Navigating Ethnic Identity at a Time of Crisis: A mixed-methods study of Jewish identity in California after October 7, 2023

Navigating Ethnic Identity at a Time of Crisis: A mixed-methods study of Jewish identity in California after October 7, 2023 | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Navigating Ethnic Identity at a Time of Crisis: A mixed-methods study of Jewish identity in California after October 7, 2023 Yael Teff Seker, Leah Corinne Hibel, Marika Sigal This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7801837/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In the aftermath of October 7, 2023 and the ensuing war in the Middle East, which had far-reaching effects throughout the United States, many Jewish Americans faced the challenges of re-navigating their Jewish identity and finding group support and community. The study described herein of Jewish parenting and socialization began just before these events and therefore captured the social psychological challenges and changes that took place during this tumultuous time. During 2023–2024, we collected 218 quantitative surveys and performed 30 in-depth qualitative interviews with Californian residents who identify as Jewish and have a child between the ages of 2 and 18. Quantitative findings reveal that greater concerns, experiences, and perceptions of antisemitism were associated with greater engagement and identification with Jewish religious and ethnic identity. October 7 was found to be a precipitating event that increased engagement and identification with Jewish religious and ethnic identity and community. Qualitative findings indicate a sense of collective trauma, dissonance, and re-evaluation of group support and identity among liberal California Jews. Other themes relate to reconnecting or strengthening parent and child Jewish identity and communities, and others to decreasing involvement or membership in Jewish communities and events due to fear of discrimination or hostility. Group Identity Collective Trauma Discrimination Jewish Antisemitism 1. Introduction Exactly a year after the events of the October 7, 2023 massacre, two op-eds were published in two of the leading newspapers in the U.S., attempting to describe how American Jews were coping with the trauma of the attack, the subsequent war in Gaza and the Middle East, and the resulting social and political repercussions of these events in the U.S. context. Michelle Boorstein (Boorstein, 2024) of the Washington Post interviewed the manager of a shooting range, an observant Jew by the name of Grant Schmidt, who tells her he’s been seeing more Jews buying guns for protection, making the following connection: [Jews are] doing so much soul-searching right now. They’re all over the place, mentally, emotionally, psychologically. It would be comical if it wasn’t so sad. In some way, shape or form, everyone feels on their own. Schmidt then adds: People are getting more into their identities. It’s like: ‘Like it or not, you’re Jewish, so own it’. The second appeared in the New York Times, written by its national religion correspondent Elizabeth Dias. Dias (2024) describes how, after October 7, many American Jews who saw themselves as part of the liberal left felt ostracized and no longer knew if they belonged to their left-leaning communities, at least not in the way that they used to belong to them. She also describes how some Jews chose to strengthen their identity, after experiencing the collective trauma of October 7, which they saw as an attack not only on the state of Israel, but also on Jews and Jewish identity in the U.S. Dias points to the rise in numbers of American Jews joining Jewish groups, enrolling their children in Jewish day schools, or learning more about Jewish texts and heritage. These two pieces, along with the few academic papers recently published on the topic in 2024–2025 (e.g., Santos & Yogev, 2024; Nelson et al 2024; Maizles, 2024), that in the aftermath of October 7, many American Jews were struggling with, rethinking, and reframing their group identity. Many have been searching for support and community, while managing experiences and inner turmoil surrounding the massacre and the ensuing war in the Middle East. The current paper examines the challenges of Jew living in America during these turbulent times, many struggling with their own sense of Jewish identity and community affiliation(s). 2. Literature Review Jewish Group Identity Today, Jewish identity is recognized as a complex and fluid concept that has evolved significantly over time, especially in the US. Historically, sociological and psychological studies of American Jews primarily measured Jewish identity by religious practice. Moreover, as Schlosser (2006) argues, research on Jewish identity and group-related behavior have been limited in number, sample size, number of variables measured, and scope until the 2000s, addressing a wider range of group identity elements. Beyond religion, newer studies have included perception of Jewish identity such as ethnicity, religious affiliation (e.g., Orthodox, Conservative, Reform; see Pew, 2021), cultural practices, historical experiences (e.g., Ashkenazi, Sephardi/Mizrahi), personal values and beliefs, connection to Israel, sense of mutual responsibility, generativity in practice and culture, early formative experiences, and awareness or concern regarding anti-Jewish discrimination or persecution (Altman et al. 2010). This long list highlights the intricate nature of Jewish identity and the evolution of its measurement beyond religious practice, emphasizing the impact of societal perceptions and personal experiences, and encourages thinking about Jewish identity as more similar to an ethnic or ethno-religious identity than simply a religious one (Fulton et al., 2024). Perceived group discrimination In the US, Jews are often seen as both insiders and outsiders, navigating the demands and challenges posed by their predominantly non-Jewish environments, such as internal and external pressures concerning assimilation and social integration on one hand, and experiences or fears of marginalization and discrimination, on the other (Greenberg, 1998; Friedman, 2005; Fulton, 2024). Further complexity results from Jewish individuals and communities facing unique forms of oppression that do not fit into established analyses of racism and economic oppression. For example, due to the historic racialization of Jews by white supremacists as non-white, and more recently the opposite trend of racializing Jews as simply white, Jews might feel that they are simultaneously victims of group identity-based discrimination and hate, and at the same times members of a privileged class (Greenberg 1998; Altman et al, 2010; Maizles, 2024; Santos & Yogev, 2024). The FBI reported a dramatic rise in hate crimes targeting Jews following October 7, 2023 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2024). Further, according to FBI data, this rise was on top of already high and increasing levels of antisemitic hate crimes. In fact, even before October 7, Jews in the U.S. had reported sensing a rise in antisemitism in recent years, with 53% of American Jews surveyed reporting they felt less safe in 2020 as a Jewish person in the US in comparison to five years earlier. Jews who wear distinctively Jewish religious attire felt even less safe, and 5% of U.S. Jews reported that they have “stayed away from a Jewish event or observance as a result” (Pew, 2021). Israel, Zionism, and Jewish Identity Post October 7, 2023 Several scholars have noted hostile acts and speech towards American Jews has shifted from white supremacist groups as the primary perpetrators to those who attack and demonize Jews due to their perceived affiliation with Israel, Zionism 1 , and white colonialism. Linda Maizels (2024) argues that this led to linking of hostility towards Israel, with hostility towards viewing American Jews as a distinct ethnic group. In other words, those who are hostile toward Israel see the claim that Jews are an ethnic group (rather than only a religious one) as pro-Zionist in nature. Maizles also points to the emergence of a binary narrative, comparing African Americans to Palestinians and white American victimizers to the Israeli government and Israelis, at times extending the same narrative to Jews more broadly. This narrative, she argues, led to the dismissal or rationalization, and at times even the glorification of violence against all Israelis and pro-Israelis, and the disregard towards Jewish suffering, whether Israeli or American. Lastly, Maizles points out that some left-affiliated pro-Palestinian Americans deny, dismiss, or ignore some of the horrific events committed against innocent Israelis and other innocent nationals (including American citizens) on October 7, as well as dismiss expressions of pain or fear by American Jews, characterizing them as white, privileged experiences, or alternatively as Zionist propaganda (Maizles, 2024). Despite such perceptions, reports in the press and in academic literature suggest that the rise in the reported sense of fear and estrangement among U.S. Jews following October 7 is quite prevalent, prominent, and genuine. Santos and Yogev (2024) argue that on college campuses, Jewish students struggled as they witnessed sympathy by some campus groups for the perpetrators or the October 7 massacre, but not for its (mostly) Jewish victims. They also emphasize the sharp increase in antisemitic incidents in the U.S. and worldwide post October 7. Their survey of 201 Jewish university members from the U.S., Canada, and Europe found that students reported a high prevalence of verbal harassment, both on and off campus, and that Jewish respondents felt significantly less comfortable engaging in activities such as expressing their religious beliefs or wearing Jewish symbols on campus (Santos & Yogev, 2024). Additionally, Nelson and colleagues (2024) note the significant decline in U.S. Jewish students’ sense of safety post-October 7. They attribute this not only to anti-Zionist activities and rhetoric at campus demonstrations and events, but also to the pervasive radicalization of online discourse, including threats of violence and aggressive anti-Zionist and antisemitic rhetoric. While these trends predated October 7, 2023, they have increased substantially since then (Nelson et al., 2024). Discrimination and minority identity Perceived racism describes the subjective experience of racial or ethnic prejudice or discrimination (Clark et al., 1999) and quantitative and theoretical research emphasizes the connection between perceptions of racism and ethnic identity. Specifically, the Rejection-Identification Model (RIM; Branscombe et al., 1999) proposed that perceiving group discrimination is related to increased identification with one’s ethnic or racial group and hostility toward the dominant group. On the other hand, the Identification Attribution Model (IAM) suggests a stronger sense of ethnic identity may lead individuals to recognize more instances of discrimination (Gonzales-Backen et al., 2024), especially when prejudice signals are ambiguous (Major, Quinton, & Schmader, 2003). Bringing these ideas together, the Identity Trauma Integrative Framework (Kira, 2019), posits that identity traumas, or events that threaten or challenge the existence, maintenance, or development of an individual’s identity (e.g., Fisher & Oyserman, 2017), may result in an activation or an inhibition of the salience of the identity targeted. Taken together, ethnic identity and discrimination are likely reciprocally related, dynamically influencing each other over time. The scientific examination of ethnic identity in the context of, and in response to, discrimination includes a number of different U.S. racial and ethnic minority groups, is relatively developed, with multiple validated questionnaires used to assess changes in racial/ethnic identity in response to (perceived) discrimination. However, to the best of our knowledge, no comprehensive or large academic study has been conducted recently that quantitatively examined Jews using similarly structures questionnaires or utilized a mixed-methods approach. Amyot & Sigelman (1996) and others (e.g., Dershowitz, 1996) have theorized that exclusion from the mainstream reinforces Jewish group identity, and, conversely, assimilation into mainstream American culture is driving a loss of a sense of Jewish identity. However, these hypothesized connections and others linking antisemitism, secularization, and Jewish identity have not been empirically tested. The current study hypothesizes that October 7 and the subsequent exponential rise in antisemitism constituted an existential identity trauma, or at the very least an identity flashpoint, for Jews. Thus, in our quantitative analyses, we hypothesize that Jewish ethnic identity and engagement in Jewish cultural and religious practice will change after October 7 compared to before. The qualitative study explores how California Jews viewed their Jewish identity, both before and after October 7, whether they had encountered antisemitism in California or the U.S., and what their experience and/or perception of antisemitism was and how it affected their Jewish identity or their social affiliation and behavior. 2. Methods The current study is a mixed methods study, including a quantitative survey of 218 Jewish participants, which includes 45 participants who answered the survey both before and after October 7, 2023; and 30 follow-up qualitative open interviews performed in 2024. While this study unintentionally captured a historic moment in time for American Jews, both parts of the study were planned by the researchers and then reviewed and approved by the ethics committee several months before October 2023. 2.1 Quantitative methods and sample Participants Jews make up only 2% of the population of California. Thus, we utilized targeted approaches to recruit from this very small community. Parents were recruited via three methods 1) connecting with California based Jewish institutions (Jewish community centers, Jewish day schools and preschools, Jewish religious institutions, PJ Library) 2) placing ads on social media and soliciting participants through Facebook groups that target Jewish individuals 3) snowball sampling of friends and family of consented participants. Eligibility was based on identifying as Jewish and having a child between the ages of 2 and 18. Recruitment began on September 6, 2023, but paused starting on October 7; 66 participants were surveyed before October 7. Recruitment continued on October 25 and concluded on August 5, 2024; 152 participants were surveyed after October 7. See Table 1 for demographic information. Table 1 Full, Pre- and Post-October 7, and qualitative samples characteristics. Full Sample ( N = 218) Pre-Oct 7 ( N = 66) Post-Oct 7 ( N = 152) Qualitative (N = 30) Within subjects (N = 45) n % n % n % n % n % Mothers a 193 88.50 59 89.4 134 88.2 26 86.7 41 91.1 Ethnicity b Jewish 202 92.66 58 87.9 144 94.7 30 100 39 86.6 Alaskan Native 1 0.46 - - 1 0.66 - - - - Asian or Pacific Islander 5 2.29 1 1.52 4 2.63 1 3.3 - - African American or Black 1 0.46 - - 1 0.66 1 3.3 - - Caucasian or White 143 65.60 51 77.3 92 60.5 17 56.7 31 68.9 Other 4 1.83 1 1.52 3 1.97 3 10 1 2.2 Education High school diploma or GED 1 0.46 - - 1 0.66 - - - - Some college (no degree) 10 4.59 2 3.03 8 5.26 2 6.7 3 6.7 Bachelor’s or Associate’s 47 21.56 16 24.2 31 1.32 5 16.7 1 2.2 Graduate or professional 158 72.48 48 72.7 110 72.4 23 76.7 34 75.6 Married 195 89.45 57 86.4 138 90.8 27 90 36 80 Household Income Less than $ 25K 2 0.92 - - 2 1.32 - - - - $ 25-50K 3 1.38 2 3.03 1 0.66 - - - - $ 50-75K 14 6.42 6 9.09 8 5.26 3 10 4 8.9 $ 75-100K 15 6.88 5 7.58 10 6.58 2 6.7 6 13.3 $ 100-125K 7 3.21 3 4.55 4 2.63 2 6.7 3 6.7 $ 125-150K 22 10.09 6 9.09 16 10.5 6 20 3 6.7 $ 150-175K 19 8.72 5 7.58 14 9.21 2 6.7 6 13.3 $ 175-200K 17 7.80 5 7.58 12 7.89 2 6.7 4 8.9 More than $ 200K 113 51.83 32 48.5 81 53.3 11 36.7 16 35.5 Missing 6 2.75 2 3.03 4 2.63 2 6.7 3 6.7 Jewish Identity Jewish parents or grandparents 197 90.37 57 86.4 140 92.1 29 96.7 38 84.4 Conversion 12 5.50 5 7.58 7 4.61 1 3.3 3 6.7 Other 9 4.13 4 6.06 5 3.29 0 0 4 8.9 Religious Affiliation Secular 34 15.60 11 16.7 23 15.1 5 16.7 9 20 Reform 110 50.50 35 53.0 75 44.1 16 53.3 16 35.6 Conservative 34 15.60 11 16.7 23 15.1 3 10 2 4.4 Orthodox 17 7.80 1 1.5 16 10.5 2 6.7 10 2.2 Missing/Other 23 10.60 8 12.1 15 9.90 2 6.7 6 13.3 Note. a All participants were parents, the number notes those who identified as mothers; b Sum exceeds the sample size because participants were able to select all ethnic groups applicable Procedures Participants responded to a battery of questionnaires via the online platform Qualtrics®. Settings allowed participants to stop responding for up to 1 week and still return to the survey to complete the questionnaires. Inactivity of greater than 1 week resulted in the questionnaire being automatically submitted. Participants who did not complete their surveys were emailed periodically to remind them to complete the survey. Participants were only compensated if they completed more than 75% of the survey. Participants were compensated with a $ 10 Amazon® gift card. Measures Antisemitism For the current analyses, we measured participants concerns about antisemitism, their experiences of antisemitism, and their perceptions of antisemitic bias in their community members. Concern about antisemitism was assess via a single item: “How concerned are you about antisemitism”. Responses ranged from 1 to 5 (1 = Not at all, 2 = Slightly, 3 = Moderately, 4 = Very, 5 = Extremely). Overall, 1% of participants reported Not at all, 12.3% Slightly, 27% Moderate, 32.4% Very, and 27.9% Extremely concerned. Experiences of antisemitism were assessed via checklist of antisemitic experiences derived from the Anti-Defamation League antisemitism experiences checklist. Participants were asked “Over the past five years, have you experienced any of the following experiences”. Items were: 1) Been made to feel unwelcome because you are Jewish; 2) Experienced or witnessed some form of antisemitic event; 3) Heard antisemitic comments, slurs, or threats targeting others; 4) Had any Jewish institution with which you are affiliated vandalized, damaged, defaced, or zoom-bombed/cyber-attacked because of antisemitism; 5) Been targeted by antisemitic comments, slurs, or threats; 6) Physically attacked for being Jewish. Overall, 22.3% of participants reported 0 types of experiences of antisemitism with 23.4% reporting 1, 16.3% reporting 2, 15.8% reporting 3, 13.6% reporting 4, and 8.7% reporting that they experienced all 5 types of experiences of antisemitism in the past 5 years. Perceptions of non-Jewish (outgroup) bias views against Jews and Israel were assessed via a modified version of the Generalised Antisemitism Scale (GeAs; Allington et al., 2022). The GeAs is a validated and up-to-date measure of respondents’ agreement with a range of Judeophobic (e.g., "compared to other groups, Jewish people have too much power in the media”) and Antizionist Antisemitism (e.g., “Israel and its supporters are a bad influence on our democracy”) statements. The scale was modified to assess the degree to which the current Jewish respondents believe their non-Jewish community members agree with each statement (e.g., “Other people in my community think Jewish people talk about the Holocaust too much”). Responses ranged from 1 to 5 for each item (1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree). Items were averaged such that higher scores indicate greater perceptions of antisemitism. On average, participants are “undecided” ( M = 2.8, SD = .82) about the antisemitic views of their non-Jewish community members. This scale had excellent internal reliability (α = .93). Jewish ethnic and religious identity Affiliation . Participants were asked to report their affiliation based on 9 different categories. Respondents who self-identified as secular, Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox were classified as such. Respondents who self-identified with a smaller Jewish group (i.e., Reconstructionist, Conservadox, Modern Orthodox) were placed in one of the above four groups depending on the closest affiliation of the smaller group. After recoding 29 participants, the final sample was 17.4% secular, 56.4% Reform, 17.4% Conservative, and 8.7% Orthodox. Of the total sample, 2.3% of the participants did not respond to this item and 6.9% indicated no denomination. These participants were left missing in the final 4 category affiliation variable. Multi-group ethnic identity measure. The MEIM (Phinney, 1992) is a 20-item self-report measure designed to assess ethnic identity. To ensure that participants were responded with regard to being Jewish, items were also revised so that reference to “my ethnic background” or “my ethnicity” to “my Jewish background” or “my Jewish ethnicity”. The instructions prompted participants to indicate how much they agree or disagree with each statement on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Prior research reveals two subscales: ethnic identity and other group orientation. The ethnic identity subscale includes items assessing of a sense of belonging to (e.g., I have a strong sense of belonging to the Jewish people), and attitudes toward the Jewish people (e.g., I have a lot of pride in the Jewish people and their accomplishments) as well as the meaning of this identification (e.g., I have a clear sense of my Jewish background and what it means for me). Items were averaged such that greater scores indicate a stronger sense of ethnic identity (M = 3.4; SD = .45) This scale produced excellent reliability (α = .86). The other group orientation subscale includes items assessing attitudes toward non-Jews (e.g., I often spend time with non-Jewish people) and was also reliable (α = .75). Items were averaged (M = 3.7; SD = .37) such that greater scores indicate more positive attitudes toward non-Jews. Thus, this sample generally reported being affirming of their own ethnic identity and comfortable interacting with members of other ethnic groups. American Jewish Identity Scale. The AJIS (Friedlander et al., 2010) is a validated 32-item self-report measures designed to assess Jewish identity. The scale consists of two subscales assessing religious (e.g., I study Jewish religious texts (e.g., Torah, Talmud, Gemara)) and cultural engagement (e.g., I read Jewish newspapers). The instructions prompted participants to indicate how much each statement is true of them on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 4 (very true of me). Both the religious (α = .91) and cultural (α = .86) subscales had excellent reliability. On average, the participants engaged in more cultural (M = 2.8, SD = 0.58) than religious practices (M = 1.8, SD = 0.65) t(204) = 17.45, p = .001; though cultural and religious engagement were highly correlated r = .65, p = .001. 2.2 Qualitative methods and sample The qualitative study included 30 in-depth (~ 1-hour) interviews performed and recorded over Zoom in the summer and fall of 2024, with participants who self-identified as Jewish parents and were recruited through the quantitative survey. Participants received a $ 20 Amazon gift card for their participation in the qualitative interview. Out of 218 survey participants, we approached those among the first hundred who agreed to a follow up interview, until we reached 30 participants. The interviews were transcribed automatically by Zoom, and then coded and then underwent thematic analysis. In the interviews, participants were asked about their perception of Jewish identity, behavior related to Jewish identity, relationships with non-Jewish communities, and the respondents’ experiences, feelings, and concerns about being Jewish and raising their children as Jewish in California (see Table 1 for demographic information). 2.2 Transparency and data availability The scales used in the quantitative data collection process are described above, and the questionnaire used in the interviews is included in the Appendix. The raw materials, namely the interview video recordings and transcripts, as well as the tables of themes and codes and their related quotes, and the tables of quantitative analysis data, are saved on secure university Box servers to ensure participant anonymity, privacy, and safety. These documents and any other anonymized research materials would be made available upon reasonable request. 3. Findings 3.1 Quantitative findings Within-Subjects Comparisons of Pre- to Post-October 7 Based on paired-samples t-tests, participants who answered the quantitative survey both before and after October 7, 2023 (N = 45), reported significantly greater concerns about antisemitism after October 7 (t(41) = 3.1, p = .003), though not greater experiences of antisemitism (t(41) = 1.26, p = .22), nor greater perceptions of antisemitic views in their non-Jewish community members (t(34) = .319, p = .75). Participants’ report of cultural practice (t(41) = 1.78, p = .08) was marginally higher in the months immediately after October 7 than their own report before October 7; though neither outgroup orientation (t(41) = 0.61, p = .54), ethnic identity (t(41) = 1.26, p = .22) nor religious practice (t(41) = 0.74, p = .46) changed from before to the months immediately after October 7. Between-subjects comparisons across October 7 We next examined differences in participant response in antisemitism and identity after October 7 (N = 152) compared to those who responded before October 7 (N = 66). Participants completing the survey after October 7 reported significantly greater concerns about antisemitism than those reporting before ( t (202) = 2.83, p = .003). There was no significant difference in perceptions of antisemitic views in their non-Jewish community members (t(158.8) = .729, p = .53), though in reports of experiencing antisemitism (t(182) = 1.33, p = .09) was marginally higher. Participants who responded to the survey after October 7 reported greater cultural engagement (t(203) = 4.58, p < .001), religious engagement t(206) = 2.52, p = .013), ethnic identity ( t (203) = 3.02, p = .003) but not higher other group orientation ( t (203) = 1.60, p = .11) than those who responded before October 7 . Participants were asked if they ever hid their Jewish identity , or ever encouraged their children to hide their Jewish identity. Before October 7, 55% of parents reported ever hiding their Jewish identity and 8% reported encouraging their children to hide. After October 7, this number did not significantly change (57%; t(110.23) = -1.23, p = .21), but the percentage of parents encouraging their children to hide their identity post-October 7 increased significantly (24%; t(172.2) = -3.80, p < . 001). Between-subjects associations between antisemitism and ethnic identity indicators Participants’ concerns about antisemitism, experiences of antisemitism, and perception of the pervasiveness of antisemitism were examined in association with ethnic identity, and religious and cultural practice. If significant differences across October 7 were identified above, this variable was included in the model to determine if antisemitism was associated with identity above and beyond the impact of October 7. All initial models examined differences by affiliation (Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox affiliation; with Reform as the reference group). If there were no significant difference by affiliation, affiliation was dropped and only main effects without affiliation are reported. Affiliation only differed in the model with concerns about antisemitism predicting religious engagement. This model revealed that concerns about antisemitism was associated with an increase in religious engagement for participants who identified as Reform (b = .22, SE = .07, p = .001). This effect was marginally lower for Conservatives (b = − .26, SE = .10, p = .076). However, for both secular (b = .31, SE = .14, p = .022) and Orthodox (b = − .43, SE = .12, p = .037) participants, increased concerns about antisemitism were associated with lower levels of religious engagement. Overall, concerns about antisemitism were associated with greater cultural engagement (b = .45, SE = .06, p = .001) and stronger ethnic identity (b = .33, SE = .06, p = .001), above and beyond the impact of October 7 which remained significant in the models (p’s range .007 − .001). Similarly, a higher level of reported experiences of antisemitism were associated with greater religious engagement (b = .22, SE = .07, p = .003) and stronger ethnic identity (b = .14, SE = .06, p = .020), but only marginally associated with cultural engagement (b = .13, SE = .07, p = .075). Again, these associations were above and beyond the impact of October 7 (p’s range .015 − .001). Perceiving the American public to hold more antisemitic views were associated with greater cultural engagement (b = .23, SE = .07, p = .001) but not religious (b = .08, SE = .07, p = .270) or ethnic identity (b = .08, SE = .06, p = .169). Participants with lower outgroup orientation (i.e., less positive attitudes toward non-Jews) reported greater religious practice (b = − .23, SE = .07, p = .001), but there was no association with cultural practice (b = − .07, SE = .07, p = .33) or ethnic identity (b = .09, SE = .07, p = .173). 3.2 Qualitative Findings Table 2 describes the main themes found in the thematic analysis of the interviews (See Table 2 : Main themes expressed by participants regarding Jewish identity and antisemitism ). Of the 30 respondents, 21 (70%) expressed a strong connection to Israel, and 14 (46.7%) reported experiencing an antisemitic act perpetrated either against them or their children in the U.S. either before or after October 7, 2023. Additionally, 12 out of 30 (40%) mentioned that they hide their Jewish identity or their children’s Jewish identity out of fear of being targeted for hostile or violent treatment. Roughly 33%, 10 out of 30 participants, referred unprompted to Pro-Palestinian/anti-Zionist demonstrations and contents as associated with antisemitic ideas or agendas. This is even though a similarly strong trend − 10 out of 30 (33.3%) – was for participants to emphasize their progressive or liberal identity (unprompted), with some potentially counter-intuitive overlap between these two categories. Other strong themes, (9/30 ≥ n ≥ 7/30), included the fear of being targeted for being Jewish, reported by 9 out of 30 (30%). A sense of betrayal by the American left, due to a perceived lack of support for Jewish struggles despite Jewish support for other marginalized groups, was felt by 8 out of 30 (26.7%). Concerns about misinformation and disinformation were significant for 7 out of 30 (23.3%). The same percentage, 7 out of 30 (23.3%), reported that their child or their child’s school experienced an antisemitic event, and another 7 out of 30 (23.3%) reported being exposed to antisemitism online. In the medium-strong themes category (6/30 ≥ n ≥ 5/30), 6 out of 30 (20%) felt that antisemitism was lying under the surface and that the aftermath of October 7 exposed it. 5 out of 30 (16.7%) reported feeling afraid or targeted for being pro-Israeli. An equal number, 5 out of 30 (16.7%), expressed criticism of the Israeli government, and the same number (5/30) expressed unprompted concern over Palestinian suffering. Other themes that were mentioned but with less frequency included feeling personally traumatized by the events of October 7, 2023, reported by 4 out of 30 (13.3%). The same percentage (13.3%; 4/30), reported losing or cutting off friendships with non-Jews or those perceived as anti-Zionist or antisemitic. Feeling that antisemitism has become common in California was noted by 3 out of 30 (10%). The same percentage (10%; 3/30), reported intentionally engaging in more Jewish-related activities after October 7, 2023, and the same number (10%; 3/30) reported actively seeking more knowledge to learn more about Judaism and Israel since the events of October 7. Table 2 Main themes expressed by participants regarding Jewish identity and antisemitism 1. Strongest Themes (n ≥ 10/30) a) Reported feeling a strong connection to Israel (21/30, 70%) b) Hide their Jewish identity or their children’s Jewish identity (12/30, 40%) c) Feel that Pro-Palestinian/anti-Israeli demonstrations and contents are often or always antisemitic (10/30, 33.3%) d) Identified as progressive or liberal (unprompted) (10/30, 33.3%) e) Reported experiencing an antisemitic event in the U.S. directly (before or after October 7, 2023) (14/30, 46.7%) 2. (Other) Strong Themes ( 7/30 ≤ n ≤ 9/30) a) Reported feeling afraid or targeted for being Jewish (9/30, 30%) b) Felt betrayed by the American left (we were on the front lines supporting other marginalized groups' struggles but they did not support ours) (8/30, 26.7%) c) Say that one of the things that bother them the most are misinformation and disinformation (7/30, 23.3%) d) Reported their child or their child’s school as experiencing an antisemitic event (before October 7 and after October 7) (7/30, 23.3%) e) Reported as being exposed to antisemitism online (7/30, 23.3%) 3. Medium Strength Themes (5/30 ≤ n ≤ 6/30) a) Reported increasing their involvement or that of their children in Jewish activities after October 7 (6/30, 20%) b) Feel that antisemitism was under the surface in the U.S. and the October 7 aftermath exposed it (6/30, 20%) c) Are critical of the Israeli government (5/30, 16.7%) d) Reported concern over Palestinian suffering (unprompted) (5/30, 16.7%) Reported feeling afraid or targeted for being pro-Israeli (5/30, 16.7%) 4. Additional Themes (2/30 ≤ n ≤ 4/30) a) Reported feeling personally traumatized by the events of October 7, 2023 (4/30, 13.3%) b) Lost or cut off friendships with non-Jews or those perceived as anti-Zionist (4/30, 13.3%) c) Feel that antisemitism has become common in California (3/30, 10%) d) Reported intentionally engaging in MORE Jewish-related activities after Oct 7 (3/30, 10%) It is important to add that when it comes to the topic of antisemitism or perceptions of outgroup animosity towards the ingroup, there was substantial diversity and complexity in interviewed participants’ framing of intent, victim, crime, and perpetrator, and even in the perception of “outgroup” and “ingroup” reported by the interviewees. First, there is a marked tension between interviewees perceiving California as a safe and welcoming place for Jews, and feelings of anxiety, estrangement, and disillusionment from parts of the California community. Second, none of the participants reported any negative collective sentiments toward Muslims, Arabs, or Palestinians in general. Rather, they linked tension to aggression or potential aggression from perceived anti-Zionist or antisemitic actors, regardless of ethnicity, race, or religion. Third, the perception of antisemitic threat did not always result from direct personal attacks or blatant intentional aggression based on one’s Jewish identity. In other words, one person’s antisemitism is another person’s uncomfortable interaction or ambiguous encounter. Fourth, some reported what they perceived as antisemitic events, but did not view themselves as the victims, rather focusing on the perpetrators and general sense of threat or prejudice. For example, when seeing swastikas drawn in a school or other public space, or when encountering antisemitic content online. At a time when the Jewish community is forced to reconsider, rebuild, and even rebrand itself and its relationships with other U.S. groups, these perceptions need to be further studied and understood to see what forms of community infrastructure (Jewish or other) could support the formation of a resilient Jewish community, for this generation and for the next ones. 4. Discussion The current study was designed and approved before October 7, 2023, and aimed to generally improve the understanding of the socialization of Jewish identity and antisemitism by Jewish parents. This meant that the survey and interviews unintentionally captured a historic shift in what some have flagged as a flashpoint in developing collective narratives surrounding Jewish identity as well as antisemitism. The study findings show many repeating themes that suggest that Jewish parents are struggling with, and changing, some of their perceptions regarding their Jewish identity as individuals and as parents. This, in response to experiences and concerns related to a perceived increase in antisemitic attitudes in the U.S. and around the world. In response, some are changing or emphasizing certain aspects of how they perceive and reshape their Jewish identity and whether and how they create, modify, or reduce their interactions with their in-group(s). Both between-subjects and within-subjects analyses indicate that after October 7, 2023, Californian Jewish parents are more concerned about antisemitism. The within-subjects analyses capture the immediate aftermath (the two months following October 7) and suggest only marginal change in Jewish identity. However, the between-subjects analyses which span across the 11 months following October 7 suggest Jews are increasing their engagement in cultural and religious practice and also strengthening their Jewish ethnic (cultural) identity. Concerns about antisemitism were associated with greater cultural engagement and ethnic identity, while greater experiences of antisemitism were associated with greater religious engagement and stronger ethnic identity. Interestingly, the association between concerns about antisemitism and religious engagement differed by religious affiliation, with both the most religious (Orthodox) and the least religious (secular) actually decreasing religious engagement, while reform and conservative Jews increased engagement. Also notable is the large and significant increase in parents reporting that they had encouraged their children to hide their Jewish identity. Three times as many parents reported doing so in the months following October 7, compared to any time before October 7, suggesting increased fear from outgroup hostility post-October 7. Qualitative findings support this assessment: 12/30 interviewees also reported hiding their or their children’s Jewish identity after October 7. Most likely these shifts represent different decision-making processes. For example, Orthodox participants might be shifting their engagement from public arenas to reduce their vulnerability to antisemitism in the community as highly visible Jews. Secular Jews, on the other hand, might be even further disengaged from this piece of Jewish identity. Perceiving non-Jewish community members as holding more antisemitic views was associated with greater cultural engagement, while participants who indicated less comfort interacting with non-Jews reported more religious engagement. What came up in the interviews might provide a more nuanced understanding of this trend: most interviewees related to their fear that others might not like them or might feel, speak, or act in a hostile manner if they knew they were Jewish, rather than expressed any negative bias against them or said that they themselves felt animosity towards them. This was especially the case in the context of non-Jews perceived as expressing anti-Zionist views after October 7. The quantitative results were broadly supported and further explained and nuanced by the qualitative interview findings. Despite previously or currently feeling that Jews are a well-integrated minority, particularly in California, many of the participants reported feeling that society has shown them that they are not as well-integrated as they previously believed. Some now felt the need to reassess their group identity and even form a new one for them and for their children. While participants mentioned right-wing antisemitism, it was more often than not depicted as either a relic of the past, irrelevant to the California context, or as an activity that is concerning but is similar to that experienced by other minorities in the U.S. and therefore not a unique Jewish experience. However, the sense of perceived unsafety and anti-Jewish sentiment and activity most discussed by participants, unprompted, was now the result of pro-Palestinian political rhetoric from the left. Several interviewees referred to the notion that American Jews, in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, are now experiencing alienation from the American progressive left, which since October 2023 included more mainstream voices branding Jews as white colonizers or oppressors. These are racial and social categorizations interviewees did not choose for themselves, and overall disagreed with, but that now forced them to confront their identity in ways they have not had to do before. This connects to Maizales’s (2024) notion of forced racialization of American Jews not only as “a model minority” (similar to other groups such as Asian Americans), but also as “white” and “privileged” and therefore as inherent oppressors. This racialization ignores the historic marginalization, discrimination, and racism suffered by American Jews and Jews in general in the past and in the present, by white supremacist groups and policies, as well as the racial, ethnic, and political, diversity within the Jewish community. In the context of October 7, while there are diverse opinions on Israel and Zionism, most interviewed participants (70%) reported a sense of connection to Israel, and usually framed themselves as pro-Israeli, i.e. Zionists in the original sense of the term (i.e., supporting Jewish self-determination in Israel). Even those who did not identify as Zionists per se, often perceived anti-Zionist rhetoric and actions as targeting them, either personally or in solidarity with all Jews around the world. Similarly, when describing the sense of collective trauma, they explain that it either emerges from their connection to Israel as a country that has a cultural and spiritual place in their heart, or because of the devastating events of the October 7 Massacre whose victims were predominantly Jews, as well as the ongoing war that places Jews (and Palestinians) in existential danger. Many of the participants perceive anti-Zionist and anti-Jewish rhetoric and actions as related and overlapping. The mechanism seems to be that they perceive the critics, rather than the criticism itself, as part of a hostile and dangerous source of anti-Jewish hate that conflates Zionists, Israelis, and Jews and vilifies them all. For other respondents, the line between anti-Zionism and antisemitism is not as blurry, but they will still have a more than minimalist approach to what they perceive as antisemitic in the current context, which will include, but is not limited to, intentional disinformation, repeating tropes of Jews trying to control the world, equating “Jews” with “Israelis” or “Zionists” in a negative essentialist connotation, advocating for the violent eradication of the state of Israel, or advocating for violence against Jewish civilians of any nationality. The total disentanglement of these various forms of perceived anti-ingroup aggression was difficult for almost all respondents. Theories such as the Rejection-Identification Model (RIM; Branscombe et al., 1999), Identification Attribution Model (IAM; Gonzales-Backen et al., 2024), and Identity Trauma Integrative Framework (Kira, 2019), which all show a connection between perceived group identity salience and an enhanced tendency to interpret outgroup behavior as hostile, which could potentially explain why even more ambiguous speech and behavior might be perceived as discriminatory, antagonistic, or even threatening. This process of enhancing group identification, affiliation, and activity with in-group members experiencing discrimination resembles a process described by Takyar and colleagues (2019), addressing the reaction of Muslim and Arab American individuals to the discrimination they experienced after 9/11. We can learn from this recent example of U.S.-based ethno-religious discrimination brought on by a time-specific chain of events connected to the Middle East, that led another U.S. minority community to feel inappropriately racialized, hated, and unsafe. Drawing from Social Identity Theory (SIT), Takyar et al (2019) note the need of minority group members who face discrimination and demonization to maintain positive self-perception at a time when they are under threat of internalizing negative outgroup views of their ingroup. Two strategies were found in the study on social-psychological reactions of Muslim and Arab Americans that related to an enhancement of group affiliation. The first was enhancing connections with other group members due to the need to connect with others going through a similar experience who can provide support and advice. Another was a type of “reactive ethnicity”, in which the individual increases their minority group identity’s salience to mitigate feelings of isolation and powerlessness caused by social discrimination (also see RIM; Branscombe et al., 1999). Finally, interviewees reported feelings ranging from cognitive dissonance to a sense of disappointment and even betrayal when describing their current relationship with the liberal and progressive left, or at least some of its members. Many defined themselves as liberal and progressive, and had felt that their political in-group did not support their mourning or recognized their and their ingroup’s pain and trauma for and following the events of the October 7 Hammas attack. Instead of support from what they saw as their political in-group, they experienced denial, victim blaming, and re-traumatization. Bar-Halpern & Wolfman (2025) highlight the traumatic invalidation Jews experienced post-October 7 by friends, professors, colleagues, and even mental-health professionals. Traumatic invalidation includes the extreme denial of an individual’s personal experiences or reactions, often by groups upon whom the individual relies (Linehan, 2015). We have also found concerns surrounding antisemitism to be associated with increases in depression and anxiety (blinded for review). This loss of community sparked the need to find a new community in which they felt emotionally safe. Some reported that they sought refuge within Jewish identity-based communities, and even liberal Jewish spaces specifically, to provide that safe space for them and their children. Statement of Limitations The time required to fill out the questionnaire and the interview could have created a selection bias of participants already inclined to believe that Jewish identity socialization is important to them. Similarly, participants who are not interested in discussing their Jewish identity, whether out of fear of exposure or out of a strong perception of group identity salience, would be less inclined to participate in the study and the interview. Mothers were over-represented in the sample and fathers underrepresented, a common phenomenon in family and parenting studies (see Denault et al., 2025). While Reform Jews are the majority affiliation for Californian Jews, they are overrepresented in the sample. One reason might be that some Orthodox and especially Ultra-Orthodox ( Haredi ) Jews might avoid social media outlets and other online participant recruitment platforms due to the prevalent view in these communities of the internet as a host of uncontrolled content that does not align with Orthodox values, as well as the Jewish notion of “Bitul Torah”, which calls for (especially men) to avoid time-consuming activities that take them away from religious studies (Lev-On & Shahar 2011). This issue might also be impacted by the fact that most successful recruitments were via the PJ Library newsletter, a modern Jewish children’s (free) book delivery service, which requires parents to opt-in to a subscription online. Declarations Competing Interests The authors of this manuscript declare that they have no relevant financial or non-financial competing interests to report. Author Contribution Yael Teff-Seker wrote most of the manuscript, including the literature review, qualitative methods and findings, and the discussion. She was the main designer of the interview protocol, executed the qualitative study, and was the main PI for the qualitative analysis and conclusions. She was also the main contributor to the theoretical framework and overall analysis presented in this manuscript.Leah Hibel was the co-PI for this study and served an important part in its initial conception and its overall implementation. She designed, planned, and executed the quantitative survey, and was the main PI responsible for the recruitment, gathering, and analysis of that survey. She also assisted with designing the interview protocol, and reviewed and contributed to the overall manuscript, especially to the literature review, methods section, and the findings sections. Marika Sigal performed most of the thematic coding for the qualitative analysis, as well as a large part of the preliminary thematic analysis, and assisted in informant recruitment and the quantitative analysis. She also advised the writing of this manuscript, especially the methods section and the qualitative findings section. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Eva Anderson, who assisted with participant recruitment, as well as with the coding and preliminary analysis stages of the qualitative data. Data Availability Due to safety and privacy concerns, raw data, including survey answers and interview recordings and transcripts, are stored on encrypted servers, but an anonymized version will be shared upon reasonable request as long as the purpose is academically justified and ethical, and upon the condition that sharing such data is not deemed to risk or harm any participants, their children, and other family or community members related to them (see subsection 2.2 for further details). References Allington, D., Hirsh, D., & Katz, L. (2022). The generalized antisemitism (GeAs) scale: Validity and factor structure. Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism, 5(2), 1–28. Altman, A. N., Inman, A. G., Fine, S. G., Ritter, H. A., & Howard, E. E. (2010). Exploration of Jewish ethnic identity. Journal of Counseling & Development, 88(2), 163–173. Bar-Halpern, M., & Wolfman, J. (2025). Traumatic invalidation in the Jewish community after October 7. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1–28. Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 77(1), 135. Bornstein, M. H. (2005). Handbook of parenting: Volume I: Children and parenting. Psychology Press. Burnstein, M. (October 7, 2024). American Jews cope with the fallout a year after the Oct. 7 attacks. The Washington Post . https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/10/07/american-jews-antisemitism-israel-gaza-attacks-anniversary/ .. Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American psychologist, 54(10), 805. Dashefsky, A., Sheskin, I. M., & Winter, J. A. (2024). The Just Jewish: Opting Out?. Jewish Options: Pluralistic Identities in 21st Century America, 351–373. Davey, M., Fish, L. S., & Robila, M. (2001). Ethnic identity in Jewish families. Contemporary Family Therapy , 23 , 323–342. Deneault, A. A., Feldman, J. S., Aytuglu, A., Bendel-Stenzel, L. C., Olofson, E. L., Donithen, R., ... & Volling, B. L. (2025). Best Practices for Recruiting and Retaining Fathers in Parenting Research: Insights from Fathering Researchers. Parenting , 1–27. Dias, E. (October 6, 2024), How October 7 Changed American Jews. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/06/us/jews-hamas-attacks.html . Friedman, M. L., Friedlander, M. L., & Blustein, D. L. (2005). Toward an understanding of Jewish identity: A phenomenological study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 77–83. Fulton, C. L., Melamed, L., & Lambert, A. (2024). Ethno-religious engagement, minority experiences, and strengthening American Jewish identity. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 46(3), 233–258. Greenberg, M. I. (1998). Becoming Southern: The Jews of Savannah, Georgia, 1830-70. American Jewish History, 86(1), 55–75. Lev-On, A., & Shahar, R. N. B. (2011). A forum of their own: Views about the Internet among ultra-Orthodox Jewish women who browse designated closed fora. First Monday. Linehan, M. M. (2015). DBT® skills training manual (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. Maizels, L. (2024). Jewish ‘Whiteness’ and Its Effects in the Aftermath of October 7. In Responses to 7 October: Universities (pp. 29–36). Routledge. Pew Research Survey, 2021. Jewish Americans in 2020. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/jewish-americans-in-2020/ Starr, K. J., and Masci, D. (2016). Israel, Jews are united by homeland but divided into very different groups, Pew. March 8, 2016. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2016/03/08/in-israel-jews-are-united-by-homeland-but-divided-into-very-different-groups/ . United States Department of Justice (2024). 2023 FBI Hate Crimes Statistics. https://www.justice.gov/crs/news/2023-hate-crime-statistics . Footnotes The term “Zionist” is a politically loaded term, that has several different definitions. Its original and “narrow” definition, coined by Jews who supported the immigration of Jews to the Holy Land, originating from the name “Zion” (one of the biblical names for the city of Jerusalem) and referred to those who simply loved and longed for Jerusalem or the Land of Israel, and since the 19th century, it has been used to designate anyone supportive of Jews living in Israel or of a Jewish state situated in the historic Land of Israel, which today includes both Israeli and Palestinian sovereign areas. Others use it as a neutral term to describe those supporting the Israeli “side” in the Israeli-Palestinian (and it is this definition that the current article will be using, despite its binary and simplistic approach). Lastly, some groups and individuals today use the term “Zionist” as a derogatory term to describe a racist or violent agenda against Palestinians. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eExactly a year after the events of the October 7, 2023 massacre, two op-eds were published in two of the leading newspapers in the U.S., attempting to describe how American Jews were coping with the trauma of the attack, the subsequent war in Gaza and the Middle East, and the resulting social and political repercussions of these events in the U.S. context. Michelle Boorstein (Boorstein, 2024) of the \u003cem\u003eWashington Post\u003c/em\u003e interviewed the manager of a shooting range, an observant Jew by the name of Grant Schmidt, who tells her he\u0026rsquo;s been seeing more Jews buying guns for protection, making the following connection:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[Jews are] doing so much soul-searching right now. They\u0026rsquo;re all over the place, mentally, emotionally, psychologically. It would be comical if it wasn\u0026rsquo;t so sad. In some way, shape or form, everyone feels on their own.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchmidt then adds:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeople are getting more into their identities. It\u0026rsquo;s like: \u0026lsquo;Like it or not, you\u0026rsquo;re Jewish, so own it\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The second appeared in the New York Times, written by its national religion correspondent Elizabeth Dias. Dias (2024) describes how, after October 7, many American Jews who saw themselves as part of the liberal left felt ostracized and no longer knew if they belonged to their left-leaning communities, at least not in the way that they used to belong to them. She also describes how some Jews chose to strengthen their identity, after experiencing the collective trauma of October 7, which they saw as an attack not only on the state of Israel, but also on Jews and Jewish identity in the U.S. Dias points to the rise in numbers of American Jews joining Jewish groups, enrolling their children in Jewish day schools, or learning more about Jewish texts and heritage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese two pieces, along with the few academic papers recently published on the topic in 2024\u0026ndash;2025 (e.g., Santos \u0026amp; Yogev, 2024; Nelson et al 2024; Maizles, 2024), that in the aftermath of October 7, many American Jews were struggling with, rethinking, and reframing their group identity. Many have been searching for support and community, while managing experiences and inner turmoil surrounding the massacre and the ensuing war in the Middle East. The current paper examines the challenges of Jew living in America during these turbulent times, many struggling with their own sense of Jewish identity and community affiliation(s).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2. Literature Review\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJewish Group Identity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eToday, Jewish identity is recognized as a complex and fluid concept that has evolved significantly over time, especially in the US. Historically, sociological and psychological studies of American Jews primarily measured Jewish identity by religious practice. Moreover, as Schlosser (2006) argues, research on Jewish identity and group-related behavior have been limited in number, sample size, number of variables measured, and scope until the 2000s, addressing a wider range of group identity elements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond religion, newer studies have included perception of Jewish identity such as ethnicity, religious affiliation (e.g., Orthodox, Conservative, Reform; see Pew, 2021), cultural practices, historical experiences (e.g., Ashkenazi, Sephardi/Mizrahi), personal values and beliefs, connection to Israel, sense of mutual responsibility, generativity in practice and culture, early formative experiences, and awareness or concern regarding anti-Jewish discrimination or persecution (Altman et al. 2010). This long list highlights the intricate nature of Jewish identity and the evolution of its measurement beyond religious practice, emphasizing the impact of societal perceptions and personal experiences, and encourages thinking about Jewish identity as more similar to an ethnic or ethno-religious identity than simply a religious one (Fulton et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePerceived group discrimination\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the US, Jews are often seen as both insiders and outsiders, navigating the demands and challenges posed by their predominantly non-Jewish environments, such as internal and external pressures concerning assimilation and social integration on one hand, and experiences or fears of marginalization and discrimination, on the other (Greenberg, 1998; Friedman, 2005; Fulton, 2024). Further complexity results from Jewish individuals and communities facing unique forms of oppression that do not fit into established analyses of racism and economic oppression. For example, due to the historic racialization of Jews by white supremacists as non-white, and more recently the opposite trend of racializing Jews as simply white, Jews might feel that they are simultaneously victims of group identity-based discrimination and hate, and at the same times members of a privileged class (Greenberg 1998; Altman et al, 2010; Maizles, 2024; Santos \u0026amp; Yogev, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe FBI reported a dramatic rise in hate crimes targeting Jews following October 7, 2023 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2024). Further, according to FBI data, this rise was on top of already high and increasing levels of antisemitic hate crimes. In fact, even before October 7, Jews in the U.S. had reported sensing a rise in antisemitism in recent years, with 53% of American Jews surveyed reporting they felt less safe in 2020 as a Jewish person in the US in comparison to five years earlier. Jews who wear distinctively Jewish religious attire felt even less safe, and 5% of U.S. Jews reported that they have \u0026ldquo;stayed away from a Jewish event or observance as a result\u0026rdquo; (Pew, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIsrael, Zionism, and Jewish Identity Post October 7, 2023\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral scholars have noted hostile acts and speech towards American Jews has shifted from white supremacist groups as the primary perpetrators to those who attack and demonize Jews due to their perceived affiliation with Israel, Zionism\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, and white colonialism. Linda Maizels (2024) argues that this led to linking of hostility towards Israel, with hostility towards viewing American Jews as a distinct ethnic group. In other words, those who are hostile toward Israel see the claim that Jews are an ethnic group (rather than only a religious one) as pro-Zionist in nature. Maizles also points to the emergence of a binary narrative, comparing African Americans to Palestinians and white American victimizers to the Israeli government and Israelis, at times extending the same narrative to Jews more broadly. This narrative, she argues, led to the dismissal or rationalization, and at times even the glorification of violence against all Israelis and pro-Israelis, and the disregard towards Jewish suffering, whether Israeli or American. Lastly, Maizles points out that some left-affiliated pro-Palestinian Americans deny, dismiss, or ignore some of the horrific events committed against innocent Israelis and other innocent nationals (including American citizens) on October 7, as well as dismiss expressions of pain or fear by American Jews, characterizing them as white, privileged experiences, or alternatively as Zionist propaganda (Maizles, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite such perceptions, reports in the press and in academic literature suggest that the rise in the reported sense of fear and estrangement among U.S. Jews following October 7 is quite prevalent, prominent, and genuine. Santos and Yogev (2024) argue that on college campuses, Jewish students struggled as they witnessed sympathy by some campus groups for the perpetrators or the October 7 massacre, but not for its (mostly) Jewish victims. They also emphasize the sharp increase in antisemitic incidents in the U.S. and worldwide post October 7. Their survey of 201 Jewish university members from the U.S., Canada, and Europe found that students reported a high prevalence of verbal harassment, both on and off campus, and that Jewish respondents felt significantly less comfortable engaging in activities such as expressing their religious beliefs or wearing Jewish symbols on campus (Santos \u0026amp; Yogev, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, Nelson and colleagues (2024) note the significant decline in U.S. Jewish students\u0026rsquo; sense of safety post-October 7. They attribute this not only to anti-Zionist activities and rhetoric at campus demonstrations and events, but also to the pervasive radicalization of online discourse, including threats of violence and aggressive anti-Zionist and antisemitic rhetoric. While these trends predated October 7, 2023, they have increased substantially since then (Nelson et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDiscrimination and minority identity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived racism describes the subjective experience of racial or ethnic prejudice or discrimination (Clark et al., 1999) and quantitative and theoretical research emphasizes the connection between perceptions of racism and ethnic identity. Specifically, the Rejection-Identification Model (RIM; Branscombe et al., 1999) proposed that perceiving group discrimination is related to increased identification with one\u0026rsquo;s ethnic or racial group and hostility toward the dominant group. On the other hand, the Identification Attribution Model (IAM) suggests a stronger sense of ethnic identity may lead individuals to recognize more instances of discrimination (Gonzales-Backen et al., 2024), especially when prejudice signals are ambiguous (Major, Quinton, \u0026amp; Schmader, 2003). Bringing these ideas together, the Identity Trauma Integrative Framework (Kira, 2019), posits that identity traumas, or events that threaten or challenge the existence, maintenance, or development of an individual\u0026rsquo;s identity (e.g., Fisher \u0026amp; Oyserman, 2017), may result in an activation or an inhibition of the salience of the identity targeted. Taken together, ethnic identity and discrimination are likely reciprocally related, dynamically influencing each other over time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe scientific examination of ethnic identity in the context of, and in response to, discrimination includes a number of different U.S. racial and ethnic minority groups, is relatively developed, with multiple validated questionnaires used to assess changes in racial/ethnic identity in response to (perceived) discrimination. However, to the best of our knowledge, no comprehensive or large academic study has been conducted recently that quantitatively examined Jews using similarly structures questionnaires or utilized a mixed-methods approach. Amyot \u0026amp; Sigelman (1996) and others (e.g., Dershowitz, 1996) have theorized that exclusion from the mainstream reinforces Jewish group identity, and, conversely, assimilation into mainstream American culture is driving a loss of a sense of Jewish identity. However, these hypothesized connections and others linking antisemitism, secularization, and Jewish identity have not been empirically tested. The current study hypothesizes that October 7 and the subsequent exponential rise in antisemitism constituted an existential identity trauma, or at the very least an identity flashpoint, for Jews. Thus, in our quantitative analyses, we hypothesize that Jewish ethnic identity and engagement in Jewish cultural and religious practice will change after October 7 compared to before. The qualitative study explores how California Jews viewed their Jewish identity, both before and after October 7, whether they had encountered antisemitism in California or the U.S., and what their experience and/or perception of antisemitism was and how it affected their Jewish identity or their social affiliation and behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e The current study is a mixed methods study, including a quantitative survey of 218 Jewish participants, which includes 45 participants who answered the survey both before and after October 7, 2023; and 30 follow-up qualitative open interviews performed in 2024. While this study unintentionally captured a historic moment in time for American Jews, both parts of the study were planned by the researchers and then reviewed and approved by the ethics committee several months before October 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Quantitative methods and sample\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParticipants\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJews make up only 2% of the population of California. Thus, we utilized targeted approaches to recruit from this very small community. Parents were recruited via three methods 1) connecting with California based Jewish institutions (Jewish community centers, Jewish day schools and preschools, Jewish religious institutions, PJ Library) 2) placing ads on social media and soliciting participants through Facebook groups that target Jewish individuals 3) snowball sampling of friends and family of consented participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEligibility was based on identifying as Jewish and having a child between the ages of 2 and 18. Recruitment began on September 6, 2023, but paused starting on October 7; 66 participants were surveyed before October 7. Recruitment continued on October 25 and concluded on August 5, 2024; 152 participants were surveyed after October 7. See Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for demographic information.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFull, Pre- and Post-October 7, and qualitative samples characteristics.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFull Sample\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;218)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre-Oct 7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;66)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost-Oct 7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;152)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQualitative\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin subjects (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;45)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMothers\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e193\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnicity\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJewish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e202\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlaskan Native\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsian or Pacific Islander\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfrican American or Black\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaucasian or White\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh school diploma or GED\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSome college (no degree)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor\u0026rsquo;s or Associate\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGraduate or professional\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMarried\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHousehold Income\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e25K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e25-50K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e50-75K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e75-100K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e100-125K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e125-150K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e150-175K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e175-200K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMore than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e200K\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMissing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJewish Identity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJewish parents or grandparents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReligious Affiliation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecular\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReform\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConservative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrthodox\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMissing/Other\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eAll participants were parents, the number notes those who identified as mothers;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eSum exceeds the sample size because participants were able to select all ethnic groups applicable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eProcedures\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants responded to a battery of questionnaires via the online platform Qualtrics\u0026reg;. Settings allowed participants to stop responding for up to 1 week and still return to the survey to complete the questionnaires. Inactivity of greater than 1 week resulted in the questionnaire being automatically submitted. Participants who did not complete their surveys were emailed periodically to remind them to complete the survey. Participants were only compensated if they completed more than 75% of the survey. Participants were compensated with a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e10 Amazon\u0026reg; gift card.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMeasures\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntisemitism\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e For the current analyses, we measured participants concerns about antisemitism, their experiences of antisemitism, and their perceptions of antisemitic bias in their community members.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConcern\u003c/em\u003e about antisemitism was assess via a single item: \u0026ldquo;How concerned are you about antisemitism\u0026rdquo;. Responses ranged from 1 to 5 (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Not at all, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Slightly, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Moderately, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Very, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Extremely). Overall, 1% of participants reported Not at all, 12.3% Slightly, 27% Moderate, 32.4% Very, and 27.9% Extremely concerned.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eExperiences\u003c/em\u003e of antisemitism were assessed via checklist of antisemitic experiences derived from the Anti-Defamation League antisemitism experiences checklist. Participants were asked \u0026ldquo;Over the past five years, have you experienced any of the following experiences\u0026rdquo;. Items were: 1) Been made to feel unwelcome because you are Jewish; 2) Experienced or witnessed some form of antisemitic event; 3) Heard antisemitic comments, slurs, or threats targeting others; 4) Had any Jewish institution with which you are affiliated vandalized, damaged, defaced, or zoom-bombed/cyber-attacked because of antisemitism; 5) Been targeted by antisemitic comments, slurs, or threats; 6) Physically attacked for being Jewish. Overall, 22.3% of participants reported 0 types of experiences of antisemitism with 23.4% reporting 1, 16.3% reporting 2, 15.8% reporting 3, 13.6% reporting 4, and 8.7% reporting that they experienced all 5 types of experiences of antisemitism in the past 5 years.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePerceptions of non-Jewish (outgroup) bias\u003c/em\u003e views against Jews and Israel were assessed via a modified version of the Generalised Antisemitism Scale (GeAs; Allington et al., 2022). The GeAs is a validated and up-to-date measure of respondents\u0026rsquo; agreement with a range of Judeophobic (e.g., \"compared to other groups, Jewish people have too much power in the media\u0026rdquo;) and Antizionist Antisemitism (e.g., \u0026ldquo;Israel and its supporters are a bad influence on our democracy\u0026rdquo;) statements. The scale was modified to assess the degree to which the current Jewish respondents believe their non-Jewish community members agree with each statement (e.g., \u0026ldquo;Other people in my community think Jewish people talk about the Holocaust too much\u0026rdquo;). Responses ranged from 1 to 5 for each item (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly disagree, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Disagree, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Undecided, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Agree, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strongly Agree). Items were averaged such that higher scores indicate greater perceptions of antisemitism. On average, participants are \u0026ldquo;undecided\u0026rdquo; (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;2.8, \u003cem\u003eSD\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.82) about the antisemitic views of their non-Jewish community members. This scale had excellent internal reliability (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.93).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJewish ethnic and religious identity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAffiliation\u003c/em\u003e. Participants were asked to report their affiliation based on 9 different categories. Respondents who self-identified as secular, Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox were classified as such. Respondents who self-identified with a smaller Jewish group (i.e., Reconstructionist, Conservadox, Modern Orthodox) were placed in one of the above four groups depending on the closest affiliation of the smaller group. After recoding 29 participants, the final sample was 17.4% secular, 56.4% Reform, 17.4% Conservative, and 8.7% Orthodox. Of the total sample, 2.3% of the participants did not respond to this item and 6.9% indicated no denomination. These participants were left missing in the final 4 category affiliation variable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMulti-group ethnic identity measure.\u003c/em\u003e The MEIM (Phinney, 1992) is a 20-item self-report measure designed to assess ethnic identity. To ensure that participants were responded with regard to being Jewish, items were also revised so that reference to \u0026ldquo;my ethnic background\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;my ethnicity\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;my Jewish background\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;my Jewish ethnicity\u0026rdquo;. The instructions prompted participants to indicate how much they agree or disagree with each statement on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Prior research reveals two subscales: ethnic identity and other group orientation. The ethnic identity subscale includes items assessing of a sense of belonging to (e.g., I have a strong sense of belonging to the Jewish people), and attitudes toward the Jewish people (e.g., I have a lot of pride in the Jewish people and their accomplishments) as well as the meaning of this identification (e.g., I have a clear sense of my Jewish background and what it means for me). Items were averaged such that greater scores indicate a stronger sense of ethnic identity (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.4; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.45) This scale produced excellent reliability (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.86). The other group orientation subscale includes items assessing attitudes toward non-Jews (e.g., I often spend time with non-Jewish people) and was also reliable (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.75). Items were averaged (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.7; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.37) such that greater scores indicate more positive attitudes toward non-Jews. Thus, this sample generally reported being affirming of their own ethnic identity and comfortable interacting with members of other ethnic groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmerican Jewish Identity Scale.\u003c/em\u003e The AJIS (Friedlander et al., 2010) is a validated 32-item self-report measures designed to assess Jewish identity. The scale consists of two subscales assessing religious (e.g., I study Jewish religious texts (e.g., Torah, Talmud, Gemara)) and cultural engagement (e.g., I read Jewish newspapers). The instructions prompted participants to indicate how much each statement is true of them on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 4 (very true of me). Both the religious (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.91) and cultural (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.86) subscales had excellent reliability. On average, the participants engaged in more cultural (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.8, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.58) than religious practices (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.8, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.65) t(204)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17.45, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001; though cultural and religious engagement were highly correlated r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.65, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Qualitative methods and sample\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e The qualitative study included 30 in-depth (~\u0026thinsp;1-hour) interviews performed and recorded over Zoom in the summer and fall of 2024, with participants who self-identified as Jewish parents and were recruited through the quantitative survey. Participants received a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e20 Amazon gift card for their participation in the qualitative interview. Out of 218 survey participants, we approached those among the first hundred who agreed to a follow up interview, until we reached 30 participants. The interviews were transcribed automatically by Zoom, and then coded and then underwent thematic analysis. In the interviews, participants were asked about their perception of Jewish identity, behavior related to Jewish identity, relationships with non-Jewish communities, and the respondents\u0026rsquo; experiences, feelings, and concerns about being Jewish and raising their children as Jewish in California (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for demographic information).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Transparency and data availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe scales used in the quantitative data collection process are described above, and the questionnaire used in the interviews is included in the Appendix. The raw materials, namely the interview video recordings and transcripts, as well as the tables of themes and codes and their related quotes, and the tables of quantitative analysis data, are saved on secure university Box servers to ensure participant anonymity, privacy, and safety. These documents and any other anonymized research materials would be made available upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Quantitative findings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWithin-Subjects Comparisons of Pre- to Post-October 7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on paired-samples t-tests, participants who answered the quantitative survey both before and after October 7, 2023 (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;45), reported significantly greater \u003cb\u003econcerns about antisemitism\u003c/b\u003e after October 7 (t(41)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.1, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003), though not greater experiences of antisemitism (t(41)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.26, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.22), nor greater perceptions of antisemitic views in their non-Jewish community members (t(34)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.319, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.75). Participants\u0026rsquo; report of \u003cb\u003ecultural practice\u003c/b\u003e (t(41)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.78, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.08) was marginally higher in the months immediately after October 7 than their own report before October 7; though neither outgroup orientation (t(41)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.61, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.54), ethnic identity (t(41)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.26, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.22) nor religious practice (t(41)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.74, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.46) changed from before to the months immediately after October 7.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBetween-subjects comparisons across October 7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe next examined differences in participant response in antisemitism and identity after October 7 (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;152) compared to those who responded before October 7 (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;66). Participants completing the survey after October 7 reported significantly greater \u003cb\u003econcerns about antisemitism\u003c/b\u003e than those reporting before (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(202)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.83, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003). There was no significant difference in perceptions of antisemitic views in their non-Jewish community members (t(158.8)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.729, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.53), though in reports of experiencing antisemitism (t(182)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.33, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09) was marginally higher. Participants who responded to the survey after October 7 reported greater \u003cb\u003ecultural engagement\u003c/b\u003e (t(203)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.58, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.001), \u003cb\u003ereligious engagement\u003c/b\u003e t(206)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.52, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.013), \u003cb\u003eethnic identity\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(203)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003) but not higher other group orientation (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(203)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.60, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.11) than those who responded before October 7 \u003cb\u003e.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants were asked if they ever \u003cb\u003ehid their Jewish identity\u003c/b\u003e, or ever encouraged their children to hide their Jewish identity. Before October 7, 55% of parents reported ever hiding their Jewish identity and 8% reported encouraging their children to hide. After October 7, this number did not significantly change (57%; t(110.23) = -1.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.21), but the percentage of \u003cb\u003eparents encouraging their children to hide\u003c/b\u003e their identity post-October 7 increased significantly (24%; t(172.2) = -3.80, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.\u003c/em\u003e001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBetween-subjects associations between antisemitism and ethnic identity indicators\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026rsquo; concerns about antisemitism, experiences of antisemitism, and perception of the pervasiveness of antisemitism were examined in association with ethnic identity, and religious and cultural practice. If significant differences across October 7 were identified above, this variable was included in the model to determine if antisemitism was associated with identity above and beyond the impact of October 7. All initial models examined differences by affiliation (Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox affiliation; with Reform as the reference group). If there were no significant difference by affiliation, affiliation was dropped and only main effects without affiliation are reported. Affiliation only differed in the model with concerns about antisemitism predicting religious engagement. This model revealed that concerns about antisemitism was associated with an increase in religious engagement for participants who identified as Reform (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.22, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001). This effect was marginally lower for Conservatives (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.26, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.10, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.076). However, for both secular (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.31, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.14, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.022) and Orthodox (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.43, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.12, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.037) participants, increased concerns about antisemitism were associated with lower levels of religious engagement. Overall, \u003cb\u003econcerns about antisemitism\u003c/b\u003e were associated with greater cultural engagement (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.45, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.06, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001) and stronger ethnic identity (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.33, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.06, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), above and beyond the impact of October 7 which remained significant in the models (p\u0026rsquo;s range .007 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.001). Similarly, a higher level of reported \u003cb\u003eexperiences of antisemitism\u003c/b\u003e were associated with greater religious engagement (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.22, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003) and stronger ethnic identity (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.14, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.06, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.020), but only marginally associated with cultural engagement (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.13, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.075). Again, these associations were above and beyond the impact of October 7 (p\u0026rsquo;s range .015 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceiving the American public to hold more \u003cb\u003eantisemitic views\u003c/b\u003e were associated with greater cultural engagement (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.23, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001) but not religious (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.08, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.270) or ethnic identity (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.08, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.06, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.169). Participants with lower \u003cb\u003eoutgroup orientation\u003c/b\u003e (i.e., less positive attitudes toward non-Jews) reported greater religious practice (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), but there was no association with cultural practice (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.07, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.33) or ethnic identity (b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.173).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Qualitative Findings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e describes the main themes found in the thematic analysis of the interviews (See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e: \u003cem\u003eMain themes expressed by participants regarding Jewish identity and antisemitism\u003c/em\u003e ). Of the 30 respondents, 21 (70%) expressed a strong connection to Israel, and 14 (46.7%) reported experiencing an antisemitic act perpetrated either against them or their children in the U.S. either before or after October 7, 2023. Additionally, 12 out of 30 (40%) mentioned that they hide their Jewish identity or their children\u0026rsquo;s Jewish identity out of fear of being targeted for hostile or violent treatment. Roughly 33%, 10 out of 30 participants, referred unprompted to Pro-Palestinian/anti-Zionist demonstrations and contents as associated with antisemitic ideas or agendas. This is even though a similarly strong trend \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10 out of 30 (33.3%) \u0026ndash; was for participants to emphasize their progressive or liberal identity (unprompted), with some potentially counter-intuitive overlap between these two categories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther strong themes, (9/30\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;n\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;7/30), included the fear of being targeted for being Jewish, reported by 9 out of 30 (30%). A sense of betrayal by the American left, due to a perceived lack of support for Jewish struggles despite Jewish support for other marginalized groups, was felt by 8 out of 30 (26.7%). Concerns about misinformation and disinformation were significant for 7 out of 30 (23.3%). The same percentage, 7 out of 30 (23.3%), reported that their child or their child\u0026rsquo;s school experienced an antisemitic event, and another 7 out of 30 (23.3%) reported being exposed to antisemitism online.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the medium-strong themes category (6/30\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;n\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;5/30), 6 out of 30 (20%) felt that antisemitism was lying under the surface and that the aftermath of October 7 exposed it. 5 out of 30 (16.7%) reported feeling afraid or targeted for being pro-Israeli. An equal number, 5 out of 30 (16.7%), expressed criticism of the Israeli government, and the same number (5/30) expressed unprompted concern over Palestinian suffering.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther themes that were mentioned but with less frequency included feeling personally traumatized by the events of October 7, 2023, reported by 4 out of 30 (13.3%). The same percentage (13.3%; 4/30), reported losing or cutting off friendships with non-Jews or those perceived as anti-Zionist or antisemitic. Feeling that antisemitism has become common in California was noted by 3 out of 30 (10%). The same percentage (10%; 3/30), reported intentionally engaging in more Jewish-related activities after October 7, 2023, and the same number (10%; 3/30) reported actively seeking more knowledge to learn more about Judaism and Israel since the events of October 7.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMain themes expressed by participants regarding Jewish identity and antisemitism\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"1\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. Strongest Themes (n\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;10/30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea) Reported feeling a strong connection to Israel (21/30, 70%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eb) Hide their Jewish identity or their children\u0026rsquo;s Jewish identity (12/30, 40%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ec) Feel that Pro-Palestinian/anti-Israeli demonstrations and contents are often or always antisemitic (10/30, 33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ed) Identified as progressive or liberal (unprompted) (10/30, 33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ee) Reported experiencing an antisemitic event in the U.S. directly (before or after October 7, 2023) (14/30, 46.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2. (Other) Strong Themes (\u003c/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e7/30\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;n\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;9/30)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea) Reported feeling afraid or targeted for being Jewish (9/30, 30%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eb) Felt betrayed by the American left (we were on the front lines supporting other marginalized groups' struggles but they did not support ours) (8/30, 26.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ec) Say that one of the things that bother them the most are misinformation and disinformation (7/30, 23.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ed) Reported their child or their child\u0026rsquo;s school as experiencing an antisemitic event (before October 7 and after October 7) (7/30, 23.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ee) Reported as being exposed to antisemitism online (7/30, 23.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3. Medium Strength Themes (5/30 \u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;n\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;6/30)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea) Reported increasing their involvement or that of their children in Jewish activities after October 7 (6/30, 20%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eb) Feel that antisemitism was under the surface in the U.S. and the October 7 aftermath exposed it (6/30, 20%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ec) Are critical of the Israeli government (5/30, 16.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ed) Reported concern over Palestinian suffering (unprompted) (5/30, 16.7%) Reported feeling afraid or targeted for being pro-Israeli (5/30, 16.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4. Additional Themes (2/30\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;n\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;4/30)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea) Reported feeling personally traumatized by the events of October 7, 2023 (4/30, 13.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eb) Lost or cut off friendships with non-Jews or those perceived as anti-Zionist (4/30, 13.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ec) Feel that antisemitism has become common in California (3/30, 10%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ed) Reported intentionally engaging in MORE Jewish-related activities after Oct 7 (3/30, 10%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is important to add that when it comes to the topic of antisemitism or perceptions of outgroup animosity towards the ingroup, there was substantial diversity and complexity in interviewed participants\u0026rsquo; framing of intent, victim, crime, and perpetrator, and even in the perception of \u0026ldquo;outgroup\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;ingroup\u0026rdquo; reported by the interviewees. First, there is a marked tension between interviewees perceiving California as a safe and welcoming place for Jews, and feelings of anxiety, estrangement, and disillusionment from parts of the California community. Second, none of the participants reported any negative collective sentiments toward Muslims, Arabs, or Palestinians in general. Rather, they linked tension to aggression or potential aggression from perceived anti-Zionist or antisemitic actors, regardless of ethnicity, race, or religion. Third, the perception of antisemitic threat did not always result from direct personal attacks or blatant intentional aggression based on one\u0026rsquo;s Jewish identity. In other words, one person\u0026rsquo;s antisemitism is another person\u0026rsquo;s uncomfortable interaction or ambiguous encounter. Fourth, some reported what they perceived as antisemitic events, but did not view \u003cem\u003ethemselves\u003c/em\u003e as the victims, rather focusing on the perpetrators and general sense of threat or prejudice. For example, when seeing swastikas drawn in a school or other public space, or when encountering antisemitic content online. At a time when the Jewish community is forced to reconsider, rebuild, and even rebrand itself and its relationships with other U.S. groups, these perceptions need to be further studied and understood to see what forms of community infrastructure (Jewish or other) could support the formation of a resilient Jewish community, for this generation and for the next ones.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e The current study was designed and approved before October 7, 2023, and aimed to generally improve the understanding of the socialization of Jewish identity and antisemitism by Jewish parents. This meant that the survey and interviews unintentionally captured a historic shift in what some have flagged as a flashpoint in developing collective narratives surrounding Jewish identity as well as antisemitism. The study findings show many repeating themes that suggest that Jewish parents are struggling with, and changing, some of their perceptions regarding their Jewish identity as individuals and as parents. This, in response to experiences and concerns related to a perceived increase in antisemitic attitudes in the U.S. and around the world. In response, some are changing or emphasizing certain aspects of how they perceive and reshape their Jewish identity and whether and how they create, modify, or reduce their interactions with their in-group(s).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth between-subjects and within-subjects analyses indicate that after October 7, 2023, Californian Jewish parents are more concerned about antisemitism. The within-subjects analyses capture the immediate aftermath (the two months following October 7) and suggest only marginal change in Jewish identity. However, the between-subjects analyses which span across the 11 months following October 7 suggest Jews are increasing their engagement in cultural and religious practice and also strengthening their Jewish ethnic (cultural) identity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcerns about antisemitism were associated with greater cultural engagement and ethnic identity, while greater experiences of antisemitism were associated with greater religious engagement and stronger ethnic identity. Interestingly, the association between concerns about antisemitism and religious engagement differed by religious affiliation, with both the most religious (Orthodox) and the least religious (secular) actually decreasing religious engagement, while reform and conservative Jews increased engagement. Also notable is the large and significant increase in parents reporting that they had encouraged their children to hide their Jewish identity. Three times as many parents reported doing so in the months following October 7, compared to any time before October 7, suggesting increased fear from outgroup hostility post-October 7. Qualitative findings support this assessment: 12/30 interviewees also reported hiding their or their children\u0026rsquo;s Jewish identity after October 7.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost likely these shifts represent different decision-making processes. For example, Orthodox participants might be shifting their engagement from public arenas to reduce their vulnerability to antisemitism in the community as highly visible Jews. Secular Jews, on the other hand, might be even further disengaged from this piece of Jewish identity. Perceiving non-Jewish community members as holding more antisemitic views was associated with greater cultural engagement, while participants who indicated less comfort interacting with non-Jews reported more religious engagement. What came up in the interviews might provide a more nuanced understanding of this trend: most interviewees related to their fear that others might not like them or might feel, speak, or act in a hostile manner if they knew they were Jewish, rather than expressed any negative bias against them or said that they themselves felt animosity towards them. This was especially the case in the context of non-Jews perceived as expressing anti-Zionist views after October 7.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quantitative results were broadly supported and further explained and nuanced by the qualitative interview findings. Despite previously or currently feeling that Jews are a well-integrated minority, particularly in California, many of the participants reported feeling that society has shown them that they are not as well-integrated as they previously believed. Some now felt the need to reassess their group identity and even form a new one for them and for their children. While participants mentioned right-wing antisemitism, it was more often than not depicted as either a relic of the past, irrelevant to the California context, or as an activity that is concerning but is similar to that experienced by other minorities in the U.S. and therefore not a unique Jewish experience. However, the sense of perceived unsafety and anti-Jewish sentiment and activity most discussed by participants, unprompted, was now the result of pro-Palestinian political rhetoric from the left.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral interviewees referred to the notion that American Jews, in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, are now experiencing alienation from the American progressive left, which since October 2023 included more mainstream voices branding Jews as white colonizers or oppressors. These are racial and social categorizations interviewees did not choose for themselves, and overall disagreed with, but that now forced them to confront their identity in ways they have not had to do before. This connects to Maizales\u0026rsquo;s (2024) notion of forced racialization of American Jews not only as \u0026ldquo;a model minority\u0026rdquo; (similar to other groups such as Asian Americans), but also as \u0026ldquo;white\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;privileged\u0026rdquo; and therefore as inherent oppressors. This racialization ignores the historic marginalization, discrimination, and racism suffered by American Jews and Jews in general in the past and in the present, by white supremacist groups and policies, as well as the racial, ethnic, and political, diversity within the Jewish community.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the context of October 7, while there are diverse opinions on Israel and Zionism, most interviewed participants (70%) reported a sense of connection to Israel, and usually framed themselves as pro-Israeli, i.e. Zionists in the original sense of the term (i.e., supporting Jewish self-determination in Israel). Even those who did not identify as Zionists per se, often perceived anti-Zionist rhetoric and actions as targeting them, either personally or in solidarity with all Jews around the world. Similarly, when describing the sense of collective trauma, they explain that it either emerges from their connection to Israel as a country that has a cultural and spiritual place in their heart, or because of the devastating events of the October 7 Massacre whose victims were predominantly Jews, as well as the ongoing war that places Jews (and Palestinians) in existential danger.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMany of the participants perceive anti-Zionist and anti-Jewish rhetoric and actions as related and overlapping. The mechanism seems to be that they perceive the critics, rather than the criticism itself, as part of a hostile and dangerous source of anti-Jewish hate that conflates Zionists, Israelis, and Jews and vilifies them all. For other respondents, the line between anti-Zionism and antisemitism is not as blurry, but they will still have a more than minimalist approach to what they perceive as antisemitic in the current context, which will include, but is not limited to, intentional disinformation, repeating tropes of Jews trying to control the world, equating \u0026ldquo;Jews\u0026rdquo; with \u0026ldquo;Israelis\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;Zionists\u0026rdquo; in a negative essentialist connotation, advocating for the violent eradication of the state of Israel, or advocating for violence against Jewish civilians of any nationality. The total disentanglement of these various forms of perceived anti-ingroup aggression was difficult for almost all respondents. Theories such as the Rejection-Identification Model (RIM; Branscombe et al., 1999), Identification Attribution Model (IAM; Gonzales-Backen et al., 2024), and Identity Trauma Integrative Framework (Kira, 2019), which all show a connection between perceived group identity salience and an enhanced tendency to interpret outgroup behavior as hostile, which could potentially explain why even more ambiguous speech and behavior might be perceived as discriminatory, antagonistic, or even threatening.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis process of enhancing group identification, affiliation, and activity with in-group members experiencing discrimination resembles a process described by Takyar and colleagues (2019), addressing the reaction of Muslim and Arab American individuals to the discrimination they experienced after 9/11. We can learn from this recent example of U.S.-based ethno-religious discrimination brought on by a time-specific chain of events connected to the Middle East, that led another U.S. minority community to feel inappropriately racialized, hated, and unsafe. Drawing from Social Identity Theory (SIT), Takyar et al (2019) note the need of minority group members who face discrimination and demonization to maintain positive self-perception at a time when they are under threat of internalizing negative outgroup views of their ingroup. Two strategies were found in the study on social-psychological reactions of Muslim and Arab Americans that related to an enhancement of group affiliation. The first was enhancing connections with other group members due to the need to connect with others going through a similar experience who can provide support and advice. Another was a type of \u0026ldquo;reactive ethnicity\u0026rdquo;, in which the individual increases their minority group identity\u0026rsquo;s salience to mitigate feelings of isolation and powerlessness caused by social discrimination (also see RIM; Branscombe et al., 1999).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, interviewees reported feelings ranging from cognitive dissonance to a sense of disappointment and even betrayal when describing their current relationship with the liberal and progressive left, or at least some of its members. Many defined themselves as liberal and progressive, and had felt that their political in-group did not support their mourning or recognized their and their ingroup\u0026rsquo;s pain and trauma for and following the events of the October 7 Hammas attack. Instead of support from what they saw as their political in-group, they experienced denial, victim blaming, and re-traumatization. Bar-Halpern \u0026amp; Wolfman (2025) highlight the traumatic invalidation Jews experienced post-October 7 by friends, professors, colleagues, and even mental-health professionals. Traumatic invalidation includes the extreme denial of an individual\u0026rsquo;s personal experiences or reactions, often by groups upon whom the individual relies (Linehan, 2015). We have also found concerns surrounding antisemitism to be associated with increases in depression and anxiety (blinded for review). This loss of community sparked the need to find a new community in which they felt emotionally safe. Some reported that they sought refuge within Jewish identity-based communities, and even liberal Jewish spaces specifically, to provide that safe space for them and their children.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStatement of Limitations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe time required to fill out the questionnaire and the interview could have created a selection bias of participants already inclined to believe that Jewish identity socialization is important to them. Similarly, participants who are not interested in discussing their Jewish identity, whether out of fear of exposure or out of a strong perception of group identity salience, would be less inclined to participate in the study and the interview. Mothers were over-represented in the sample and fathers underrepresented, a common phenomenon in family and parenting studies (see Denault et al., 2025). While Reform Jews are the majority affiliation for Californian Jews, they are overrepresented in the sample. One reason might be that some Orthodox and especially Ultra-Orthodox (\u003cem\u003eHaredi\u003c/em\u003e) Jews might avoid social media outlets and other online participant recruitment platforms due to the prevalent view in these communities of the internet as a host of uncontrolled content that does not align with Orthodox values, as well as the Jewish notion of \u0026ldquo;Bitul Torah\u0026rdquo;, which calls for (especially men) to avoid time-consuming activities that take them away from religious studies (Lev-On \u0026amp; Shahar 2011). This issue might also be impacted by the fact that most successful recruitments were via the PJ Library newsletter, a modern Jewish children\u0026rsquo;s (free) book delivery service, which requires parents to opt-in to a subscription online.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this manuscript declare that they have no relevant financial or non-financial competing interests to report.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eYael Teff-Seker wrote most of the manuscript, including the literature review, qualitative methods and findings, and the discussion. She was the main designer of the interview protocol, executed the qualitative study, and was the main PI for the qualitative analysis and conclusions. She was also the main contributor to the theoretical framework and overall analysis presented in this manuscript.Leah Hibel was the co-PI for this study and served an important part in its initial conception and its overall implementation. She designed, planned, and executed the quantitative survey, and was the main PI responsible for the recruitment, gathering, and analysis of that survey. She also assisted with designing the interview protocol, and reviewed and contributed to the overall manuscript, especially to the literature review, methods section, and the findings sections. Marika Sigal performed most of the thematic coding for the qualitative analysis, as well as a large part of the preliminary thematic analysis, and assisted in informant recruitment and the quantitative analysis. She also advised the writing of this manuscript, especially the methods section and the qualitative findings section.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank Eva Anderson, who assisted with participant recruitment, as well as with the coding and preliminary analysis stages of the qualitative data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to safety and privacy concerns, raw data, including survey answers and interview recordings and transcripts, are stored on encrypted servers, but an anonymized version will be shared upon reasonable request as long as the purpose is academically justified and ethical, and upon the condition that sharing such data is not deemed to risk or harm any participants, their children, and other family or community members related to them (see subsection 2.2 for further details).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAllington, D., Hirsh, D., \u0026amp; Katz, L. (2022). The generalized antisemitism (GeAs) scale: Validity and factor structure. Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism, 5(2), 1\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAltman, A. N., Inman, A. G., Fine, S. G., Ritter, H. A., \u0026amp; Howard, E. E. (2010). Exploration of Jewish ethnic identity. Journal of Counseling \u0026amp; Development, 88(2), 163\u0026ndash;173.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBar-Halpern, M., \u0026amp; Wolfman, J. (2025). Traumatic invalidation in the Jewish community after October 7. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBranscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., \u0026amp; Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 77(1), 135.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBornstein, M. H. (2005). Handbook of parenting: Volume I: Children and parenting. Psychology Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBurnstein, M. (October 7, 2024). American Jews cope with the fallout a year after the Oct. 7 attacks. \u003cem\u003eThe Washington Post\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/10/07/american-jews-antisemitism-israel-gaza-attacks-anniversary/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e..\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eClark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., \u0026amp; Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American psychologist, 54(10), 805.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDashefsky, A., Sheskin, I. M., \u0026amp; Winter, J. A. (2024). The Just Jewish: Opting Out?. Jewish Options: Pluralistic Identities in 21st Century America, 351\u0026ndash;373.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDavey, M., Fish, L. S., \u0026amp; Robila, M. (2001). Ethnic identity in Jewish families. \u003cem\u003eContemporary Family Therapy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e23\u003c/em\u003e, 323\u0026ndash;342.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDeneault, A. A., Feldman, J. S., Aytuglu, A., Bendel-Stenzel, L. C., Olofson, E. L., Donithen, R., ... \u0026amp; Volling, B. L. (2025). Best Practices for Recruiting and Retaining Fathers in Parenting Research: Insights from Fathering Researchers. \u003cem\u003eParenting\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;27.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDias, E. (October 6, 2024), How October 7 Changed American Jews. \u003cem\u003eNew York Times.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/06/us/jews-hamas-attacks.html\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFriedman, M. L., Friedlander, M. L., \u0026amp; Blustein, D. L. (2005). Toward an understanding of Jewish identity: A phenomenological study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 77\u0026ndash;83.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFulton, C. L., Melamed, L., \u0026amp; Lambert, A. (2024). Ethno-religious engagement, minority experiences, and strengthening American Jewish identity. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 46(3), 233\u0026ndash;258.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGreenberg, M. I. (1998). Becoming Southern: The Jews of Savannah, Georgia, 1830-70. American Jewish History, 86(1), 55\u0026ndash;75.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLev-On, A., \u0026amp; Shahar, R. N. B. (2011). A forum of their own: Views about the Internet among ultra-Orthodox Jewish women who browse designated closed fora. First Monday.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLinehan, M. M. (2015). \u003cem\u003eDBT\u0026reg; skills training manual\u003c/em\u003e (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMaizels, L. (2024). Jewish \u0026lsquo;Whiteness\u0026rsquo; and Its Effects in the Aftermath of October 7. In Responses to 7 October: Universities (pp. 29\u0026ndash;36). Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePew Research Survey, 2021. Jewish Americans in 2020. Available at: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/jewish-americans-in-2020/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStarr, K. J., and Masci, D. (2016). Israel, Jews are united by homeland but divided into very different groups, Pew. March 8, 2016. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2016/03/08/in-israel-jews-are-united-by-homeland-but-divided-into-very-different-groups/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUnited States Department of Justice (2024). 2023 FBI Hate Crimes Statistics. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.justice.gov/crs/news/2023-hate-crime-statistics\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e The term \u0026ldquo;Zionist\u0026rdquo; is a politically loaded term, that has several different definitions. Its original and \u0026ldquo;narrow\u0026rdquo; definition, coined by Jews who supported the immigration of Jews to the Holy Land, originating from the name \u0026ldquo;Zion\u0026rdquo; (one of the biblical names for the city of Jerusalem) and referred to those who simply loved and longed for Jerusalem or the Land of Israel, and since the 19th century, it has been used to designate anyone supportive of Jews living in Israel or of a Jewish state situated in the historic Land of Israel, which today includes both Israeli and Palestinian sovereign areas. Others use it as a neutral term to describe those supporting the Israeli \u0026ldquo;side\u0026rdquo; in the Israeli-Palestinian (and it is this definition that the current article will be using, despite its binary and simplistic approach). Lastly, some groups and individuals today use the term \u0026ldquo;Zionist\u0026rdquo; as a derogatory term to describe a racist or violent agenda against Palestinians.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Group Identity, Collective Trauma, Discrimination, Jewish, Antisemitism","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7801837/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7801837/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn the aftermath of October 7, 2023 and the ensuing war in the Middle East, which had far-reaching effects throughout the United States, many Jewish Americans faced the challenges of re-navigating their Jewish identity and finding group support and community. The study described herein of Jewish parenting and socialization began just before these events and therefore captured the social psychological challenges and changes that took place during this tumultuous time. During 2023\u0026ndash;2024, we collected 218 quantitative surveys and performed 30 in-depth qualitative interviews with Californian residents who identify as Jewish and have a child between the ages of 2 and 18. Quantitative findings reveal that greater concerns, experiences, and perceptions of antisemitism were associated with greater engagement and identification with Jewish religious and ethnic identity. October 7 was found to be a precipitating event that increased engagement and identification with Jewish religious and ethnic identity and community. Qualitative findings indicate a sense of collective trauma, dissonance, and re-evaluation of group support and identity among liberal California Jews. Other themes relate to reconnecting or strengthening parent and child Jewish identity and communities, and others to decreasing involvement or membership in Jewish communities and events due to fear of discrimination or hostility.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Navigating Ethnic Identity at a Time of Crisis: A mixed-methods study of Jewish identity in California after October 7, 2023","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-22 10:23:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7801837/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7c01e985-bee4-4d86-be53-58b8a28caa97","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-04T09:28:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-22 10:23:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7801837","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7801837","identity":"rs-7801837","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}