Deviations, and Kendall\u0026rsquo;s Rank Correlation Coefficients for Study Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Maternal depressive symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Psychological\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003econtrol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Inconsistent Discipline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.29\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Involvement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.24\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Emotional problems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Conduct problems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.19\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.17\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.29\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. Hyperactivity/\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003einattention\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. Peer relationship problems \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9. Prosocial behavior\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.Total difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.21\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.17\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.10\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.29\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.36\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.64\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.22\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.22\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.49\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.19\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.22\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.58\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.16\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.53\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;.24\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05. \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eH2: MDS and Parenting Practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDS were positively correlated with psychological control (τb\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.12, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.005) and inconsistent discipline (τb\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), but the association with involvement was non-significant (τb = \u0026ndash;.07, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.122).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eH3: Parenting Practices and APP\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological control was negatively correlated with prosocial behavior (τb\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001) and positively correlated with all other APP domains and total difficulties. Correlations\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eranged from τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09 for hyperactivity/inattention to τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.16 for total difficulties. Inconsistent discipline showed significant positive correlations with total difficulties and four out of five APP domains, excluding prosocial behavior (τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.722). Correlations between inconsistent discipline and APP ranged from τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09 for hyperactivity/inattention to τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003efor conduct problems. Involvement was negatively correlated with hyperactivity/inattention\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.14, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002) and positively with prosocial behavior (τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), but unrelated to other APP domains and total difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIntercorrelations among Parenting Practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological control was positively correlated with inconsistent discipline (τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.29,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001) and negatively with involvement (τ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001). No significant correlation was found between inconsistent discipline and involvement (τb = \u0026ndash;.04, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.370).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParenting Practices as Mediators between MDS and Total Difficulties (H4)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall indirect effect of MDS on total difficulties, mediated by psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement was significant (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .04, 95% CI [0.0058. 0.0813]). When examining each parenting practice individually, only psychological control emerged as a significant mediator (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .02, 95% CI [0.0003, 0.0551). As MDS had a direct effect on total difficulties (\u0026szlig; = .32, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.70, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), psychological control is regarded as a partial mediator. In contrast, no significant indirect effects were found through inconsistent discipline (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .015, 95% CI [-0.0115, .0496]) or involvement (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .003, 95% CI [-0.0063, 0.0184]). The empirical mediation model is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePost-hoc-tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Mantel test indicated no significant differences in the correlations between study variables for mothers from the US/UK compared to German mothers (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.87, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001). Similarly, no differences were found between all participating mothers and fathers (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.93, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the associations between MDS, parenting practices, and APP, focusing on psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement. By distinguishing between multiple APP domains, our study provides a more nuanced understanding of how subclinical depressive symptoms in mothers relate to adolescent functioning across three Western countries (US, UK, Germany).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociations between MDS and APP (c\u0026rsquo; Path)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDS were associated with higher total difficulties and problems in all APP domains except for prosocial behavior. Consistent with H1, these results indicate that depressive symptoms in mothers are linked to an increased risk of adolescents experiencing psychosocial problems. The only deviation from H1 was the nonsignificant link to reduced prosocial behavior. Significant correlations were small. Our findings on the associations of MDS with internalizing, externalizing, and total difficulties align with the review by S.H. Goodman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the nonsignificant link to prosocial behavior differs from studies on 11-year-olds showing a correlation between higher MDS and lower prosocial behavior (Hay \u0026amp; Pawlby, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Maruyama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Given that adolescents in our sample were older (12\u0026ndash;17 years), age may moderate this relationship, as parental influence on prosocial behavior typically declines while peer influence increases during adolescence. Overall, these findings underscore MDS as a meaningful risk factor for psychosocial problems in adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociations between MDS and Parenting Practices (a Path)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDS were positively correlated with psychological control and inconsistent discipline, but unrelated to involvement. Thus, H2 was only supported for two out of three parenting practices. In accordance with S.H. Goodman and Gotlib (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), our findings strengthen the assumption that depressive symptoms are associated with difficulties in fulfilling one\u0026rsquo;s child\u0026rsquo;s emotional needs and being an adequate social partner (e.g., setting up consistent rules), but the adolescents\u0026rsquo; social needs seem to be fulfilled through involvement regardless of MDS. The significant correlations were small, aligning with effect sizes observed in studies involving adolescents from a community sample (Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), preadolescents (Zalewski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), and a meta-analysis of observational studies with parents of children and adolescents (Lovejoy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, Eckshtain et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) reported medium correlations between depressive symptoms in mothers of diabetic adolescents and their use of inconsistent discipline and involvement. This discrepancy may suggest a stronger relationship between MDS and dysfunctional parenting practices in the presence of additional stressors such as an adolescent\u0026rsquo;s chronic illness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nonsignificant link between MDS and involvement contrasts with meta-analytic findings associating maternal depression with lower positive parenting (Lovejoy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, the meta-analysis also included mothers with diagnosed depression, suggesting that symptom severity might moderate the relationship between MDS and positive parenting. Our results also differ from the medium correlation between MDS and involvement in parents of diabetic adolescents (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), further emphasizing the role of additional stressors. Importantly, involvement assesses shared \u003cem\u003eactivities\u003c/em\u003e (e.g., playing games; Frick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e)), whereas psychological control and inconsistent discipline captured \u003cem\u003einteractional characteristics\u003c/em\u003e (e.g., making empty threats; Frick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). This indicates that MDS relate less to the frequency of joint activities and more to dysfunctional interactions. Notably, involvement may be shaped more by factors independent of MDS, such as adolescent age or maternal time and financial resources. Possibly, mothers with subclinical depressive symptoms are able to maintain joint activities, whereas those with severe depression may struggle to do so. Overall, these findings suggest that mothers with depressive symptoms could benefit from interventions targeting psychological control and inconsistent discipline. At this level of symptom severity, interventions focused on increasing involvement may not be necessary.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting practices showed small correlations with one another, suggesting that psychologically controlling mothers tend to use inconsistent discipline and demonstrate lower involvement. In contrast, there was no association between inconsistent discipline and involvement. These small correlations imply that dysfunctional parenting practices can co-occur, yet not all mothers with depressive symptoms adopt the same practices, highlighting the need for personalized interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociations between Parenting Practices and APP (b Path)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll three parenting practices were associated with increased total difficulties: Adolescents exposed to psychological control and inconsistent discipline exhibited more difficulties, while those raised by involved mothers showed fewer difficulties. However, the parenting practices differed in the number and type of APP domains they correlated with: Psychological control was associated with all five APP domains, inconsistent discipline with four (excluding prosocial behavior) and involvement with two (hyperactivity/inattention and prosocial behavior). Thus, H3 was partially supported, supporting the transmission of dysfunctional cognitions, behaviors and affect through parenting (S.H. Goodman \u0026amp; Gotlib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). All significant correlations between parenting practices and APP were small.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings show that parenting practices matter for adolescents\u0026acute; psychosocial wellbeing. Adolescents raised by psychologically controlling mothers exhibited higher internalizing and externalizing problems, aligning with meta-analytic findings (Gorostiaga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pinquart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017b\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e; Seiffge-Krenke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). While prior research linked psychological control to loneliness and relational aggression (Ko\u0026ccedil;ak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), this study was the first to examine the \u0026ndash; significant \u0026ndash; link to reduced prosocial behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure to inconsistent discipline was associated with increased internalizing and externalizing problems, but showed no connection to prosocial behavior. The link to internalizing problems aligns with most prior research (Balan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Robert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Yap, 2014) but contrasts with a study among German children and adolescents (J\u0026auml;kel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Like J\u0026auml;kel et al., we observed an association between inconsistent discipline and hyperactivity/inattention. However, in contrast to their results, we also found a link with conduct problems. Moreover, our results diverge from a study of 10- to 14-years old Germans, in which inconsistent discipline was unrelated to conduct problems but associated with positive outcomes (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding the absence of a link to prosocial behavior, our findings align with J\u0026auml;kel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, these discrepancies suggest the presence of moderators, such as age.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeing the first to examine these relationships, the found that involvement was associated with decreased hyperactivity/inattention and increased prosocial behavior, with small correlations. We also uniquely explored the link to peer relationship problems, which was non-significant, as were the links to conduct and emotional problems. These findings contrast with previous research reporting associations with reduced depressive symptoms (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), lower internalizing problems (Robert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), and fewer conduct problems (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, youth in these studies were either younger than the current sample (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Robert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) or had diabetes (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting age and chronic illness may moderate the relationship between involvement and APP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe link between dysfunctional parenting practices and increased APP has three key implications: (1) Negative parenting practices were associated with more APP domains than the positive practice of involvement. Although this study was correlational and the relationship between parenting practices and APP is known to be bidirectional (Pinquart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017b\u003c/span\u003e), this difference suggests that avoiding negative parenting practices may be paramount in preventing APP. (2) Interactional characteristics of parenting (i.e., psychological control and inconsistent discipline) were linked to more APP domains than joint parent-adolescent activities (i.e., involvement). This implies that parenting programs may have a broader effect on psychosocial well-beings of adolescents if they focus on improving interactional dynamics. (3) While inconsistent discipline was linked to internalizing and externalizing problems, psychological control was additionally associated with lower prosocial behavior. This suggests that parenting programs reducing psychological control may improve a broad range of APP. Conversely, programs targeting inconsistent discipline may help alleviate internalizing and externalizing problems, while an emphasis on increasing involvement may specifically improve hyperactivity/inattention and prosocial behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParenting Practices as Mediators between MDS and APP\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, psychological control, inconsistent discipline and involvement mediated the relationship between MDS and APP. When examining parenting practices individually, the only significant indirect effect was through psychological control, providing partial support for H4. However, the lower bounds of the confidence intervals for all three parenting practices were very close to zero: psychological control was barely significant (lower bound: 0.0003), while inconsistent discipline (lower bound: -0.0115) and involvement were near significance. Although these differences are statistically notable, they are unlikely to be clinically meaningful.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mediation analysis showed that depressed mothers used psychological control, which was related to psychosocial problems among their adolescent offspring. This finding is in accordance with previous studies among 8- to 16-year olds (Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and children aged 6 to 7 (Aunola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting the relevance of this parenting practice across multiple developmental stages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the mediation studies discussed in the introduction, only Aunola et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) reported the completely standardized indirect effect ab\u003csub\u003ecs\u003c/sub\u003e, calculated as the product of the \u0026szlig; coefficients for the a path and the b path (Preacher \u0026amp; Kelley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This effect is typically small in magnitude (S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e): If both \u0026szlig; coefficients are .3, their product would be ab\u003csub\u003ecs\u003c/sub\u003e = .09. To better reflect this scale, Kenny (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) recommended modifying Cohen's (1988) effect size standards by squaring them, categorizing an ab\u003csub\u003ecs\u003c/sub\u003e of 01 as small, .09 as medium, and .25 as large. Using this framework, the indirect effects found in this study - through all three parenting practices (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .04) and through psychological control (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .02) - are both considered small. For comparison, we calculated ab\u003csub\u003ecs\u003c/sub\u003e values for the other discussed mediation studies, excluding Papp et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and Barry et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) as they did not report the necessary \u0026szlig; coefficients. In the present study, the indirect effect through all three parenting practices (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .04) is smaller than the medium effect (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .22) found in a US sample of youth aged 8\u0026ndash;16, based on a combined parenting score of rejection, psychological control, and lax control (Du Rocher Schudlich \u0026amp; Cummings, 2007). Similarly, the indirect effect through psychological control (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .02) is smaller than prior medium indirect effects found through inconsistent discipline in German elementary school children (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .13-.16; Dette-Hagenmeyer \u0026amp; Reichle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and through involvement in a U.S. adolescents with diabetes (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .11; Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). It is also smaller than the medium effect through psychological control (\u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ecs\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .15) in Finnish 6- and 7-year-olds (Aunola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This difference may stem from Aunola et al.\u0026rsquo;s use of a diary study design in which parenting and children\u0026rsquo;s negative emotions were assessed daily. The smaller effect sizes in the present study could reflect an underestimation of the relationship between parenting and APP through measurements without temporal reference or in hindsight. Another explanation is a possible moderating effect of adolescent age, as adolescents might cope better with psychological control than children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInconsistent discipline was correlated with both MDS and APP but did not emerge as a significant mediator. Similarly, several U.S. studies found no significant indirect effect through inconsistent discipline across diverse samples: Adolescents with diabetes (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), a community sample of youth aged 8 to 16 (Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and, with attention problems as outcome measure, boys from a project for aggressive children (Barry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). However, our results contrast with findings among German elementary schoolchildren (Dette-Hagenmeyer \u0026amp; Reichle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and those concerning aggression as an outcome in Barry et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), in which inconsistent discipline was a significant mediator.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile involvement correlated with hyperactivity/inattention, prosocial behavior and total difficulties, it was unrelated to MDS and therefore not a mediator. In contrast, Eckshtain et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) found that MDS indirectly affected adolescents\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms through involvement, again suggesting that additional stressors like a chronic illness may act as potential moderators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, our findings suggest that psychological control and inconsistent discipline are closely associated with the psychosocial well-being of adolescents with depressed mothers, even in a subclinical sample. Therefore, prevention programs and interventions for mothers with depressive symptoms could benefit from increasing awareness about the relevance of these parenting practices and helping develop the necessary skills to avoid them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePost-hoc Tests: Role of Country of Residence and Gender\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePost-hoc Mantel tests showed that correlations between parental depressive symptoms, dysfunctional parenting practices, and APP did not differ based on the mother\u0026rsquo;s country of residence (US/UK vs. Germany) or the gender of the participating parent (mothers vs. fathers). Although prior studies have found significant cultural differences in the expression of depression (Chang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), parenting behaviors (Roskam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and the relationship between parenting and offspring psychopathology (Varela et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), the results of this study appear consistent across multiple Western industrialized countries. The finding that depressive symptoms were similarly related to parenting and APP for both mothers and fathers aligns with meta-analytical evidence: Wilson \u0026amp; Durbin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) found that the association between depressive symptoms and parenting behaviors did not vary by gender. Additionally, Connell \u0026amp; S.H. Goodman (2002) observed no gender difference in the relationship between parental psychopathology and children\u0026rsquo;s internalizing problems. However, the present study also contrasts with this same meta-analysis, which identified a small gender difference in the link to externalizing problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStrengths and Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was the first to examine psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement as mediators between MDS and psychosocial problems in adolescents from the US, UK, and Germany. While only a few previous studies have explored similar mediation processes\u0026mdash;psychological control in children aged 8\u0026ndash;16 (Papp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and involvement in adolescents with chronic illness (Eckshtain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;our study extends this work by differentiating between multiple parenting practices and multiple domains of adolescent psychosocial functioning, including prosocial behavior, hyperactivity/inattention, and peer relationship problems. Notably, the link between psychological control and prosocial behavior in adolescents, as well as the relationship between involvement and several APP domains, has not been previously examined. These contributions are particularly relevant, as the role of parental factors may change across developmental stages (Yap, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodologically, the study offers several strengths. First, APP was measured in five distinct domains as well as a total difficulties score, allowing for a nuanced understanding of associations with MDS and parenting. Second, examining specific parenting practices rather than composite or broad parenting styles (Du Rocher Schudlich \u0026amp; Cummings, 2007; Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) facilitates actionable implications, as these practices are both specific (Darling \u0026amp; Steinberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e) and modifiable (Yap, 2014). Third, by recruiting a community sample and assessing depressive symptoms rather than requiring a formal diagnosis, the study captures subclinical depression, which is more prevalent than depressive disorders and still associated with significant psychosocial risk (RKI, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these strengths, several limitations should be considered. First, the study relied on a cross-sectional design, which precludes causal conclusions and limits the ability to evaluate temporal directionality. Nevertheless, by assessing multiple parenting practices and specific APP domains, the study provides an important differentiated first step in understanding potential mechanisms linking maternal depressive symptoms to adolescent outcomes. Future longitudinal and multi-informant designs are needed to test causal pathways and bidirectional associations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, all variables were assessed via maternal report, which introduces potential biases. Parent-reported internalizing problems may underestimate adolescents\u0026rsquo; experiences, particularly for girls (Collishaw et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), although mothers with depressive symptoms may also over-report problems (Gartstein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; S.H. Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, parents may underreport dysfunctional parenting due to social desirability (Morsbach \u0026amp; Prinz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), whereas adolescents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of parenting may be more predictive of psychosocial outcomes (Pinquart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e). Despite these limitations, parent reports provide valuable first insights into family dynamics and can guide hypotheses for future multi-informant studies. Behavioral observations and adolescent self-reports should be incorporated in subsequent research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, the study focused solely on maternal depressive symptoms, without accounting for the psychopathology or parenting behaviors of other caregivers. Evidence suggests that depressive symptoms in both parents pose higher risk and that multiple caregivers influence adolescent psychosocial outcomes (Mikkonen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Van Der Bruggen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Future studies should consider the broader family system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, practical constraints limited our power estimation: the scarcity of comparable adolescent community samples required using effect sizes from five different studies, leading us to slightly over-recruit (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;250) to account for potential underestimation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, while cross-sectional and single-informant limitations restrict causal inference, the differentiated assessment of parenting practices and adolescent outcomes provides a meaningful first step in clarifying which aspects of maternal behavior may be most relevant for adolescent psychosocial functioning, guiding future research and prevention efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study identified two mediators in the relationship between MDS and APP: (1) the combined parenting practices of psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement taken together, and (2) psychological control considered singularly. The results suggest that depressed mothers tend to use psychological control and inconsistent discipline with their adolescent children, both of which are associated with increased APP. While involvement was linked to three out of five APP domains, it was unrelated to MDS, thus not serving as a mediator. These findings indicate that targeting psychological control and inconsistent discipline may be a promising approach for prevention and intervention programs targeting mothers with depressive symptoms. As the relationships between MDS, parenting practices, and APP did not differ by country of residence or gender of the participant, such interventions may be effective for caregivers of all genders across Western industrialized cultures. Future research should utilize multi-informant diary designs to assess the influence of moderators on these mediations and to identify other parenting mediators in the relationship between MDS and APP. Understanding which aspects of parenting are relevant for the link between MDS and APP can enable the development of more effective interventions, ultimately reducing psychopathology within families.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eDeclaration of Interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors report there are no competing interests to declare. No funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData Availability Statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are openly available in the Open Science Framework storage at https://osf.io/9tsaf/files/osfstorage.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArndt, S., Turvey, C., \u0026amp; Andreasen, N. C. (1999). 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Parenting as a moderator of the effects of maternal depressive symptoms on preadolescent adjustment. \u003cem\u003eJournal of clinical child and adolescent psychology: the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e46\u003c/em\u003e(4), 563\u0026ndash;572. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1030752\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"child-psychiatry-and-human-development","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chud","sideBox":"Learn more about [Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development](http://link.springer.com/journal/10578)","snPcode":"10578","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10578/3","title":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"maternal depressive symptoms, parenting practices, psychological control, adolescent psychosocial problems, mediation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8385922/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8385922/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal depressive symptoms (MDS) and dysfunctional parenting practices are established risk factors for adolescent psychosocial problems (APP). Moreover, MDS are known to be related to more dysfunctional parenting. Yet, this study is the first to examine the mediating role of the parenting practices of psychological control, inconsistent discipline, and involvement between MDS and APP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData was collected from N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;280 biological and non-biological mothers of adolescents aged 12\u0026ndash;17 from the US, UK and Germany. They completed self-report questionnaires on MDS, parenting practices and five APP domains. We performed Kendall's rank correlation analysis and used Hayes' PROCESS macro for parallel mediation analysis. Study design and hypotheses were preregistered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMDS were correlated with higher use of psychological control and inconsistent discipline but exhibited no link to involvement. Psychological control and inconsistent discipline correlated with higher total APP scores, while involvement was associated with lower APP scores. The parenting practices differed in the number and type of correlating APP domains. Both psychological control and the combined parenting practices mediated the relationship between MDS and APP, with small indirect effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMothers suffering from depression tend to apply psychological control and inconsistent discipline while raising adolescent children, which are linked to increased APP. In contrast, the mothers\u0026rsquo; involvement seems unrelated to their depressive symptoms. Interventions helping mothers with depressive symptoms to avoid psychological control and inconsistent discipline may lower the risk of APP.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Psychosocial Problems: Mediated by Parenting Practices?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-26 15:44:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8385922/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"125962711654175944383754215980171043991","date":"2026-04-23T14:36:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T19:55:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-05T01:51:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-18T05:22:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","date":"2025-12-17T12:45:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"child-psychiatry-and-human-development","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chud","sideBox":"Learn more about [Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development](http://link.springer.com/journal/10578)","snPcode":"10578","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10578/3","title":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7d3ab245-6fb6-433a-934e-3c72d7ba9b13","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 26th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-26T15:44:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-26 15:44:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8385922","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8385922","identity":"rs-8385922","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}