Self-efficacy and Resilience as predictors of Depression among Iranian university students

Self-efficacy and Resilience as predictors of Depression among Iranian university students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Self-efficacy and Resilience as predictors of Depression among Iranian university students Saba Azimoshan, Maryam Zeinali, Mahmoud Borjali This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8339894/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Depression is one of the most prevalent psychological issues among university students, and identifying its key psychological predictors is essential for designing effective prevention and intervention programs. This study aimed to examine the predictive roles of self-efficacy and resilience in explaining depression among students. Method This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2023 among 300 university students selected through convenience sampling. Participants completed the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II). Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficients and stepwise multiple regression to determine the predictive contribution of self-efficacy and resilience subscales to depression. Results The regression analyses indicated that both self-efficacy and resilience significantly predicted depression, jointly explaining a meaningful proportion of variance (R² = 0.33). In the extended model, perception of individual competence, self-efficacy, and control also emerged as significant predictors, increasing the explained variance to 0.35. All regression assumptions were met, and no evidence of multicollinearity was observed across the models. Conclusion Self-efficacy, perceived personal competence, and control emerged as significant predictors of depression, collectively explaining a meaningful portion of variance in students’ depressive symptoms. These findings underscore the importance of psychological strengths in protecting against emotional distress. Strengthening self-efficacy, coping skills, and resilience may therefore serve as effective targets for interventions aimed at reducing depression among university students. self-efficacy resilience depression University student Iran Introduction University students face increasing academic, social, and personal pressures, which can challenge their psychological well-being. The transition from high school to university requires students to adapt to a more autonomous learning environment and to navigate new academic demands such as examinations, assignments, and performance expectations.[ 1 ] They must also adjust to unfamiliar social settings and interpersonal expectations, all of which may heighten emotional strain.[ 2 ] These combined demands often require rapid psychological and behavioral adjustment. However, many students struggle to cope effectively, and difficulties in adapting to the university environment can intensify academic and social stress, increasing the risk of mental health problems.[ 3 ] Evidence indicates that the prevalence of mental health concerns is higher among university students than in the general population, with rates rising in recent years.[ 4 – 7 ] Academic and social stressors may contribute to emotional exhaustion, reduced coping capacity, and feelings of hopelessness. When these stressors exceed a student’s available psychological resources, they may progress to more severe mental health conditions such as depressive disorders, particularly during this critical developmental period.[ 8 , 9 ] Depression Depression is one of the most prevalent mental health disorders worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), one in eight individuals experiences a mental health condition, with depression affecting more than 280 million people globally. WHO also projects that by 2030, depression may become the leading cause of mental illness worldwide. Owing to its widespread impact and substantial personal and societal burden, considerable research efforts have focused on understanding its etiology and identifying effective strategies for prevention and treatment. Depressive symptoms commonly manifest across four major dimensions: cognitive, physiological, behavioral, and motivational. [ 9 – 13 ] According to the DSM-5-TR diagnostic criteria, the core clinical features of major depressive disorder include a persistently low mood, diminished interest or pleasure in activities, and reduced energy. Individuals with depression may also experience feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, and excessive guilt. These symptoms are frequently accompanied by appetite and sleep disturbances, pervasive negative thoughts about oneself, others, and the world, and difficulties in concentration. Depression is further associated with marked alterations in cognitive and behavioral functioning. Documented cognitive impairments include emotional dysregulation, cognitive distortions or biases, deficits in attention and memory, and impaired inhibitory control. These physiological, cognitive, and behavioral manifestations interact in ways that can exacerbate the severity and persistence of depressive episodes. [ 14 – 20 ] Self efficacy Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura, refers to an individual’s belief in their capability to organize and execute the actions required to achieve specific goals. In academic settings, self-efficacy reflects a student’s confidence in managing coursework, meeting academic demands, and coping effectively with potential challenges. Students with high self-efficacy typically perceive difficult tasks as opportunities for growth, whereas students with low self-efficacy may interpret those same tasks as threats, often leading to avoidance, reduced effort, and feelings of inadequacy. [ 21 , 22 ] Self-efficacy develops through multiple sources of experience. These include mastery experiences derived from successful task completion, vicarious experiences gained by observing competent peers, verbal encouragement or positive performance feedback from significant others, and the ability to regulate one’s emotional reactions like anxiety or fear, when facing challenging situations. Together, these sources shape individuals’ confidence in their capabilities and influence the level of effort, persistence, and commitment they invest in future tasks. As such, self-efficacy functions as a central psychological mechanism underlying motivation, learning, and adaptive adjustment in new academic contexts. [ 23 – 25 ] Within academic environments, students’ self-efficacy strongly influences their motivation, emotions, and behavioral engagement. Higher levels of self-efficacy promote persistence, resilience, and adaptive coping when confronting obstacles. Students who possess stronger self-efficacy are more likely to display higher academic engagement, increased motivation, and improved academic performance. This internal confidence not only facilitates achievement but also supports emotional stability and resilience in response to academic stress. [ 26 , 27 ] Beyond academic functioning, self-efficacy represents a crucial psychological resource that contributes to broader well-being. Individuals with greater self-efficacy tend to show higher optimism, sustained effort, and a stronger sense of purpose, as they are more likely to set goals, pursue them persistently, and derive fulfillment from personal progress. Research also highlights domain-specific forms of self-efficacy, such as social or occupational self-efficacy, each contributing uniquely to life satisfaction and psychological health. [ 28 , 29 ] A growing body of research links self-efficacy to mental health outcomes. Low self-efficacy increases vulnerability to emotional distress and depressive symptoms, while higher levels of self-efficacy serve as a protective factor against depression and other psychological difficulties. [ 30 , 31 ] Resilience Resilience is generally understood as the capacity to bounce back from difficulties and regain normal functioning. Individuals who demonstrate higher levels of resilience tend to experience more positive emotions, show greater creativity, and maintain a more optimistic view of life.[ 32 ] Beyond this, resilience serves as an important protective factor that enables people to cope more effectively with major life stressors, safeguard their mental health, and recover more quickly from traumatic experiences. Consistent with this, individuals who struggle with depressive symptoms often report lower levels of resilience. [ 33 ] Over time, resilience has shifted from being viewed as an inborn and fixed set of traits to being recognized as a dynamic, developmental process that can be strengthened, learned, and supported through psychological and environmental factors. [ 34 ] Previous studies have also demonstrated a negative association between resilience and depression, showing that individuals with stronger resilience are less likely to experience depressive symptoms. [ 35 ] Research Question Prior research indicates that both self-efficacy and resilience are associated with reduced depressive symptoms. Building on this evidence, the present study investigates whether these two psychological constructs can independently predict the severity of depression among Iranian university students. Method Design and Participants The present study was part of a broader research project examining psychological predictors of depression among Iranian university students (Azimoshan, S., Zeinali, M., Borjali, M., & Fardi, D., 2025. The mediating role of resilience and self-efficacy between attributional styles and depression among Iranian university students. BMC Psychology, manuscript under review). The sample and instruments used in this study were drawn from the same data-collection phase; however, the current analysis addresses a distinct research question and employs a different analytical approach. A predictive correlational design was utilized. The sample consisted of 300 Iranian university students (194 women and 106 men). Among the participants, 32.3% were undergraduate students, 55.0% were master’s students, and 12.7% were doctoral students. Additional descriptive characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Distribution of Samples (n = 300) Frequency Percentage Gender Female 194 64.67 Male 106 35.33 Educational level Bachelor 97 32.33 Masters 165 55.00 Doctorate 38 12.67 Field of study Humanities sciences 112 37.33 Experimental sciences 106 35.34 Mathematics and Engineering 82 27.33 Sampling and sample size A convenience sampling method was used. The target population consisted of Iranian university students aged between 18–30 years, primarily from the metropolitan areas of Tehran and Mashhad in 2023. Due to the logistical challenges of in-person recruitment across universities, data collection was conducted online. Participants were reached through academic and student networks, and the recruitment announcement included a link directing them to an online survey hosted on a national platform (Porsa, Irandoc). After reviewing the study description, eligible individuals provided informed consent before completing the questionnaires. The inclusion criteria were: (1) being between 18 and 30 years old; (2) being enrolled as a university student during the 2023 academic year; and (3) providing informed consent. Data collection At the beginning of the survey, participants received a brief explanation of the study’s objectives and were informed that participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time. All procedures were approved by the institutional ethics committee and adhered to relevant research guidelines. No financial incentives were provided. After confirming consent, participants proceeded to complete the online questionnaires. Measures Validated Persian versions of all instruments were used in this study. In addition to a demographic form assessing age, gender, and educational status, the following measures were administered: Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) Resilience was assessed using the 25-item CD-RISC, which evaluates an individual’s capacity to cope with stress and adversity. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (“Not true at all”) to 4 (“True nearly all the time”). The scale consists of five factors reflecting personal competence, acceptance of change, trust in one’s instincts, control, and spirituality. The CD-RISC has shown strong psychometric properties in both clinical and non-clinical populations. The Persian version has demonstrated adequate reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.89).[ 36 , 37 ] In the present sample, internal consistency was acceptable (α = 0.839). General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) Self-efficacy was measured using the 10-item GSE, rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“Not at all true”) to 4 (“Exactly true”). Total scores range from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater perceived self-efficacy. Previous research has shown high internal consistency for both the original (α = 0.89) and Persian versions (α = 0.80). [ 38 , 39 ] Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was 0.817. Beck Depression Inventory–II (BDI-II) Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 21-item BDI-II, a widely used self-report measure evaluating cognitive, emotional, and somatic aspects of depression. The scale typically requires approximately 10 minutes to complete. Prior studies report strong internal consistency (α = 0.81–0.86 for non-clinical and clinical samples). The Persian version has also shown good reliability (α = 0.87).[ 40 , 41 ] In the present study, internal consistency for the BDI-II was excellent (α = 0.914). Statistical analyses Descriptive statistics (frequency, mean, and standard deviation) and inferential analyses, including Pearson correlation tests, multiple correlations, and multiple regression using the stepwise method, were performed. The significance threshold was set at p < 0.05. Results Characteristics of the study sample A total of 300 participants (194 women and 106 men) aged between 18 to 30 took part in the study. Among them, 32.33% had completed a Bachelor's degree, 55.00% a Master's degree, and 12.67% a Ph.D. Regarding fields of study, 37.33% were from the humanities, 35.34% from experimental sciences, and 27.33% from mathematics and engineering. The demographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1 . Distribution of research variables Descriptive indices of students’ self-efficacy, resilience, and depression are presented in Table 2 . Table 2 Descriptive statistics of variables Number of Items Mean Standard Deviation Minimum Maximum Depression Affective Symptoms 7 4.15 3.663 0 19 Cognitive Symptoms 7 4.09 4.179 0 19 Somatic Symptoms 7 4.50 4.157 0 19 Total Depression 21 12.73 11.179 0 55 Resilience Perception of individual competence 8 21.41 5.353 4 32 Trusting individual instincts and tolerating negative emotions 7 16.22 3.923 4 28 Positive acceptance of change and secure relationships 5 14.16 3.180 4 20 Control 3 7.63 2.694 0 12 Spiritual influences 2 5.29 2.116 0 8 Total Resilience 25 64.71 13.563 21 91 Self-Efficacy 17 63.25 10.05 32 84 The mean score of overall resilience and most of its subcomponents was higher than the midpoint of the corresponding scales. Among the resilience dimensions, perception of individual competence showed the highest mean score (M = 21.41, SD = 5.35), followed by positive acceptance of change and secure relationships (M = 14.16, SD = 3.18). The lowest mean score was observed for spiritual influences (M = 5.29, SD = 2.12). For depression, the total mean score was 12.73 (SD = 11.18). Among the subscales, somatic symptoms showed the highest mean (M = 4.50, SD = 4.16), whereas cognitive symptoms had the lowest mean score (M = 4.09, SD = 4.18). The mean score of self-efficacy (M = 63.25, SD = 10.05) was also above the scale midpoint, as reported in Table 2 . The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, along with skewness and kurtosis indices, was used to assess the normality of the data. Prior to hypothesis testing, the distribution of the variables was examined. For the variables of self-efficacy, resilience, and depression, the significance values of the normality tests were greater than 0.05. The skewness values ranged from − 0.714 to 1.405, and the kurtosis values ranged from − 0.490 to 1.948, all of which fall within the acceptable limits for normal distribution. Therefore, the distributions of self-efficacy, resilience, and depression can be considered approximately normal. The results are presented in Table 3 . Table 3 Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, skewness, and kurtosis indices for assessing the normality of study variables. Kolmogorov–Smirnov p-value Skewness Kurtosis Depression Affective Symptoms 0.119 0.058 1.405 1.948 Cognitive Symptoms 0.106 0.073 1.218 1.281 Somatic Symptoms 0.105 0.071 1.209 1.449 Total Depression 0.126 0.054 1.313 1.778 Resilience Perception of individual competence 0.117 0.056 − .872 1.097 Trusting individual instincts and tolerating negative emotions 0.102 0.061 − .028 1.273 Positive acceptance of change and secure relationships 0.094 0.065 − .762 .682 Control 0.112 0.068 − .714 .165 Spiritual influences 0.103 0.062 − .581 − .490 Total Resilience 0.098 0.072 − .947 1.251 Self-Efficacy 0.083 0.095 -0.482 -0.233 The Pearson correlation matrix showed significant negative correlations among self-efficacy, resilience, and depression (including all subscales) at p < 0.01. Higher levels of self-efficacy and resilience were negatively correlated with levels of depression among students. Full correlation coefficients are reported in Table 4 . Table 4 Pearson correlation among constructs of the study questionnaires Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. Affective Symptoms 1 2. Cognitive Symptoms .81 ** 1 3. Somatic Symptoms .80 ** .80 ** 1 4. Total Depression .93 ** .94 ** .93 ** 1 5. Self-Efficacy − .46 ** − .46 ** − .45 ** − .49 ** 1 6. Perception of individual competence − .52 ** − .45 ** − .49 ** − .52 ** .54 ** 1 7. Trusting individual instincts and tolerating negative emotions − .32 ** − .30 ** − .28 ** − .32 ** .28 ** .62 ** 1 8. Positive acceptance of change and secure relationships − .39 ** − .36 ** − .36 ** − .39 ** .33 ** .66 ** .50 ** 1 9. Control − .45 ** − .35 ** − .44 ** − .44 ** .32 ** .69 ** .53 ** .70 ** 1 10. Spiritual influences − .06 − .05 − .04 − .05 .07 .18 ** .16 ** .31 ** .26 ** 1 11. Total Resilience − .49 ** − .42 ** − .45 ** − .49 ** .44 ** .89 ** .78 ** .83 ** .83 ** .40 ** 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). To evaluate the predictive value of self-efficacy and resilience to depression among students, a multiple regression analysis using the stepwise method was conducted. In the first step, self-efficacy entered the model producing an R value of 0.488, with an R² value of 0.239. In the second step, resilience was added, increasing the multiple correlation coefficient to 0.574 and the coefficient of determination to 0.329. This indicates that together, self-efficacy and resilience explain 32.9% of the variance in students’ depression. The independence of residuals was assessed using the Durbin–Watson statistic. As shown in Table 5 , the Durbin–Watson value was 2.044, which falls within the acceptable range of 1.5 to 2.5, indicating that the assumption of independent residuals was satisfied. Table 5 Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis with Determination Coefficients R R 2 SE R Square Change F P Durbin–Watson Self-Efficacy 0.488 0.239 9.771 0.239 93.341 0.001 Self-Efficacy and Resilience 0.574 0.329 9.187 0.091 72.849 0.001 2.044 To examine multicollinearity between the independent variables, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance indices were assessed. Since all VIF values were below 10 and Tolerance values exceeded 0.10, no evidence of multicollinearity was observed among the independent variables. Additionally, the homogeneity of residual variances was evaluated using a residual scatterplot. Visual inspection of the plot revealed no specific pattern that would indicate heteroscedasticity. Therefore, all assumptions of the multiple regression model were met. (Table 6 ). Table 6 Stepwise Multiple Regression Coefficients Predicting Depression steps Variables B Std. Error Beta t p Collinearity VIF Tolerance 1 Self-Efficacy -0.543 0.056 -0.488 -9.661 0.001 1 1 2 Self-Efficacy -0.377 0.059 -0.339 -6.391 0.001 1.246 0.802 Resilience -0.277 0.044 -0.336 -6.333 0.001 1.246 0.802 The results presented in Table 6 further showed that the t-statistics in the second step were significant at the level of p < 0.05, indicating that the model related to the research objective was statistically significant. Accordingly, it can be concluded that self-efficacy and resilience negatively and significantly predict depression among students. Based on the standardized beta coefficients, higher levels of self-efficacy (β = − 0.339) and resilience (β = − 0.336) were associated with lower levels of depression. Multiple stepwise regression analysis was conducted to determine the predictive contribution of the resilience subscales and self-efficacy to students’ depression. In the first step, the subscale of perceived personal competence entered the model and yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.519, explaining 26.9% of the variance in depression (R² = 0.269, p = 0.001). In the second step, self-efficacy was added to the model, increasing the multiple correlation coefficient to 0.575 and raising the explained variance to 33.1% (ΔR² = 0.062, p = 0.001). In the third step, the control subscale was included, resulting in a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.592 and an overall explained variance of 35.1% (ΔR² = 0.020, p = 0.001). These findings indicate that perceived personal competence, self-efficacy, and control together account for a substantial proportion of variance in depression among students. The Durbin–Watson statistic was 2.027, which falls within the acceptable range (1.5–2.5), confirming that the assumption of independent residuals was met. (Table 7 ) Table 7 Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Depression Based on Self-Efficacy and Resilience Subscales R R 2 SE R Square Change F P Durbin–Watson Perception of individual competence 0.519 0.269 9.572 0.269 109.811 0.001 Perception of individual competence and Self-Efficacy 0.575 0.331 9.174 0.062 73.501 0.001 Perception of individual competence and Control and Self-Efficacy 0.592 0.351 9.052 0.020 53.349 0.001 2.027 In addition, multicollinearity among the independent variables was assessed using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance indices. Given that all VIF values were below 10 and all Tolerance values exceeded 0.1, no evidence of multicollinearity was observed. Furthermore, the homoscedasticity of the residuals was examined using a statistical scatterplot. Visual inspection of the plot indicated no specific pattern suggestive of heteroscedasticity. Therefore, all assumptions of the regression model were met, and the multiple regression analysis was deemed appropriate for testing the research hypothesis (Table 8 ). Table 8 Regression Analysis for Depression Using Self-Efficacy and Resilience Components steps Variables B Std. Error Beta t p Collinearity VIF Tolerance 1 Perception of individual competence -0.984 0.103 -0.519 -10.479 0.001 1.000 1.000 2 Perception of individual competence -0.753 0.117 -0.361 -6.411 0.001 0.712 1.405 Self-Efficacy -0.328 0.063 -0.295 -5.239 0.001 0.712 1.405 3 Perception of individual competence -0.456 0.152 -0.218 -2.994 0.003 0.412 2.425 Self-Efficacy -0.344 0.062 -0.310 -5.555 0.001 0.706 1.416 Control -0.810 0.269 -0.195 -3.010 0.003 0.522 1.917 According to Table 8 , the t-statistics in the third step were statistically significant (p < 0.05), indicating that the final model aligned with the study objective. The results showed that perceived personal competence, self-efficacy, and control were significant negative predictors of students’ depression. Based on the standardized beta coefficients, higher levels of perceived personal competence (β = − 0.218), self-efficacy (β = − 0.310), and control (β = − 0.195) were associated with lower levels of depression. Among these predictors, self-efficacy demonstrated the strongest effect, whereas control showed the weakest effect. Discussion This study aimed to examine the predictive roles of self-efficacy and resilience in explaining depression among university students. These patterns suggest that confidence in one’s abilities and adaptive psychological resources may play a central role in protecting students against depressive experiences. When the subscales of resilience were analyzed, perceived personal competence and control accounted for a meaningful proportion of variance in depression. Based on the standardized beta coefficients, self-efficacy emerged as the strongest predictor, followed by perceived personal competence and control. These results suggest that students who possess greater confidence in their abilities and stronger adaptive capacities are less vulnerable to depressive experiences. The present findings align with previous research emphasizing the protective role of self-efficacy and resilience in mental health. Prior studies have consistently shown that self-efficacy enhances adaptive coping, decreases emotional vulnerability, and promotes psychological well-being. Similarly, resilience has been conceptualized as a buffer that supports effective emotion regulation and facilitates recovery from stress. By demonstrating that these variables not only correlate with but also significantly predict depression, this study reinforces existing evidence and highlights the relevance of psychological strengths in student mental health. The relatively high proportion of variance explained by the final regression model further underscores the importance of these factors. The predictive roles of self-efficacy and resilience can be interpreted through their influence on cognitive and emotional processes. Students with higher self-efficacy tend to approach academic and personal challenges with confidence, are more likely to constructive coping strategies, and maintain a sense of control over outcomes factors that reduce susceptibility to hopelessness and depressive mood. Likewise, resilience supports positive adaptation during stressful circumstances, enhances emotional regulation, and facilitates quicker recovery from setbacks. Conversely, low levels of self-efficacy or resilience may render students more sensitive to stress and negative affect. Overall, these results highlight the importance of enhancing self-efficacy and resilience in interventions designed to prevent or reduce depression among university students. Programs targeting perceived personal competence, psychological skills, and emotional regulation may contribute meaningfully to strengthening these protective factors. Future research could explore the effectiveness of targeted psychological training and academic support programs in further promoting resilience and self-efficacy in student populations. Limitations Despite the strengths of this study, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design of the study limits causal inferences regarding the relationships between self-efficacy, resilience, and depressive symptoms. Second, the use of self-report measures may have introduced response bias, as participants might overestimate or underestimate their levels of self-efficacy, resilience, or depressive symptoms. Third, although the sample size was adequate for regression analyses, the participants were drawn from a single student population, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to broader cultural or educational contexts. Finally, the resilience construct was examined only through its subscales within one specific instrument, and alternative measures might capture additional facets relevant to depression. Future directions Future studies should incorporate larger and more diverse samples across different academic settings to improve the generalizability of findings. Longitudinal and experimental designs are also recommended to clarify the directional effects of self-efficacy and resilience on depression over time. Moreover, examining additional psychological variables may help build more comprehensive predictive models. From an applied perspective, future research could evaluate the effectiveness of interventions specifically designed to strengthen self-efficacy and resilience, including cognitive–behavioral programs, skills-training workshops, or resilience-building curricula. Such interventions have the potential to improve students’ mental health, enhance academic functioning, and reduce vulnerability to depressive symptoms. Conclusion This study suggests that self-efficacy and resilience are meaningfully associated with depressive symptoms among university students. Specifically, components such as perceived personal competence and control, alongside self-efficacy, accounted for a notable proportion of variance in depression, highlighting the relevance of psychological resources in student mental health. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that self-efficacy and resilience-related capacities are associated with lower levels of depression sympthoms. From an applied perspective, educational and mental health interventions that focus on strengthening self-efficacy and resilience may be beneficial in student well-being. The present findings may also inform future research aimed at developing and evaluating targeted psychological and academic support programs that enhance these key psychological resources within university settings. Abbreviations CD-RISC Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale GSE General Self-Efficacy Scale BDI-II Beck Depression Inventory–II M Mean SD Standard Deviation VIF Variance Inflation Factor Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch (IR.IAU.SRB.REC.1402.082). All methods were performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation in the study. Consent for publication Not applicable Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding None. Author Contribution SA was the main investigator, collected the data, and wrote the initial draft. MZ supervised the study and contributed to all aspects of the study. MB was responsible for the data analysis and writing process. Acknowledgments Not applicable. Data Availability The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Paton C, Roy A, Purandare K, Rendora O, Barnes TR. Prescribing antipsychotic medication for adults with intellectual disability: Shared responsibilities between mental health services and primary care. BJPsych Bull. 2022;46(6):311–5. 10.1192/bjb.2021.72 . PMID:34308827. Moran R, Gutman LM. Mental health training to improve communication with children and adolescents: A process evaluation. J Clin Nurs. 2021;30(3–4):415–32. 10.1111/jocn.15551 . 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The relationship between self-consciousness and depression in college students: the chain mediating effect of meaning life and self-efficacy, with the moderating effect of social support. BMC Public Health. 2024;24:794. 10.1186/s12889-024-18263-w . Aslan I, Polat H. Investigating social media addiction and its impact on loneliness, depression, life satisfaction and problem-solving skills among university students. Front Public Health. 2024;12:1359691. Liu W, Zhang R, Wang H, Rule A, Wang M, Abbey C, et al. Anxiety, depression symptoms, and academic burnout: Mediating role of resilience and self-efficacy. BMC Psychol. 2024;12(1):335. Wojujutari AK, Idemudia ES, Ugwu LE. Psychological resilience mediates the relationship between diabetes distress and depression. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):1–8. Zhang J, Zheng S, Hu Z, et al. Effects of mindfulness on depression in college students: Mediating role of resilience and moderating role of gender. BMC Psychol. 2024;12:27. Wadi M, Shorbagi A, Shorbagi S, Taha MH, Bahri Yusoff MS. Impact of the Systematic Assessment for Resilience framework on resilience, anxiety, depression, burnout, and stress. BMC Med Educ. 2024;24(1):506. Ran L, Wang W, Ai M, Kong Y, Chen J, Kuang L. Psychological resilience, depression, anxiety, and somatization during COVID-19 in China. Soc Sci Med. 2020;262:113261. Connor KM, Davidson JR. Development of the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depress Anxiety. 2003;18(2):76–82. Mohammadkhani S, Foroutan A, Akbari M, Shahbahrami M. Emotional schemas and psychological distress: Mediating role of resilience and cognitive flexibility. Iran J Psychiatry. 2022;17(3):284–91. Schwarzer R, Jerusalem M. Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. In: Weinman J, Wright S, Johnston M, editors. Measures in health psychology. Windsor: NFER-NELSON; 1995. pp. 35–7. Farnia V, Asadi R, Abdoli N, Radmehr F, Alikhani M, Khodamoradi M, et al. Psychometric properties of the Persian version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Clin Epidemiol Glob Health. 2021;12:949–54. Beck AT, Steer RA, Brown GK. Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation; 1996. Ghassemzadeh H, Mojtabai R, Karamghadiri N, Ebrahimkhani N. Psychometric properties of the Persian BDI-II. Depress Anxiety. 2005;21(4):185–92. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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The transition from high school to university requires students to adapt to a more autonomous learning environment and to navigate new academic demands such as examinations, assignments, and performance expectations.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e] They must also adjust to unfamiliar social settings and interpersonal expectations, all of which may heighten emotional strain.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese combined demands often require rapid psychological and behavioral adjustment. However, many students struggle to cope effectively, and difficulties in adapting to the university environment can intensify academic and social stress, increasing the risk of mental health problems.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence indicates that the prevalence of mental health concerns is higher among university students than in the general population, with rates rising in recent years.[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5 CR6\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] Academic and social stressors may contribute to emotional exhaustion, reduced coping capacity, and feelings of hopelessness. When these stressors exceed a student\u0026rsquo;s available psychological resources, they may progress to more severe mental health conditions such as depressive disorders, particularly during this critical developmental period.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDepression\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepression is one of the most prevalent mental health disorders worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), one in eight individuals experiences a mental health condition, with depression affecting more than 280\u0026nbsp;million people globally. WHO also projects that by 2030, depression may become the leading cause of mental illness worldwide. Owing to its widespread impact and substantial personal and societal burden, considerable research efforts have focused on understanding its etiology and identifying effective strategies for prevention and treatment. Depressive symptoms commonly manifest across four major dimensions: cognitive, physiological, behavioral, and motivational. [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10 CR11 CR12\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the DSM-5-TR diagnostic criteria, the core clinical features of major depressive disorder include a persistently low mood, diminished interest or pleasure in activities, and reduced energy. Individuals with depression may also experience feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, and excessive guilt. These symptoms are frequently accompanied by appetite and sleep disturbances, pervasive negative thoughts about oneself, others, and the world, and difficulties in concentration. Depression is further associated with marked alterations in cognitive and behavioral functioning. Documented cognitive impairments include emotional dysregulation, cognitive distortions or biases, deficits in attention and memory, and impaired inhibitory control. These physiological, cognitive, and behavioral manifestations interact in ways that can exacerbate the severity and persistence of depressive episodes. [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSelf efficacy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy, as defined by Bandura, refers to an individual\u0026rsquo;s belief in their capability to organize and execute the actions required to achieve specific goals. In academic settings, self-efficacy reflects a student\u0026rsquo;s confidence in managing coursework, meeting academic demands, and coping effectively with potential challenges. Students with high self-efficacy typically perceive difficult tasks as opportunities for growth, whereas students with low self-efficacy may interpret those same tasks as threats, often leading to avoidance, reduced effort, and feelings of inadequacy. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy develops through multiple sources of experience. These include mastery experiences derived from successful task completion, vicarious experiences gained by observing competent peers, verbal encouragement or positive performance feedback from significant others, and the ability to regulate one\u0026rsquo;s emotional reactions like anxiety or fear, when facing challenging situations. Together, these sources shape individuals\u0026rsquo; confidence in their capabilities and influence the level of effort, persistence, and commitment they invest in future tasks. As such, self-efficacy functions as a central psychological mechanism underlying motivation, learning, and adaptive adjustment in new academic contexts. [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin academic environments, students\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy strongly influences their motivation, emotions, and behavioral engagement. Higher levels of self-efficacy promote persistence, resilience, and adaptive coping when confronting obstacles. Students who possess stronger self-efficacy are more likely to display higher academic engagement, increased motivation, and improved academic performance. This internal confidence not only facilitates achievement but also supports emotional stability and resilience in response to academic stress. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond academic functioning, self-efficacy represents a crucial psychological resource that contributes to broader well-being. Individuals with greater self-efficacy tend to show higher optimism, sustained effort, and a stronger sense of purpose, as they are more likely to set goals, pursue them persistently, and derive fulfillment from personal progress. Research also highlights domain-specific forms of self-efficacy, such as social or occupational self-efficacy, each contributing uniquely to life satisfaction and psychological health. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA growing body of research links self-efficacy to mental health outcomes. Low self-efficacy increases vulnerability to emotional distress and depressive symptoms, while higher levels of self-efficacy serve as a protective factor against depression and other psychological difficulties. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eResilience\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResilience is generally understood as the capacity to bounce back from difficulties and regain normal functioning. Individuals who demonstrate higher levels of resilience tend to experience more positive emotions, show greater creativity, and maintain a more optimistic view of life.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond this, resilience serves as an important protective factor that enables people to cope more effectively with major life stressors, safeguard their mental health, and recover more quickly from traumatic experiences. Consistent with this, individuals who struggle with depressive symptoms often report lower levels of resilience. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver time, resilience has shifted from being viewed as an inborn and fixed set of traits to being recognized as a dynamic, developmental process that can be strengthened, learned, and supported through psychological and environmental factors. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have also demonstrated a negative association between resilience and depression, showing that individuals with stronger resilience are less likely to experience depressive symptoms. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eResearch Question\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior research indicates that both self-efficacy and resilience are associated with reduced depressive symptoms. Building on this evidence, the present study investigates whether these two psychological constructs can independently predict the severity of depression among Iranian university students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDesign and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study was part of a broader research project examining psychological predictors of depression among Iranian university students (Azimoshan, S., Zeinali, M., Borjali, M., \u0026amp; Fardi, D., 2025. The mediating role of resilience and self-efficacy between attributional styles and depression among Iranian university students. BMC Psychology, manuscript under review). The sample and instruments used in this study were drawn from the same data-collection phase; however, the current analysis addresses a distinct research question and employs a different analytical approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA predictive correlational design was utilized. The sample consisted of 300 Iranian university students (194 women and 106 men). Among the participants, 32.3% were undergraduate students, 55.0% were master\u0026rsquo;s students, and 12.7% were doctoral students. Additional descriptive characteristics of the sample are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of Samples (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;300)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBachelor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMasters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctorate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eField of study\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumanities sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMathematics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand Engineering\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSampling and sample size\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA convenience sampling method was used. The target population consisted of Iranian university students aged between 18\u0026ndash;30 years, primarily from the metropolitan areas of Tehran and Mashhad in 2023. Due to the logistical challenges of in-person recruitment across universities, data collection was conducted online.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were reached through academic and student networks, and the recruitment announcement included a link directing them to an online survey hosted on a national platform (Porsa, Irandoc). After reviewing the study description, eligible individuals provided informed consent before completing the questionnaires.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria were:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) being between 18 and 30 years old;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) being enrolled as a university student during the 2023 academic year; and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) providing informed consent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the beginning of the survey, participants received a brief explanation of the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives and were informed that participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time. All procedures were approved by the institutional ethics committee and adhered to relevant research guidelines. No financial incentives were provided. After confirming consent, participants proceeded to complete the online questionnaires.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValidated Persian versions of all instruments were used in this study. In addition to a demographic form assessing age, gender, and educational status, the following measures were administered:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConnor\u0026ndash;Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eResilience was assessed using the 25-item CD-RISC, which evaluates an individual\u0026rsquo;s capacity to cope with stress and adversity. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (\u0026ldquo;Not true at all\u0026rdquo;) to 4 (\u0026ldquo;True nearly all the time\u0026rdquo;). The scale consists of five factors reflecting personal competence, acceptance of change, trust in one\u0026rsquo;s instincts, control, and spirituality. The CD-RISC has shown strong psychometric properties in both clinical and non-clinical populations. The Persian version has demonstrated adequate reliability (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89).[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] In the present sample, internal consistency was acceptable (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.839).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eGeneral Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy was measured using the 10-item GSE, rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;Not at all true\u0026rdquo;) to 4 (\u0026ldquo;Exactly true\u0026rdquo;). Total scores range from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater perceived self-efficacy. Previous research has shown high internal consistency for both the original (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89) and Persian versions (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80). [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha in the current study was 0.817.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eBeck Depression Inventory\u0026ndash;II (BDI-II)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepressive symptoms were assessed using the 21-item BDI-II, a widely used self-report measure evaluating cognitive, emotional, and somatic aspects of depression. The scale typically requires approximately 10 minutes to complete. Prior studies report strong internal consistency (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.81\u0026ndash;0.86 for non-clinical and clinical samples). The Persian version has also shown good reliability (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.87).[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] In the present study, internal consistency for the BDI-II was excellent (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.914).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics (frequency, mean, and standard deviation) and inferential analyses, including Pearson correlation tests, multiple correlations, and multiple regression using the stepwise method, were performed. The significance threshold was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCharacteristics of the study sample\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 300 participants (194 women and 106 men) aged between 18 to 30 took part in the study. Among them, 32.33% had completed a Bachelor's degree, 55.00% a Master's degree, and 12.67% a Ph.D. Regarding fields of study, 37.33% were from the humanities, 35.34% from experimental sciences, and 27.33% from mathematics and engineering. The demographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDistribution of research variables\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive indices of students\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy, resilience, and depression are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of Items\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffective Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.663\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.179\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSomatic Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.179\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResilience\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.353\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrusting individual instincts and tolerating negative emotions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.923\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive acceptance of change and secure relationships\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.694\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual influences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.563\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean score of overall resilience and most of its subcomponents was higher than the midpoint of the corresponding scales. Among the resilience dimensions, perception of individual competence showed the highest mean score (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.41, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.35), followed by positive acceptance of change and secure relationships (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.16, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.18). The lowest mean score was observed for spiritual influences (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.29, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.12).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor depression, the total mean score was 12.73 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.18). Among the subscales, somatic symptoms showed the highest mean (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.50, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.16), whereas cognitive symptoms had the lowest mean score (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.09, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.18).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean score of self-efficacy (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;63.25, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.05) was also above the scale midpoint, as reported in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kolmogorov\u0026ndash;Smirnov test, along with skewness and kurtosis indices, was used to assess the normality of the data. Prior to hypothesis testing, the distribution of the variables was examined. For the variables of self-efficacy, resilience, and depression, the significance values of the normality tests were greater than 0.05. The skewness values ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.714 to 1.405, and the kurtosis values ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.490 to 1.948, all of which fall within the acceptable limits for normal distribution. Therefore, the distributions of self-efficacy, resilience, and depression can be considered approximately normal. The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKolmogorov\u0026ndash;Smirnov test, skewness, and kurtosis indices for assessing the normality of study variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKolmogorov\u0026ndash;Smirnov\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffective Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.405\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.948\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.281\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSomatic Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.449\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.778\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResilience\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrusting individual instincts and tolerating negative emotions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.102\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.061\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.273\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive acceptance of change and secure relationships\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.094\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.762\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.682\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.714\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual influences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.947\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.482\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Pearson correlation matrix showed significant negative correlations among self-efficacy, resilience, and depression (including all subscales) at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. Higher levels of self-efficacy and resilience were negatively correlated with levels of depression among students. Full correlation coefficients are reported in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePearson correlation among constructs of the study questionnaires\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Affective Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Cognitive Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.81\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Somatic Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.80\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.80\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Total Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.93\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.94\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.93\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Self-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.46\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.46\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.45\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.49\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Perception of individual competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.52\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.45\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.49\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.52\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.54\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. Trusting individual instincts and tolerating negative emotions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.32\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.30\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.32\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.62\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. Positive acceptance of change and secure relationships\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.39\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.36\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.36\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.39\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.33\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.66\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.50\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9. Control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.45\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.35\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.44\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.44\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.32\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.69\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.53\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.70\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10. Spiritual influences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.18\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.31\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.26\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11. Total Resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.49\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.42\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.45\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.49\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.44\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.89\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.40\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003eCorrelation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the predictive value of self-efficacy and resilience to depression among students, a multiple regression analysis using the stepwise method was conducted. In the first step, self-efficacy entered the model producing an R value of 0.488, with an R\u0026sup2; value of 0.239. In the second step, resilience was added, increasing the multiple correlation coefficient to 0.574 and the coefficient of determination to 0.329. This indicates that together, self-efficacy and resilience explain 32.9% of the variance in students\u0026rsquo; depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe independence of residuals was assessed using the Durbin\u0026ndash;Watson statistic. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, the Durbin\u0026ndash;Watson value was 2.044, which falls within the acceptable range of 1.5 to 2.5, indicating that the assumption of independent residuals was satisfied.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of Stepwise Regression Analysis with Determination Coefficients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR Square Change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDurbin\u0026ndash;Watson\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.488\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.771\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.341\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Efficacy and Resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.574\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.329\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.091\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.849\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine multicollinearity between the independent variables, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance indices were assessed. Since all VIF values were below 10 and Tolerance values exceeded 0.10, no evidence of multicollinearity was observed among the independent variables. Additionally, the homogeneity of residual variances was evaluated using a residual scatterplot. Visual inspection of the plot revealed no specific pattern that would indicate heteroscedasticity. Therefore, all assumptions of the multiple regression model were met. (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStepwise Multiple Regression Coefficients Predicting Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esteps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollinearity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVIF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTolerance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.543\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.488\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-9.661\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.377\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-6.391\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.802\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.336\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-6.333\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.802\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e further showed that the t-statistics in the second step were significant at the level of p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, indicating that the model related to the research objective was statistically significant. Accordingly, it can be concluded that self-efficacy and resilience negatively and significantly predict depression among students. Based on the standardized beta coefficients, higher levels of self-efficacy (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.339) and resilience (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.336) were associated with lower levels of depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple stepwise regression analysis was conducted to determine the predictive contribution of the resilience subscales and self-efficacy to students\u0026rsquo; depression. In the first step, the subscale of perceived personal competence entered the model and yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.519, explaining 26.9% of the variance in depression (R\u0026sup2; = 0.269, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). In the second step, self-efficacy was added to the model, increasing the multiple correlation coefficient to 0.575 and raising the explained variance to 33.1% (ΔR\u0026sup2; = 0.062, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). In the third step, the control subscale was included, resulting in a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.592 and an overall explained variance of 35.1% (ΔR\u0026sup2; = 0.020, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). These findings indicate that perceived personal competence, self-efficacy, and control together account for a substantial proportion of variance in depression among students. The Durbin\u0026ndash;Watson statistic was 2.027, which falls within the acceptable range (1.5\u0026ndash;2.5), confirming that the assumption of independent residuals was met. (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple Regression Analysis Predicting Depression Based on Self-Efficacy and Resilience Subscales\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR Square Change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDurbin\u0026ndash;Watson\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.519\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.572\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109.811\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence and Self-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.575\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.331\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.501\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence and Control and Self-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.592\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.351\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.349\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, multicollinearity among the independent variables was assessed using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance indices. Given that all VIF values were below 10 and all Tolerance values exceeded 0.1, no evidence of multicollinearity was observed. Furthermore, the homoscedasticity of the residuals was examined using a statistical scatterplot. Visual inspection of the plot indicated no specific pattern suggestive of heteroscedasticity. Therefore, all assumptions of the regression model were met, and the multiple regression analysis was deemed appropriate for testing the research hypothesis (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegression Analysis for Depression Using Self-Efficacy and Resilience Components\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esteps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollinearity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVIF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTolerance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.984\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.519\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-10.479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.753\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-6.411\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.712\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.405\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.295\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5.239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.712\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.405\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of individual competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.456\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.994\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.412\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.425\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.344\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.310\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5.555\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.706\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.416\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.810\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.195\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.522\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.917\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, the t-statistics in the third step were statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating that the final model aligned with the study objective. The results showed that perceived personal competence, self-efficacy, and control were significant negative predictors of students\u0026rsquo; depression. Based on the standardized beta coefficients, higher levels of perceived personal competence (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.218), self-efficacy (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.310), and control (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.195) were associated with lower levels of depression. Among these predictors, self-efficacy demonstrated the strongest effect, whereas control showed the weakest effect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to examine the predictive roles of self-efficacy and resilience in explaining depression among university students. These patterns suggest that confidence in one\u0026rsquo;s abilities and adaptive psychological resources may play a central role in protecting students against depressive experiences. When the subscales of resilience were analyzed, perceived personal competence and control accounted for a meaningful proportion of variance in depression. Based on the standardized beta coefficients, self-efficacy emerged as the strongest predictor, followed by perceived personal competence and control. These results suggest that students who possess greater confidence in their abilities and stronger adaptive capacities are less vulnerable to depressive experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present findings align with previous research emphasizing the protective role of self-efficacy and resilience in mental health. Prior studies have consistently shown that self-efficacy enhances adaptive coping, decreases emotional vulnerability, and promotes psychological well-being. Similarly, resilience has been conceptualized as a buffer that supports effective emotion regulation and facilitates recovery from stress. By demonstrating that these variables not only correlate with but also significantly predict depression, this study reinforces existing evidence and highlights the relevance of psychological strengths in student mental health. The relatively high proportion of variance explained by the final regression model further underscores the importance of these factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe predictive roles of self-efficacy and resilience can be interpreted through their influence on cognitive and emotional processes. Students with higher self-efficacy tend to approach academic and personal challenges with confidence, are more likely to constructive coping strategies, and maintain a sense of control over outcomes factors that reduce susceptibility to hopelessness and depressive mood. Likewise, resilience supports positive adaptation during stressful circumstances, enhances emotional regulation, and facilitates quicker recovery from setbacks. Conversely, low levels of self-efficacy or resilience may render students more sensitive to stress and negative affect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, these results highlight the importance of enhancing self-efficacy and resilience in interventions designed to prevent or reduce depression among university students. Programs targeting perceived personal competence, psychological skills, and emotional regulation may contribute meaningfully to strengthening these protective factors. Future research could explore the effectiveness of targeted psychological training and academic support programs in further promoting resilience and self-efficacy in student populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the strengths of this study, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design of the study limits causal inferences regarding the relationships between self-efficacy, resilience, and depressive symptoms. Second, the use of self-report measures may have introduced response bias, as participants might overestimate or underestimate their levels of self-efficacy, resilience, or depressive symptoms. Third, although the sample size was adequate for regression analyses, the participants were drawn from a single student population, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to broader cultural or educational contexts. Finally, the resilience construct was examined only through its subscales within one specific instrument, and alternative measures might capture additional facets relevant to depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFuture directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies should incorporate larger and more diverse samples across different academic settings to improve the generalizability of findings. Longitudinal and experimental designs are also recommended to clarify the directional effects of self-efficacy and resilience on depression over time. Moreover, examining additional psychological variables may help build more comprehensive predictive models. From an applied perspective, future research could evaluate the effectiveness of interventions specifically designed to strengthen self-efficacy and resilience, including cognitive\u0026ndash;behavioral programs, skills-training workshops, or resilience-building curricula. Such interventions have the potential to improve students\u0026rsquo; mental health, enhance academic functioning, and reduce vulnerability to depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study suggests that self-efficacy and resilience are meaningfully associated with depressive symptoms among university students. Specifically, components such as perceived personal competence and control, alongside self-efficacy, accounted for a notable proportion of variance in depression, highlighting the relevance of psychological resources in student mental health. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that self-efficacy and resilience-related capacities are associated with lower levels of depression sympthoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom an applied perspective, educational and mental health interventions that focus on strengthening self-efficacy and resilience may be beneficial in student well-being. The present findings may also inform future research aimed at developing and evaluating targeted psychological and academic support programs that enhance these key psychological resources within university settings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eCD-RISC\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConnor\u0026ndash;Davidson Resilience Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eGSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral Self-Efficacy Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eBDI-II\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeck Depression Inventory\u0026ndash;II\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eVIF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariance Inflation Factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch (IR.IAU.SRB.REC.1402.082). All methods were performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation in the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSA was the main investigator, collected the data, and wrote the initial draft. MZ supervised the study and contributed to all aspects of the study. MB was responsible for the data analysis and writing process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePaton C, Roy A, Purandare K, Rendora O, Barnes TR. Prescribing antipsychotic medication for adults with intellectual disability: Shared responsibilities between mental health services and primary care. BJPsych Bull. 2022;46(6):311\u0026ndash;5. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1192/bjb.2021.72\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1192/bjb.2021.72\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. 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Depress Anxiety. 2005;21(4):185\u0026ndash;92.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"self-efficacy, resilience, depression, University student, Iran","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8339894/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8339894/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBackground\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression is one of the most prevalent psychological issues among university students, and identifying its key psychological predictors is essential for designing effective prevention and intervention programs. This study aimed to examine the predictive roles of self-efficacy and resilience in explaining depression among students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMethod\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional study was conducted in 2023 among 300 university students selected through convenience sampling. Participants completed the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), the Connor\u0026ndash;Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II). Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficients and stepwise multiple regression to determine the predictive contribution of self-efficacy and resilience subscales to depression.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResults\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regression analyses indicated that both self-efficacy and resilience significantly predicted depression, jointly explaining a meaningful proportion of variance (R\u0026sup2; = 0.33). In the extended model, perception of individual competence, self-efficacy, and control also emerged as significant predictors, increasing the explained variance to 0.35. All regression assumptions were met, and no evidence of multicollinearity was observed across the models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConclusion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy, perceived personal competence, and control emerged as significant predictors of depression, collectively explaining a meaningful portion of variance in students\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms. These findings underscore the importance of psychological strengths in protecting against emotional distress. Strengthening self-efficacy, coping skills, and resilience may therefore serve as effective targets for interventions aimed at reducing depression among university students.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Self-efficacy and Resilience as predictors of Depression among Iranian university students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-12 10:57:35","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8339894/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-31T12:57:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-23T23:02:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"176900681392804532275964564752977374786","date":"2026-03-22T12:39:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"48503629901070445398805884562841925644","date":"2026-02-04T11:51:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-15T14:42:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"61879578362533587553212886296915626577","date":"2026-01-10T15:11:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"257158619726505998547768604584258907815","date":"2026-01-10T10:17:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"117914455667083969092998775948411165324","date":"2026-01-08T11:04:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-08T05:41:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-08T05:32:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T12:51:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-19T18:13:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-12-19T18:06:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ed1988c6-2446-44a4-a8b0-b9b03c3ab996","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 12th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-31T13:09:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-12 10:57:35","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8339894","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8339894","identity":"rs-8339894","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}