Intestinal Parasites in Captive Non-Human Primates in Polish Zoological Gardens: Molecular Identification of Common Intestinal Protozoa

Intestinal Parasites in Captive Non-Human Primates in Polish Zoological Gardens: Molecular Identification of Common Intestinal Protozoa | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Intestinal Parasites in Captive Non-Human Primates in Polish Zoological Gardens: Molecular Identification of Common Intestinal Protozoa Magdalena Nowak, Dawid Jańczak, Rafał Stryjek, Anna Didkowska, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7240201/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Zoological gardens play a crucial role in the conservation of endangered species. Non-human primates (NHPs) in captivity are exposed to close human contact and various stressors, increasing their susceptibility to numerous diseases, mostly zoonotic. In this study, we conducted a parasitological analysis of primates in five zoological gardens in Poland. Fecal samples were collected from 182 animals, representing 37 NHP species, living in 59 groups. The samples were analyzed using a concentrated smear technique, rapid antigen immunochromatographic tests, and molecular diagnostics targeting protozoa. Additionally, sequencing was conducted on samples that tested positive for Giardia intestinalis . Parasites were detected in 78% of samples. Microscopic examination revealed the presence of nematodes ( Trichuris spp., Capillaria spp., Strongylida suborder), cestode ( Hymenolepis diminuta ), and protozoa ( G. intestinalis , Trichostomadidae family, intestinal amoebas, and Blastocystis spp.). Molecular analysis confirmed the presence of genomic DNA from G. intestinalis , Pentatrichomonas hominis , and Entamoeba spp. No Cryptosporidium spp. or Entamoeba histolytica DNA were detected. Sequencing identified G. intestinalis subtype B in six NHPs species. As a result of statistical analysis, it turned out that parasites occurred more frequently in Catarrhini parvorder and in primates with a terrestrial lifestyle. This study presents investigation of intestinal parasites in captive primates in Poland, covering multiple zoological gardens and employing comprehensive molecular diagnostics. Our findings highlight the necessity of regular parasitological screening of primates and further research into transmission pathways and zoonotic potential. Health sciences/Diseases Biological sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology Biological sciences/Microbiology Biological sciences/Zoology Non-human primates intestinal parasites zoonoses public health nested PCR zoological gardens Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction Zoological gardens fulfil a crucial role in wildlife conservation by protecting endangered species through breeding programs, and by studying animal health, genetics, and behaviour. They also serve as educational centres, raising public awareness about biodiversity, animal habits, and environmental issues [1]. However, many facilities are being established in a way that allows direct interaction with exotic animals. Animals living in zoos may be carriers of many parasitic diseases, threatening people's health, especially zookeepers and veterinarians [2, 3]. In recent years, attention has been drawn to the study of animals residing in zoological gardens, including non-human primates (NHPs), and their close contact with staff members [4–6]. NHPs require special attention due to their close evolutionary relationship with humans, which makes them significant reservoirs for various zoonotic diseases. However, it also makes them susceptible to anthropozoonoses [6–8]. Notably, diarrhoea is one of the most common problems captive NHPs face [2, 5]. Systematic deworming, regular monitoring of habitats, and access to medical care significantly decrease the presence of parasitic infections in captive primates [9]. Nevertheless, gastrointestinal parasites are still frequently diagnosed in these populations [10–14]. They may cause clinical symptoms, such as diarrhoea, vomiting, malabsorption, abdominal pain, rectal prolapse, and, in severe cases, intestinal obstruction, or even death [15]. Most symptoms may be self-limiting and NHPs can also be an asymptomatic reservoir [16]. However, zoonotic parasites are dangerous to human health, causing severe gastrointestinal symptoms and even leading to serious complications or death in children and immunocompromised individuals [17]. From the perspective of endangered species conservation and public health protection, conducting preventive screening examinations is essential. The aim of this study was to identify zoonotic intestinal protozoa in faecal samples from primates housed in five Polish zoos. To facilitate the preliminary identification of parasites, microscopic examinations, including analyses after material concentration, were performed. Additionally, antigen detection and genomic DNA analysis were used to differentiate morphologically similar forms. Finally, parasite occurrence was analysed based on both laboratory results and environmental data collected through environmental interviews and observations. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Sample and data collection Stool samples were collected between March and May 2024 from 282 NHPs, representing 37 species, housed in 59 enclosures in five Polish zoological gardens (A-E) (Table 1).Those differ vary in terms of location, size, number of animals, and visitor attendance, with the detailed comparisons provided in Table 2. Table 1. Overview of parasitological examination results in non-human primates (NHPs) from five Polish zoological gardens. Zoo EN English name Latin name Microscopic examination Molecular examination Helminths Protozoa GI EC ED EM PH Zoo A 1 Sykes' monkey Cercopithecus mitis albogularis - Entamoeba spp. Trichomonadidae family - + - - + Zoo A 2 Sykes' monkey Cercopithecus mitis albogularis - - - - - - - Zoo A 3 Collared mangabey Cercocebus torquatus - Blastocystis spp. Entamoeba spp. - + - - - Zoo A 4 Ring-tailed lemur Lemur catta - - - - - - + Zoo A 5 Lar gibbon Hylobates lar - Entamoeba spp. Trichomonadidae family - - - - - Zoo A 6 Ring-tailed lemur Lemur catta Hymenolepis diminuta - - - - - - Zoo A 7 Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata - Entamoeba spp. Trichomonadidae family - - - - - Zoo A 8 Abyssinian black-and-white colobus Colobus guereza - Blastocystis spp. - - - - - Zoo A 9 Tufted capuchin Sapajus apella - - - - - - - Zoo A 10 Common squirrel monkey Saimiri sciureus - Blastocystis spp. - + + - + Zoo A 11 Cotton-top tamarin Saguinus oerstedii - - - - - - - Zoo A 12 Golden-handed tamarin Saguinus midas - - - - - - - Zoo B 13 Emperor tamarin Saguinus imperator - - - - - - + Zoo B 14 Golden-handed tamarin and White-tufted marmoset Saguinus midas and Callithrix jacchus - - - - - - - Zoo B 15 Cotton-top tamarin Saguinus oerstedii Strongylida family - + - - + Zoo B 16 Western pygmy marmoset Cebuella pygmaea - - + - - - - Zoo B 17 Common patas monkey Erythrocebus patas Trichuris spp. Entamoeba spp. - + - - - Zoo B 18 Common patas monkey Erythrocebus patas Trichuris spp. Entamoeba spp. - - - - - Zoo B 19 Goeldi's marmoset Callimico goeldii - - - - - - - Zoo B 20 Abyssinian black-and-white colobus Colobus guereza - Trichomonadidae family - - - - - Zoo B 21 Sacred langur Semnopithecus entellus Capillaria spp. - + - - - - Zoo B 22 Common patas monkey Erythrocebus patas - - - - - - + Zoo B 23 Mandrill Mandrillus sphinx - Trichomonadidae family - + - - - Zoo B 24 Red ruffed lemur Varecia rubra - - - - - - - Zoo B 25 Red ruffed lemur Varecia rubra - - - - - - - Zoo B 26 Ring-tailed lemur Lemur catta Strongylida family Giardia intestinalis Trichomonadidae family + - - - - Zoo B 27 Black-and-white ruffed lemur Varecia variegata - - - - - - - Zoo B 28 Common squirrel monkey Saimiri sciureus - - - - - - + Zoo B 29 Golden-headed lion tamarin Leontopithecus chrysomelas - - - - - - - Zoo B 30 Golden lion tamarin Leontopithecus rosalia - - - + - - + Zoo B 31 Pileated gibbon Hylobates pileatus T richuris spp. - - - - - + Zoo B 32 Black howler monkey Alouatta caraya - Giarida intestinalis + - - - - Zoo B 33 Emperor tamarin Saguinus imperator - - - - - - - Zoo C 34 Mouse lemur Microcebus murinus - - - - - - + Zoo C 35 Javan langur Trachypithecus auratus - Giardia intestinalis + - - - - Zoo C 36 Common patas monkey Erythrocebus patas - Entamoeba spp. Trichomonadidae family - - - - - Zoo C 37 Mandrill Mandrillus sphinx - Entamoeba spp. Trichomonadidae family Blastocystis spp. - - - - - Zoo C 38 Abyssinian black-and-white colobus Colobus guereza Trichuris spp. - + + - - - Zoo C 39 Emperor tamarin Saguinus imperator - Trichomonadidae family - - - - - Zoo C 40 Bornean orangutan Pongo pygmaeus - Entamoeba spp. Blastocystis spp. - - - - - Zoo C 41 Yellow-cheeked gibbon Northern white-cheeked gibbon Nomascus gabriellae and Nomascus leucogenys - - - - - + - Zoo C 42 Black howler monkey Alouatta caraya - Trichomonadidae family/ Giardia intestinalis - - - - - Zoo C 43 Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes Strongylida family Entamoeba spp. - + - - - Zoo D 44 L'Hoest’s monkey Allochrocebus lhoesti Entamoeba spp. Blastocystis spp. Trichomonadidae family - - - - - Zoo D 45 Grivet Chlorocebus aethiops - - - - - - + Zoo D 46 Collared mangabey Cercocebus torquatus Entamoeba spp. Trichomonadidae family - - - + - Zoo D 47 Ring-tailed lemur Lemur catta - - - - - - - Zoo D 48 Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata - Entamoeba spp. - - - - - Zoo D 49 Tufted capuchin Sapajus apella - - - - - - + Zoo E 50 Red ruffed lemur Varecia rubra - - - + + - + Zoo E 51 Yellow-cheeked gibbon Nomascus gabriellae Trichuris spp. Entamoeba spp. Blastocystis spp. - + - - - Zoo E 52 Allen's swamp monkey Allenopithecus nigroviridis - Trichomonadidae family Blastocystis spp. - - - - - Zoo E 53 Golden-bellied capuchin Sapajus xanthosternos - - - + - - - Zoo E 54 Diana monkey Cercopithecus diana - - - - - - + Zoo E 55 Black lemur Eulemur macaco Trichuris spp. - - - - - + Zoo E 56 Common squirrel monkey Saimiri sciureus - - - - - - + Zoo E 57 Hamadryas baboon Papio hamadryas Trichuris spp. Entamoeba spp. - - - - - Zoo E 58 Yellow-cheeked gibbon Nomascus gabriellae - - - - - - - Zoo E 59 Ring-tailed lemur Lemur catta - Trichomonadidae family/ Giardia intestinalis - - - - - EN – enclosure number; GI - Giardia intestinalis ; EC - Entamoeba coli; ED - Entamoeba dispar ; EM - Entamoeba moshkovskii; PH- Pentatrichomonas hominis Table 2. Comparison of zoological gardens, selected for parasitological monitoring in non-human primates, in terms of approximate size, number of species and animals, location, and annual visitors. The data comes from the official websites of the zoos or other online sources and represents data for the years 2019–2025. nd – no data found Zoological Garden Size Number of Species Number of animals Location Annual Visitors Zoo A ~ 26 ha ~ 130 ~ 1 000 (2023) ~ 40 km form the voivodeship capital ~ 250 000 (2020) Zoo B ~ 126 ha ~ 150 ~ 860 (2023) suburbs of voivodeship capital ~ 590 000 (2024) Zoo C ~ 47 ha ~ 350 ~ 2000 (2024) centre of metropolitan area ~ 500 000 (2024) Zoo D ~ 15 ha ~ 120 ~ 600 (2025) ~ 20 km from the voivodeship capital nd Zoo E ~ 39 ha ~ 500 ~ 13000 (2023) centre of voivodeship capital ~ 1 000 000 (2023) During the visits, environmental interviews and observations were carried out. Information such as animals’ age and sex, health status, number of individuals in each enclosure, type of flooring, access to outdoor areas, and contact level with people were recorded. NHPs were also categorized based on habitat preference. Unfortunately, in some cases, it was not possible to obtain precise information regarding age and sex. Data used for statistical analysis were categorized and presented in Table 3. Table 3. Categories and classification criteria used in the statistical analysis of primate parasite occurrence in zoological gardens, selected for parasitological monitoring in non-human primates. The table outlines key environmental and management factors that may influence parasite prevalence, including access to outdoor enclosures, flooring types, habitat preference, contact with people, and group size. Category Category division Access to an outdoor enclosure 1. Access 2. No access Floring types 1. Natural Soil 2. Bark and/or Coconut Chip 3. Concrete/Resin Base 4. Floor covered straw/mulch Habitat Preference 1. Terrestrial (primarily ground-dwelling) 2. Arboreal (primarily tree-dwelling) 3. Semi-arboreal (frequently dwelling in trees but also spending time and feeding on the ground) Contact with People 1. Little contact (people entering during cleaning and feeding) 2. Direct contact (e.g., hand feeding) Group size 1. 10 animals The animals were kept on various flooring and had access to wooden platforms suspended on walls or ropes within each enclosure. The habitats were cleaned daily and bedding material was changed regularly. Furthermore, zoo A permitted limited visitor interaction with some animals, and all five gardens feature animal feeding shows led by qualified zookeepers. A chi-square test revealed significant differences among zoos in terms of animal exposure to contact with humans. Specifically, such contact was more likely in Zoo D and less likely in Zoo C (χ²(4) = 18.04, p = 0.001, Cramer's V = 0.553). Most of the primates lived in social groups, making individual sampling unfeasible due to welfare considerations and practical limitations. Therefore, the results refer to groups rather than individual animals. Samples were collected randomly from the enclosures in the morning, during routine cleaning following feeding, and were no older than 24 hours. Material was taken from parts of the feces that had not been in contact with the ground. To obtain a representative sample, one clean plastic container (120 ml capacity) was filled with pooled feces from every five animals within the same enclosure. Samples were stored at refrigerated temperatures (8℃) and immediately transported to the laboratory. Part of each sample was frozen for further analysis. A pooled fecal sample was considered positive when at least one parasitic life stage or genomic DNA of a protozoan was detected. Data from environmental interviews and laboratory analyses were compiled in an Excel spreadsheet. 2.2 Microscopic and Serological Methods One sample proved insufficient for microscopic examination and was therefore reserved for DNA isolation. The cooled faeces were homogenized and zinc sulfate flotation and direct smear in a drop of 0.9% NaCl were performed to detect worms, eggs, larvae, oocysts, and cysts [18] . Parasite identification and recognition of dispersal forms were based on previously described characteristic morphology and structure [18, 19]. In instances where species‐level identification was not possible, organisms were assigned to genus or family [11]. Slides were viewed under a light microscope with 10x and 40x objectives according to the technique. Additionally, rapid immunochromatographic tests (RIT) for the detection of Giardia intestinalis and Cryptosporidium spp. antigens (Stick Crypto-Giardia, OPERON, S.A., Spain) were performed according to the manufacturer’s instruction. 2.3 DNA Isolation and PCR Amplification DNA was extracted with a commercial stool DNA isolation kit (A&A Biotechnology, Gdańsk, Poland) following the manufacturer’s protocol. The isolated DNA was resuspended in purified water. The concentration and purity were assessed using a NanoDrop One spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, Illinois, USA). Isolates were stored at -20℃ until molecular assays. PCR tests targeting intestinal protozoan DNA were carried out using primers and protocols previously described in literature (see Table 4). Amplification products were electrophoresed in 1.5% agarose gel for 25 minutes and visualized by UV transillumination. For G. intestinalis , PCR products were purified with a gel-extraction kit (Gel-Out Concentrator, A&A Biotechnology, Gdańsk, Poland) before sequencing. Sequencing was outsourced to a commercial laboratory, and raw data were analyzed with Chromas version 2.6.6 (Technelysium Pty Ltd, South Brisbane, Australia). The BLAST tool (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi) was employed to align the obtained nucleotide sequences with entries in the NCBI GenBank database. Identification of Giardia species and assemblages was carried out using MEGA software version 7 [20]. Table 4 . Overview of primers used in this study for PCR detection of gastrointestinal parasites in primates in Polish zoos. Parasite Author PCR type Gene locus primer sequence 5’3’ forward primer primer sequence 5’3’ reverse primer Giardia intestinalis [21] nested PCR 753 bp; β-giardin G7 5’-AAGCCCGACGACCTCACCCGCAGTGC-3’ G759 5’-GAGGCCGCCCTGGATCTTCGAGACGAC-3’ [22] 511 bp; β-giardin 5’-GAACGAACGAGATCGAGGTCCG-3’ 5’-CTCGACGAGCTTCGTGTT-3’ Cryptosporidium spp. [23] nested PCR 1325 bp; SSU rRNA 5′-TTCTAGAGCTAATACATGCG-3′ 5′-CCCTAATCCTTCGAAACAGGA-3′ 840 bp; SSU rRNA 5’-AACCTGGTTGATCCTGCCAGTAGTC-3’ 5’-TGATCCTTCTGCAGGTTCACCTACG-3’ Pentatrichomonas hominis [24] conventional PCR 339 bp; 18S rRNA Th3 5′-TGTAAACGATGCCGACAGAG-3′ Th5 5′-CAACACTGAAGCCAATGCGAGG-3′ Entamoeba coli [25] nested PCR 550 bp; SSU rRNA Entam1 5′-GTTGATCCTGCCAGTATTATATG-3′ Entam2 5′-CACTATTGGAGCTGGAATTAC-3′ 166 bp; SSU rRNA EcoliF 5’-CTAAGCACAAAGTCCTAGTATGATG - 3’ EcoliR 5’-CCTCATCGATTA CACTCCCAGAG-3’ Entamoeba histolytica [26] multiplex PCR 166 bp; SSU rRNA EntaF 5’-ATGCACGAGAGCGAAAGCAT-3’ EhR 5’-GATCTAGAAACAATGCTTCTCT-3’ Entamoeba dispar 752 bp; SSU rRNA EdR 5’-CACCACTTACTATCCCTACC-3’ Entamoeba moshkovskii 580 bp; SSU rRNA EmR 5’-TGACCGGAGCCAGAGACAT-3’ 2.4 Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were performed with IBM SPSS Statistics (version 29.0, Armonk, NY, USA) to assess the relationship between parasites occurrence and factors such as suborder, group size, access to an outdoor enclosure, substrate type, and presence of direct contact with humans. In the following analysis, we report only statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) and marginally significant (0.05 < p ≤ 0.1) results. Results were analyzed using basic descriptive statistics, using the Wilson score to calculate the 95% confidence interval (CI) (https://www.statskingdom.com/ proportionconfidence-interval-calculator.html). 3. Results 3.1 Microscopic examination Various parasites were observed in 31 of the 58 stool samples, with a positive rate of 53.4% (95% CI: 40.47–66.50) (Fig. 1 ). Helminths were detected in 12 samples (20.69%; 95% CI: 11,81-33.49), while protozoa were identified in 26 samples (44.83%; 95% CI: 32.52–57.80). In 16 cases (27.59%; 95% CI: 16.97–40.46) mixed infestations involving at least two parasitic morphologically identified forms were observed. The most frequently detected nematode was Trichuris spp., found in seven groups across three gardens (12.07% (95% CI: 5.8–23.10). In each case, the number of eggs was classified as low. Numerous larvae and eggs identified as Strongylida suborder were also observed based on morphology. A few Capillaria sp. eggs, most closely resembling Capillaria hepatica , were detected in a pooled stool sample from six Sacred Langurs. The only detected representative of Cestoda was the eggs of the rat tapeworm ( Hymenolepis diminuta ), found in a pooled sample from 11 ring-tailed lemurs. Protozoa were detected more frequently than helminths. Entamoeba spp. and Trichomonadidae family pseudocysts occurred in 15 and 14 samples, respectively, across all gardens. Blastocystis spp. were observed in eight pooled samples in four zoos. However, given the limitations of morphology for species identification, PCR assays were then employed to detect and differentiate a few common intestinal protozoa. Parasites occurrence in groups was presented in Table 1 . 3.2 Molecular identification Genomic DNA isolated from stool samples was used for PCR analysis to detect parasitic infections. The genetic material of Entamoeba coli was detected in 12 samples with a positive rate of 20.34% (95% CI: 11.61–32.92). Two samples tested positive for Entamoeba dispar and Entamoeba moshkovskii respectively. No genomic DNA of Entamoeba histolytica was identified in the examined samples. Out of 59 analyzed samples, 16 tested positive for P. hominis DNA (27.12%; 95% CI: 16.69–39.77). In this case, only one result was confirmed by both microscopic and molecular tests (sample no. 1, Table 1 ). No DNA of Cryptosporidium spp. was detected using the selected PCR test, despite 15 positive results obtained from the rapid immunochromatographic test. 3.3 Detection of Giardia intestinalis In order to detect G. intestinalis , microscopic examinations, RIT, and nested PCR were performed. Summary cysts, antigens, or genomic DNA were detected in 9 samples with a positive rate of 15.3% (95% CI: 7.95–26.95) (Table. 5). In group of Black howler monkeys and Ring-tailed lemurs, RIT gave a positive result. However, numerous forms resembling pseudocysts of the Trichomonadidae family or G. intestinalis cyst were visible in the direct smear. Following purification, the genetic material was sequenced by a commercial laboratory. As a result, all samples were identified as belonging to assemblage B. The phylogenetic relationships among selected G. intestinalis assemblages (GI) isolated from primates were inferred using the neighbor-joining method implemented in MEGA version 7 [20]. This analysis was based on nucleotide sequences from the β-giardin gene ( bg ), employing the Kimura 2-parameter model. The names of the compared isolates along with their corresponding GenBank accession numbers are provided. Giardia muris was included as an outgroup to root the tree (Fig. 2 ) Table 5 Comparison of positive results obtained from three diagnostic methods (zinc sulfate flotation, immunochromatographic strip test for antigen detection, and nested PCR) for the detection of Giardia intestinalis in primates from Polish zoological gardens selected for parasitological monitoring. Enclosure number Species Microscopic examination Fast Ag Test Molecular identification 16 Western pygmy marmoset ( Cebuella pygmaea ) - + + 21 Sacred langur ( Semnopithecus entellus ) - - + 26 Ring-tailed lemur ( Lemur catta ) + + + 32 Black howler monkey ( Alouatta caraya ) + - + 35 Javan langur ( Trachypithecus auratus ) + + + 38 Abyssinian black-and-white colobus ( Colobus guereza ) - + + 42 Black howler monkey ( Alouatta caraya ) - + - 47 Ring-tailed lemur ( Lemur catta ) - + - 59 Ring-tailed lemur ( Lemur catta ) - + - 3.4 Statistical analysis 3.4.1 Parasite detection and affiliation to primate suborder A chi-square test revealed a significant relationship between parasite detection and the suborder of the tested primates. Primates belonging to the Catarrhini suborder were the most likely to be infested with parasites (χ²(4) = 13.02, p = 0.01, Cramer's V = 0.335). 3.4.2 Parasite detection and access to outdoor enclosures A chi-square test for independence showed a marginally significant relationship between parasite detection and access to outdoor enclosures, with the highest number of parasite detections found in animals that had access to these enclosures (χ²(2) = 5.16, p = 0.076, Cramer's V = 0.298). 3.4.3 Parasite detection and habitat preference A chi-square test suggested a marginally significant link between parasite detection and the habitat preference in the tested primates. Arboreal primates were less likely to be infested with parasites (χ²(2) = 5.43, p = 0.066, Cramer's V = 0.303). 3.4.4 Parasite detection and animal group size A one-sided Spearman correlation was used to examine the relationship between parasite detection and animal group size. The analysis revealed a significant positive correlation (rs (59) = 0.234, p = 0.039), indicating that larger groups were more likely to have higher rates of parasite detection. 4. Discussion In this study, we found parasites in more than half (53.4%; 95% CI: 40.47–66.50) of the microscopically examined samples, which is a similar positivity rate that observed in zoological institutions in France (53.6%) [19]. When molecular tests were also taken into account, the total positive rate increased to 78.0% (95% CI: 65.36–87.03). This outcome is closer to the results reported in the Rio de Janeiro Zoo (68.2%) [27] and Beni-Suef Zoo in Egypt (75%) [4]. The results of our study are significantly higher than in other studies conducted in European zoos [3, 28], and also higher than the previously reported positivity rate in primates at the Warsaw zoo, where the FLOTAC technique revealed a 35% positivity rate [29]. Microscopic examination showed that protozoa were much more common than helminths. This may be explained by their simple life cycle, which does not require an intermediate host, direct invasiveness after excretion, low infectious dose required, and high resistance of cysts and oocysts to environmental conditions [12, 19]. Similar results were obtained in zoos in Belgium, France, and Spain[11, 16, 19, 29]. In contrast, in other zoos, helminth developmental stages predominated in microscopic examinations [10, 27, 28, 30, 31]. Those differences may be related to the methods used, climatic and sanitary conditions, and deworming protocols. Samples in all zoos were collected around the time the spring season in Poland. It is possible that, under different weather conditions at other times of the year, the results might vary. However, long-term studies conducted in Slovenia—a country with a similar climate—covering multiple periods throughout the year, did not show consistent seasonal differences [28]. In 10 pooled samples, the presence of soil-transmitted nematodes (STNs) was reported. Comprehensive species classification was not performed. This study did not attempt the molecular characterization of eggs. However, based on the morphology of the detected eggs, we classified them into the following groups: Capillaria spp., Trichuris spp., Strongylida suborder. A common feature of these parasites is the presence of infective stages in the soil. In this study, STNs were detected in terrestrial primates and in one semi-arboreal group. With the exception of hookworms, which infect hosts via skin penetration, all other parasites detected are transmitted through the faecal-oral route [32]. It is important to note that some primate species have been observed engaging in geophagy (soil consumption), which further increases the risk of infection with STNs [33]. Additionally, from a behavioral perspective, these parasites pose a greater risk to NHPs that are terrestrial or forage on the ground, and have access to outdoor enclosures with natural soil. The frequency of infections may also vary depending on the season (NHPs are often not allowed in outdoor enclosures when the temperature is below 10°C) as well as the age and sex of the individuals [32]. Trichuris spp. eggs were identified microscopically in three zoological gardens, in a total of seven primate groups, and they were the most frequently detected nematode eggs in this study. Historically, Trichuris trichura was considered the primary species infecting NHPs. However, according to the latest reports based on molecular diagnostics, primates may also be carriers of other, yet unidentified Trichuris species [11, 34–36]. The presence of Trichuris spp. has also been frequently reported in other zoological gardens [16, 27, 31, 35, 37]. The positive primate groups belonged to Catarrhini : Cercopithecidae and one group of gibbons ( Hylobatidae ), whereas Trichuris spp. was not detected in Platyrrhine monkeys, which is consistent with findings from other zoological gardens [10, 11, 16, 27, 35]. In 24 zoological gardens in China, out of 195 samples positive for Trichuris spp., only two were found in Platyrrhines [31]. This may be related to their predominantly arboreal lifestyle [38]. In our study, except for Patas monkeys, all animals had access to outdoor enclosures with natural soil. Many of the species in which Trichuris spp. was detected are ground-dwelling or forage on the ground. Trichuris spp. is a STN acquired via the faecal-oral route [32, 39, 40]. Among wild primates, Trichuris spp. has been identified as one of the STNs, with documented transmission between NHPs and nearby human populations [32, 39]. In our study, the carriers were asymptomatic, however, a fatal case was reported in Papio hamadryas [41], so the presence of whipworms should not be ignored. These observations may indicate a higher susceptibility to Trichuris infections in Catarrhini , potentially related to their ecological and behavioral traits. In a pooled sample from Sacred langurs, we detected the presence of Capillaria spp. eggs morphologically resembling C. hepatica [42]. Prior to the Sacred langurs, a group of Common Patas Monkeys inhabited the same enclosure, and several individuals died from unexplained causes. Histopathological examination of the liver tissue revealed helminthic inflammation, although no parasites were detected. According to the attending veterinarian's report, the enclosure was cleaned before the introduction of the new group, and the Sacred langurs did not exhibit any clinical signs of illness. In previous studies on primates, Capillaria spp. infections have been rarely diagnosed [13]. In the United Kingdom, a retrospective analysis of liver samples from 60 primates revealed granulomatous or fibrotic changes in 33% of cases, though C hepatica eggs were detected in only 5%. Moreover, despite confirmed hepatic capillariasis, no Capillaria eggs were detected in feces [43]. Microscopically, Capillaria sp. was identified in Tufted capuchin ( Sapajus apella) from Piano dell’Abatino Park in Italy [14], Moustached tamarin ( Saguinus mystax ) and Golden-headed lion tamarin ( Leontopithecus chrysomelas ) from Rio de Janeiro zoo [27]. In wild macaques in Sri Lanka living in areas with high human activity, the prevalence was reported at 20.4%, which is significantly higher than in zoological gardens [44]. No molecular identification of the detected eggs was performed in the mentioned studies. Capillariasis is not only a zoonotic disease but also an anthroponotic one and can pose a serious threat to endangered primate species. Moreover, different Capillaria species may cause distinct clinical symptoms (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). Therefore, further investigation into the specific species of Capillaria detected in primates is warranted. Oval, thin-walled eggs were identified in three samples. Eggs containing developed larvae or hatched larvae were detected in Cotton-top tamarin, Gambian chimpanzees, and Ring-tailed lemurs, and classified as Strongylida suborder. Infection with these nematodes can occur through skin penetration by invasive larvae or via ingestion of larvae or eggs present in contaminated food or water [45]. Additionally, first-stage larvae of Strongyloides stercoralis may cause endogenous autoinfection [46]. In captive primates, S. cebus , S. fuelleborni , and S. stercoralis have been identified, with S. stercoralis being the most commonly detected species. It has been molecularly confirmed in captive Chimpanzees and Bornean orangutans [47, 48]. In Europe, Strongyloides spp. Infections are less frequently encountered compared to Asia or Africa [46]. However, in some zoological institutions, they were among the most commonly detected parasites [31]. Ancylostomatidae nematodes are reported less frequently than Strongylidaes spp. A few Ancylostoma sp. infections were detected in 2023 in gibbons ( Hylobates sp.) and rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta ) in Bangladesh, where transmission was associated with contaminated soil or food [45]. In this study, a more detailed taxonomic classification was not performed, so it cannot be excluded that these larvae belong to other nematode species or environmental nematodes. The presence of Strongyloides spp. in white-tufted tamarins is particularly intriguing, as these animals primarily inhabit elevated areas and were housed in an indoor enclosure without natural soil. Previous studies have predominantly detected these parasites in terrestrial primates [48]. H. diminuta eggs were detected in pooled stool samples from eleven Ring-tailed lemurs. NHPs and humans can acquire this parasite through the ingestion of an intermediate host, an insect harboring H. diminuta cysticercoids [49]. Although Ring-tailed lemurs primarily consume fruits, leaves, and seeds, they are also insectivorous. This dietary behavior facilitates the completion of the parasite's life cycle. Rodents, particularly rats, are the most common definitive hosts, while other mammals, including primates, act as incidental hosts [49]. Carriage in rats has also been documented in zoos [12]. Rodent infestations remain a persistent challenge in zoological gardens, including those in Poland [5]. [50] demonstrated the presence of H. diminuta eggs in primate feces, adult parasite forms in rats, and cysticercoids in cockroaches at the Wrocław Zoo, thus confirming the potential for the parasite’s life cycle to be completed in zoological environments in Poland. [50] Previously, H. diminuta infections in monkeys were documented in various species of free-ranging NHPs [40, 51]. In Ring-tailed lemur, fatal infections with Hymenolepis nana , a closely related cestode species, have also been reported, suggesting that immunocompromised primates may be particularly vulnerable to severe clinical manifestations of hymenolepiasis [52]. Microscopically, pseudocysts of protozoa from the Trichomonadidae family were detected in 13 samples (22%; 95% CI: 13.21–35.23). This result is comparable to the positivity rate observed in Cali Zoo (27.5%) among NHPs from the Cebidae and Callitrichidae families, where trichomonads were the second most frequently detected parasite under microscopy [15]. Coproscopic methods may have limited sensitivity, as some trichomonads exist only as trophozoitesc [53]. PCR targeting P. hominis using feline trichomoniasis diagnostics and primers from primate studies, detected 16 positive isolates (27.12%; 95% CI: 16.69–39.77), although sequencing was not performed [24, 54]. Overall, Trichomonadidae were detected in 57.5% (95% CI: 44.76–69.59) of samples, making them the most prevalent parasites in the study. Only one molecular result correlated with microscopic findings in feces from Sykes' monkey ( Cercopithecus mitis albogularis ). In primates inhabiting Changchun Wildlife Park in northern China, a zoonotic P. hominis strain (CC1) was detected in 46.67% of cases using microscopic, cell culture, nested PCR, and sequencing [54]. According to the authors, PCR detected more cases than microscopy, which does not allow species-level identification of Trichomonadidae; however, the degree of concordance between methods was not specified. A study using molecular techniques in NHPs from Czech zoos identified three isolates ( Colobus angolensis, V. variegata , and C. jacchus ) that were highly similar to sequences previously reported for P. hominis in cattle and humans, confirming its passage through NHPs [53]. Additionally, eight or nine distinct species of the Trichomonas group A were identified, none of which resembled those previously described in humans, apart from P. hominis . These findings confirm that primates harbor intestinal trichomonads different from those found in humans [53]. The zoonotic potential of trichomonads detected in primates remains unclear. While P. hominis is found in both humans and NHPs, suggesting possible transmission [55]. However, a study conducted in the Dzanga-Sangha forest ecosystem found no evidence of interspecies transmission, despite high prevalence in both populations [56]. Nonetheless, in 2024, Trichomitus batrachorum was identified in both primates and a zookeeper, indicating the potential for interspecies transmission of some trichomonads [57]. Intestinal trichomonads are common in NHPs, but their pathogenicity is not well understood [57]. In our study, animals were mostly asymptomatic at the time of sampling. Nevertheless, a fatal case of invasive trichomoniasis occurred in several lemurs ( Varecia variegata ) at Cali Zoo in 2015 [15]. Moreover, recent reports from China described cases of trichomonad-associated diarrhea in monkey [55]. In summary, molecular diagnostics are essential for the identification of specific Trichomonadidae species and assessing their pathogenicity and zoonotic potential. G. intestinalis is one of the most frequently detected cosmopolitan, intestinal parasites in humans and animals including captive mammals such as NHPs [2, 16, 27]. The frequency of recorded infections is lower in Europe than in Africa, Asia and South America [58]. However, few parasitological studies have been conducted in Polish zoological gardens. In the Poznań zoo, G. intestinalis was identified in eight non-primate species, as well as in chimpanzees ( Chimpansee trioglodytes ), and marmosets ( Callithrix argentata ) [59, 60]. The one from non-primate animal was genotyped as assemblage B [60]. Additionally, at the Warsaw Zoo, the FLOTAC technique revealed Giardia cysts in three samples from a Gorilla ( Gorilla gorilla) , Ruffed lemur ( Varecia variegata) and Capuchin monkey ( Cebus apella ), yielding a 15% positivity rate, although no molecular identification has been performed [29]. In this study, G. intestinalis was detected in 15.3% of the tested samples (95% CI: 7.95–26.95). Higher detection rates were obtained in recent studies: 33,3% in Italy using PCR assays targeting the beta-giardin ( bp) and triose phosphate isomerase ( tpi) loci [12] and 43.75% at Beni-Suef Zoo in Egypt, where multilocus PCR targeting bg , tpi , glutamate dehydrogenase ( gdh) , and small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA) was performed [4]. Our study relied on PCR assays targeting only the bg locus, which may have contributed to the comparatively lower detection rate. Antigen detection assays and microscopy were also employed, with a 55.5% concordance between methods, indicating that future studies should incorporate multilocus genotyping for more comprehensive results. We isolated and sequenced G. intestinalis assemblage B DNA in six species in which the presence of this assemblage had previously been reported in GenBank: Cebuella pygmaea [3], Semnopithecus entellus [2] Trachypithecus auratus [61], Lemur catta [62], Colobus guereza [63], and Alouatta caraya [64]. In free-living and captive primates, the presence of assemblages A, B and E have been reported [2, 12], with assemblage B being the most frequently detected in European zoos [12, 63, 65–67]. Dominance of assemblage B has also been observed in China [68]. These findings support the role of NHPs as reservoirs of zoonotic G. intestinalis genotypes. Molecular confirmation of transmission between NHPs and zookeepers has also been reported [66, 68]. However, the pathogenicity of G. intestinalis and its assemblage is not fully understood. Treatment of giardiasis in NHPs has been reported to be challenging [2, 65], and in young primates, infections can manifest by diarrhoea and impaired growth [68]. In line with previous research, in this study the detected carriers were mostly asymptomatic. The exception was a Sacred langur, which exhibited periodic diarrhea during the study period. Although this may have been associated with the presence of atypical mycobacteria (Didkowska et al., 2025). Cysts morphologically consistent with amoebae were the second most frequently detected in pooled samples, accounting for 25.4% of all parasites identified. This result is similar to that reported in Rio de Janeiro zoo [27] and significantly higher than prevalence achieved in China (0.25%) [31]. The presence of Entamoeba spp. cysts has also been observed in other European zoos [16, 69]. Entamoeba species morphologically are indistinguishable, s o molecular methods were used for differentiation. Molecular tests were positive for the presence of genomic DNA of E. coli (20.3%) E. moshkovskii (3.4%) and E. dispar (3.4%). The overlap between microscopic and molecular studies was only 26.1%. Such low concordance may be due to the presence of other Entamoeba species not targeted in our molecular assays, e.g. E. nuttalli, E. polecki, E. hartmanni or E. chattoni , as well as species not yet described [15, 27, 70]. The high presence of E. coli has been reported in primates previously [70, 71]. In collared mangabey ( Cercocebus torquatus ), common patas monkey ( Erythrocebus patas ) and Sykes' monkey ( Cercopithecus mitis albogularis) , we detected amoebic cysts with 5 or more nuclei and genomic DNA of E. coli .which strongly supports the species-level identification of the detected forms of the parasites [19, 27]. No genomic DNA of E. histolytica was detected. The presence of this protozoan in humans is usually associated with severe gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloody diarrhoea and intestinal ulceration [58], which can lead to cachexia and even death. On the other hand, in a 2010 study on a large group of asymptomatic captive NHPs, E. histolytica was detected in 36% of Entamoeba spp. positive samples [70]. Detection of commensal Entamoeba spp. appears to be more common than that of pathogenic species [65]. Therefore, the use of molecular methods for accurate identification of pathogenic species is justified. Blastocystis spp. is one of the most frequently detected protozoa in both humans and NHPs, in Europe and globally [12, 58]. In Italian zoological gardens, it was among the most commonly identified parasites, with a notably high positivity rate of 84.6% [12]. Similarly, in two zoos in France, qPCR analysis revealed that 60.3% (44/73) of the samples and 59.0% (23/39) of the primate species tested were positive for Blastocystis sp. [72]. Furthermore, The Blastocystis subtypes (STs) detected in NHPs predominantly included ST1, ST2, ST3, ST5, and ST8, whereas ST4, ST7, ST10, ST13, and ST15 were identified less often [71–74]. The detection rate of Blastocystis cysts in our study was 13.8%, significantly lower than that reported in previous research. This discrepancy is most likely due to differences in molecular methods, particularly the use of PCR [15, 71, 75]. The high prevalence of Blastocystis in certain groups of captive NHPs, combined with the genetic similarity of isolates found in humans, may indicate a potential risk of zoonotic or anthroponotic transmission [72]. For example, in the Perth Zoo, zookeepers, including those working with primates, who reported gastrointestinal symptoms were found to be infected with Blastocystis , albeit with uncomplicated clinical outcomes [75]. Although Blastocystis is often described as an asymptomatic commensal in NHPs, it is possible that under stressful conditions, it may contribute to disease development [71]. Overall, current data highlight the importance of monitoring its presence in zoological gardens, which represent environments with an elevated risk of zoonotic transmission [12, 15]. In the case of Cryptosporidium spp., the selected microscopic technique was not sufficiently accurate for oocyst detection. Consequently, molecular analyses were performed, given their well-documented high sensitivity [76]. No genetic material of Cryptosporidium spp. was detected, which did not confirm the results obtained using a rapid strip test for Cryptosporidium parvum antigens. This discrepancy may stem from the lack of validation of such tests for species other than those commonly associated with human infections, potentially resulting in false-positive results [27, 76]. Nevertheless, since no diagnostic tests are specifically designed for NHPs, we assessed the test as a potential screening tool for animal caretakers. A 2010 study conducted in Italy employed the widely used Ziehl–Neelsen staining method, which yielded a high positivity rate (66%) among primates [30]. However, this method is prone to false positives, as oocysts can be misidentified as yeast cells or bacterial spores. Moreover, oocyst morphology is variable, and microscopic techniques do not allow for species-level identification. A a result, there is increasing support for the routine application of molecular diagnostic methods [76, 77]. It is important, that even highly sensitive techniques, such as nested PCR or ELISA, are not entirely free from error. Comparable findings have been reported in other zoological gardens, where no Cryptosporidium spp. DNA was detected [5, 12]. Such outcomes may also reflect improved zoo management practices, including enhanced water quality control and stricter hygiene protocols for the handling of fruits and vegetables. Accordingly, we recommend confirming the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. using at least two diagnostic approches from different methodological categories. In future studies, the use of more sensitive techniques, such as qPCR, may be preferable [76]. Based on statistical analysis, we conclude that Catarrhini were the most frequently affected by parasitic infections, which is consistent with findings from France [19]. Furthermore, our results confirm observations from a large-scale study on primates in China, indicating that arboreal NHPs were less frequently infected with parasites [31]. Despite efforts to replicate natural habitats, the living conditions in zoological gardens differ significantly from those in the wild. Consequently, animal behaviors and routines may also vary. In the zoos studied, animals are housed in carefully adapted environments, often with access to natural substrates, outdoor areas and standing water bodies, which provide exposure to soil. To facilitate species-specific behaviors, many enclosures were equipped with exchangeable bedding, platforms, trees, and suspended structures. However, the complete removal of contaminants from such surfaces remains particularly challenging. Moreover, animals in zoological gardens are confined to limited spaces, which may reduce their exposure to external sources of infection. However, such confinement also facilitates the rapid spread of pathogens within groups and promotes the accumulation of infectious stages in the environment, thereby increasing the risk of autoinfection. All these factors may contribute to the accumulation of invasive forms in a closed environment [12]. Our study revealed considerable variation in enclosure conditions both between and within zoological gardens. However, no differences in the rate of parasite occurrence were found between the individual zoological gardens (χ²(4) = 4.78, p = 0.311). A significant part of the diet of many primates in zoos consists of raw vegetables and fruits, which may serve as a source of foodborne parasites known to infect humans, such as G. intestinalis, Entamoeba spp., and Blastocystis sp. [17]. Improper handling of animals or their food by caretakers can increase the risk of zoonotic transmission [28]. Numerous studies have documented the negative effects of close contact between NHPs and zoo personnel or visitors [63]. Humans may introduce pathogens into enclosures via outerwear, footwear, tools, or transfer them through direct contact [27]. Additionally, caretakers moving between enclosures without adhering proper hygiene precautions may facilitate cross- contamination between different primate groups [28]. In our study, statistical analysis did not reveal a correlation between direct human-animal contact and the presence of gastrointestinal parasites. This may be due to the fact that caretakers in the zoos studied are well-trained and adhere to strict personal hygiene protocols before, during, and after contact, minimises anthropogenic infections. Another crucial external factor contributing to parasite transmission is the presence of insects, small mammals such (e.g. rats, mice, squirrels, and hedgehogs), as well as birds, which may act as intermediate hosts or reservoirs, facilitating the spread of pathogens within enclosures and water sources [27]. Larger animals can also enter zoo premises uncontrollably, such as free-roaming cats in Poland, which may be carriers of G. intestinalis and other parasites [78]. Unfortunately, the presence of small wild animals cannot be effectively controlled in zoological settings. Therefore, regular examinations and targeted treatment significantly impact the health and welfare of primates kept in captivity and should be standard practice in well-managed zoological gardens. Long-term studies conducted at Ljubljana Zoo in Slovenia demonstrated that regular monitoring and treatment reduced mortality caused by parasitic infections [28]. In summary, effective parasite control in zoological settings requires the implementation of strict hygiene measures, limitations on human–animal contact, regular enclosure sanitation, health screening, and post-transport quarantine protocols. Education of zoo staff and visitors regarding biosecurity is also essential [19, 30]. Study limitations : It should be noted that our study had certain methodological limitations: fecal samples were pooled and collected from the ground during a single collection; molecular screening targeted selected protozoan species; helminth eggs were not subjected to molecular identification; and no targeted staining method was employed. Despite that, we ensured the results obtained were reliable and comparable with findings from other zoological gardens. In the case of NHPs, rectal sampling would have required invasive procedures and cause a significant stress. Moreover, in the zoos studied, individual sampling was not possible due to animal welfare concerns - animals are kept in social groups and cannot be isolated. Furthermore, repeated entry into enclosures would also disrupt their routines. Therefore, faecal samples were collected during regular enclosure visits, with the assistance of handlers, to minimise environmental disturbance. Enclosures were cleaned 24 hours before the sampling, ensuring the material collected was no older than one day. Samples were taken from the upper part, avoiding contact with the substrate and minimasing contamination. Pool size was adjusted to the number of animals in the group, and it was randomly collected from the majority of faeces found in the enclosure. The sampling method was based on previously published articles [27, 63]. We focused on the morphological identification of detected helminths and molecular identification of protozoa, though extended molecular analyses are planned for future studies. A widely applied and effective concentration technique was used, suitable for detecting both protozoa and helminths. Direct smears were prepared to detect protozoan trophozoites. However, due to their high susceptibility to environmental changes and rapidly degrade upon leaving the host organism. Therefore, molecular methods were employed for genome detection. To our research, we selected starters targeted the most common diarrhoea-causing protozoa in humans: G. intestinalis, E. histolytica , and Cryptosporidium spp., along with morphologically similar protozoa [5]. We also used well-tested and widely applied primers and protocols for molecular diagnostics. Conclusion This study demonstrates that, despite a high level of awareness regarding parasitic infections in primates housed in zoological gardens, infection prevalence within captive populations remains substantial. Our findings indicate that both lifestyle and access to outdoor enclosures have a significant impact on the parasite occurrence, emphasizing the critical importance of maintaining high hygiene standards for enclosure surfaces. Regular faecal examinations and targeted deworming are essential for effective parasite control in captive animals. Future research should include expanded molecular diagnostics and investigate the potential role of zoo staff in the transmission of anthropozoonotic parasites within Polish zoological gardens. Abbreviations bg - beta-giardin gdh - glutamate dehydrogenase GI – Giardia intestinalis assemblages NHP – non-human primates PCR - polymerase chain reaction SSU-rRNA - small subunit ribosomal RNA ST - Blastocystis subtypes STN - soil-transmitted nematodes tpi - triose phosphate isomerase Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval was not required for this study as the sampling was non-invasive and did not cause any harm or distress to the animals. All procedures were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding The publication fee was covered by Science development fund of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Authors' contributions The individual contributions were as follows: M.N. - conceptualization, project administration, methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, resources, writing - original draft, main manuscript text preparation, preparation of Figure 1, graphical abstract and all tables; D.J. - methodology, supervision, validation, resources, visualisation (figure 1 and 2), review and editing; A.D. - conceptualization, resources, validation, review and editing; O.S. - data curation, review and editing; R.S. - statistical analysis, review and editing; P.Ż. and P.K. - methodology, resources, funding acquisition; N.Z., M.K., A.C., M.Z. - validation, resources and investigation, review; K.A. - project administration, funding acquisition, review, supervision. 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International Journal for Parasitology 39:473–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.07.006 Parkar U, Traub R, Vitali S, et al (2010) Molecular characterization of Blastocystis isolates from zoo animals and their animal-keepers. Veterinary parasitology 169:8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.12.032 O’Leary JK, Sleator RD, Lucey B (2021) Cryptosporidium spp. Diagnosis and Research in the 21st Century. Food and Waterborne Parasitology 24:e00131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fawpar.2021.e00131 Kopacz Z (2019) Ocena czestosci wystepowania oraz charakterystyka molekularna Cryptosporidium spp. u pacjentów immunokompetentnych oraz z immunosupresja indukowana farmakologicznie z wybranych grup ryzyka. Uniwersytet Medyczny im. Piastów Slaskich we Wroclawiu Lima TA, Salgado PAB, Chagas CRF, et al (2020) Feral Cats: Parasitic Reservoirs in Our Zoos? OJVM 10:126–138. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojvm.2020.108011 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files ElectrophoresisresultsofthePCRproductsona1.docx Graphicalabstract.png Giardiaelectrophoresisresultsphoto.jpg P.hominiselectrophoresisresultsphoto.jpg Entamoebacolielectrophoresisresultsphoto.jpg Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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12:32:43","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":317330,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig.11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/3a7d3b3c9857349ff863b2b9.png"},{"id":92862116,"identity":"8e84dc5b-509e-4951-ae9b-917e27ffc458","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:43","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":12638,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig.21.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/505893c89e064b1344a2b068.png"},{"id":92862126,"identity":"d71dd453-5112-497c-af7b-39919edbe20c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:43","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":243287,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineGraphicalabstract.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/094371a53bc5a485e920da09.png"},{"id":92863053,"identity":"635ebd91-d08b-4c35-afb5-2b096efed992","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:40:43","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":183720,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/5ba3fea63c74c50ca871f6bc.png"},{"id":92863050,"identity":"89588e63-8387-4685-bc92-4a4bac51abce","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:40:43","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":12638,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/25c0c505f3b19fca31216202.png"},{"id":92862124,"identity":"d7a6f84a-d082-4dba-bf3b-8f7dc6bc2674","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:43","extension":"xml","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":183037,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"c46dc9d02247409e90399d4628799fdd1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/0ba0eb761a1431f19e3c0e5a.xml"},{"id":92862125,"identity":"243599dd-dbd0-490f-bfb4-39a99e5d4e98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:43","extension":"html","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":207995,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/15dd8d1b3daac648db528f52.html"},{"id":92862101,"identity":"9b6d784e-6935-43e8-9ed4-f170502fa0bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:42","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2175115,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe figure presents photos of parasites detected in samples from selected Polish zoos for parasitological monitoring in non-human primates: a) Strongylida nematodes eggs; b) \u003cem\u003eHymenolepis diminuta\u003c/em\u003e egg; c)\u003cem\u003e Trichuris\u003c/em\u003e sp.egg; d) \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e sp. egg.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/0c4daf4d20ab426e3ec25561.png"},{"id":92862100,"identity":"91f43a8f-ac94-44ac-aa25-4339c50465cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26749,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhylogenetic tree showing the relationships among selected \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis \u003c/em\u003eassemblages (GI) isolated from six primate species from Polish zoos. The tree was constructed using the neighbor-joining method implemented in MEGA version 7, based on nucleotide sequences of the β-giardin (\u003cem\u003ebg\u003c/em\u003e) gene and employing the Kimura 2-parameter model.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/7b78fa40da1850f284c09e40.jpg"},{"id":92865653,"identity":"f7eaf2df-aea5-4b36-8f2d-427840a8615f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 13:04:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3580833,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/1e552a8a-f038-40fa-befc-145b2f16cde5.pdf"},{"id":92862104,"identity":"c35540ee-1d00-46d0-a776-a8dc7799a220","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:42","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":645971,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ElectrophoresisresultsofthePCRproductsona1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/cd663cc70d209a6aebf34a83.docx"},{"id":92862110,"identity":"744876c7-2403-4810-91e6-6d2b2d5acd6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:32:43","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1051774,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Graphicalabstract.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/fb6d77f1b142051dd4f40f2c.png"},{"id":92863047,"identity":"6c72a80c-14d8-45cb-ba1b-49bc9d0964cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:40:43","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":345068,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Giardiaelectrophoresisresultsphoto.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/4dcfc56bf8b0997a5ea1b97b.jpg"},{"id":92864179,"identity":"5c5408b9-7dc5-4150-a564-5a605c3ea75e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:48:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":57499,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"P.hominiselectrophoresisresultsphoto.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/3e7264101803698154cc2ee7.jpg"},{"id":92863051,"identity":"54b8ea43-08eb-4682-b04a-e74353008129","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 12:40:43","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":152554,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Entamoebacolielectrophoresisresultsphoto.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7240201/v1/57cd05332f92771dfc533ee4.jpg"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Intestinal Parasites in Captive Non-Human Primates in Polish Zoological Gardens: Molecular Identification of Common Intestinal Protozoa","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eZoological gardens fulfil a crucial role in wildlife conservation by protecting endangered species through breeding programs, and by studying animal health, genetics, and behaviour. They also serve as educational centres, raising public awareness about biodiversity, animal habits, and environmental issues [1]. However, many facilities are being established in a way that allows direct interaction with exotic animals. Animals living in zoos may be carriers of many parasitic diseases, threatening people's health, especially zookeepers and veterinarians [2, 3]. In recent years, attention has been drawn to the study of animals residing in zoological gardens, including non-human primates (NHPs), and their close contact with staff members [4\u0026ndash;6]. NHPs require special attention due to their close evolutionary relationship with humans, which makes them significant reservoirs for various zoonotic diseases. However, it also makes them susceptible to anthropozoonoses [6\u0026ndash;8]. Notably, diarrhoea is one of the most common problems captive NHPs face [2, 5]. Systematic deworming, regular monitoring of habitats, and access to medical care significantly decrease the presence of parasitic infections in captive primates [9]. Nevertheless, gastrointestinal parasites are still frequently diagnosed in these populations [10\u0026ndash;14]. They may cause clinical symptoms, such as diarrhoea, vomiting, malabsorption, abdominal pain, rectal prolapse, and, in severe cases, intestinal obstruction, or even death [15]. Most symptoms may be self-limiting and NHPs can also be an asymptomatic reservoir [16]. However, zoonotic parasites are dangerous to human health, causing severe gastrointestinal symptoms and even leading to serious complications or death in children and immunocompromised individuals [17]. From the perspective of endangered species conservation and public health protection, conducting preventive screening examinations is essential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to identify zoonotic intestinal protozoa in faecal samples from primates housed in five Polish zoos. To facilitate the preliminary identification of parasites, microscopic examinations, including analyses after material concentration, were performed. Additionally, antigen detection and genomic DNA analysis were used to differentiate morphologically similar forms. Finally, parasite occurrence was analysed based on both laboratory results and environmental data collected through environmental interviews and observations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Sample and data collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStool samples were collected between March and May 2024 from 282 NHPs, representing 37 species, housed in 59 enclosures in five Polish zoological gardens (A-E) (Table 1).Those differ vary in terms of location, size, number of animals, and visitor attendance, with the detailed comparisons provided in Table 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u003c/strong\u003e Overview of parasitological examination results in non-human primates (NHPs) from five Polish zoological gardens.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEN\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnglish name\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLatin name\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 221px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic examination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMolecular examination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHelminths\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtozoa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eED\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSykes\u0026apos; monkey\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCercopithecus mitis albogularis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSykes\u0026apos; monkey\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCercopithecus mitis albogularis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollared mangabey\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCercocebus torquatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLar gibbon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHylobates lar\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHymenolepis diminuta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJapanese macaque\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMacaca fuscata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbyssinian black-and-white colobus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColobus guereza\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTufted capuchin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSapajus apella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon squirrel monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaimiri sciureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCotton-top tamarin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaguinus oerstedii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGolden-handed tamarin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaguinus midas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmperor tamarin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaguinus imperator\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGolden-handed tamarin and White-tufted marmoset\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaguinus midas and Callithrix jacchus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCotton-top tamarin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaguinus oerstedii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStrongylida family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWestern pygmy marmoset\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCebuella pygmaea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon patas monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErythrocebus patas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon patas monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErythrocebus patas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGoeldi\u0026apos;s marmoset\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCallimico goeldii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbyssinian black-and-white colobus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColobus guereza\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSacred langur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSemnopithecus entellus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon patas monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErythrocebus patas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMandrill\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMandrillus sphinx\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed ruffed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVarecia rubra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed ruffed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVarecia rubra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStrongylida family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlack-and-white ruffed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVarecia variegata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon squirrel monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaimiri sciureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGolden-headed lion tamarin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeontopithecus chrysomelas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGolden lion tamarin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeontopithecus rosalia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePileated gibbon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHylobates pileatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eT\u003cem\u003erichuris\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlack howler monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlouatta caraya\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e-\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGiarida intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmperor tamarin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaguinus imperator\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMouse lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMicrocebus murinus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJavan langur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrachypithecus auratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon patas monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErythrocebus patas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMandrill\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMandrillus sphinx\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbyssinian black-and-white colobus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColobus guereza\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmperor tamarin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaguinus imperator\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBornean orangutan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePongo pygmaeus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYellow-cheeked gibbon Northern white-cheeked gibbon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNomascus gabriellae and Nomascus leucogenys\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlack howler monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlouatta caraya\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrichomonadidae family/ \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChimpanzee\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePan troglodytes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStrongylida family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u0026apos;Hoest\u0026rsquo;s monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllochrocebus lhoesti\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrivet\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChlorocebus aethiops\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollared mangabey\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCercocebus torquatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichomonadidae family\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJapanese macaque\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMacaca fuscata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTufted capuchin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSapajus apella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed ruffed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVarecia rubra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYellow-cheeked gibbon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNomascus gabriellae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAllen\u0026apos;s swamp monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllenopithecus nigroviridis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrichomonadidae family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGolden-bellied capuchin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSapajus xanthosternos\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiana monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCercopithecus diana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlack lemur\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEulemur macaco\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon squirrel monkey\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaimiri sciureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHamadryas baboon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePapio hamadryas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYellow-cheeked gibbon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNomascus gabriellae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrichomonadidae family/ \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEN \u0026ndash; enclosure number; GI - \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e; EC -\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Entamoeba coli;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eED - \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba dispar\u003c/em\u003e; EM - \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba moshkovskii;\u003c/em\u003e PH- \u003cem\u003ePentatrichomonas hominis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u003c/strong\u003e Comparison of zoological gardens, selected for parasitological monitoring in non-human primates, in terms of approximate size, number of species and animals, location, and annual visitors. The data comes from the official websites of the zoos or other online sources and represents data for the years 2019\u0026ndash;2025. nd \u0026ndash; no data found\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"594\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoological Garden\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSize\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber of Species\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber of animals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnnual Visitors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo A\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 26 ha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 1 000 (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 40 km form the voivodeship capital\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 250 000 (2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo B\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 126 ha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 860 (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esuburbs of voivodeship capital\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 590 000 (2024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 47 ha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 350\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 2000 (2024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecentre of metropolitan area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 500 000 (2024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 15 ha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 600 (2025)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 20 km from the voivodeship capital\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003end\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZoo E\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 39 ha\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 13000 (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecentre of voivodeship capital\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e~ 1 000 000 (2023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the visits, environmental interviews and observations were carried out. Information such as animals\u0026rsquo; age and sex, health status, number of individuals in each enclosure, type of flooring, access to outdoor areas, and contact level with people were recorded. NHPs were also categorized based on habitat preference. Unfortunately, in some cases, it was not possible to obtain precise information regarding age and sex. Data used for statistical analysis were categorized and presented in Table 3.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u003c/strong\u003e Categories and classification criteria used in the statistical analysis of primate parasite occurrence in zoological gardens, selected for parasitological monitoring in non-human primates. The table outlines key environmental and management factors that may influence parasite prevalence, including access to outdoor enclosures, flooring types, habitat preference, contact with people, and group size.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 158px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 278px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory division\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 158px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAccess to an outdoor enclosure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 278px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Access\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;2. No access\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 158px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFloring types\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 278px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Natural Soil\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;2. Bark and/or Coconut Chip\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;3. Concrete/Resin Base\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;4. Floor covered straw/mulch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 158px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHabitat Preference\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 278px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Terrestrial (primarily ground-dwelling)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;2. Arboreal (primarily tree-dwelling)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;3. Semi-arboreal (frequently dwelling in trees but also spending time and feeding on the ground)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 158px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContact with People\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 278px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Little contact (people entering during cleaning and feeding)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;2. Direct contact (e.g., hand feeding)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 158px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroup size\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 278px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. \u0026lt;5 animals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. 5-10 animals\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;3. \u0026gt;10 animals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe animals were kept on various flooring and had access to wooden platforms suspended on walls or ropes within each enclosure. The habitats were cleaned daily and bedding material was changed regularly. Furthermore, zoo A permitted limited visitor interaction with some animals, and all five gardens feature animal feeding shows led by qualified zookeepers. A chi-square test revealed significant differences among zoos in terms of animal exposure to contact with humans. Specifically, such contact was more likely in Zoo D and less likely in Zoo C (\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;(4) = 18.04, p = 0.001, Cramer\u0026apos;s V = 0.553).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMost of the primates lived in social groups, making individual sampling unfeasible due to welfare considerations and practical limitations. Therefore, the results refer to groups rather than individual animals. Samples were collected randomly from the enclosures in the morning, during routine cleaning following feeding, and were no older than 24 hours. Material was taken from parts of the feces that had not been in contact with the ground. To obtain a representative sample, one clean plastic container (120 ml capacity) was filled with pooled feces from every five animals within the same enclosure. Samples were stored at refrigerated temperatures (8℃) and immediately transported to the laboratory. Part of each sample was frozen for further analysis. A pooled fecal sample was considered positive when at least one parasitic life stage or genomic DNA of a protozoan was detected. Data from environmental interviews and laboratory analyses were compiled in an Excel spreadsheet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Microscopic and Serological Methods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne sample proved insufficient for microscopic examination and was therefore reserved for DNA isolation. The cooled faeces were homogenized and zinc sulfate flotation and direct smear in a drop of 0.9% NaCl were performed to detect worms, eggs, larvae, oocysts, and cysts [18] . Parasite identification and recognition of dispersal forms were based on previously described characteristic morphology and structure [18, 19]. In instances where species‐level identification was not possible, organisms were assigned to genus or family [11]. Slides were viewed under a light microscope with 10x and 40x objectives according to the technique.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, rapid immunochromatographic tests (RIT) for the detection of \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Cryptosporidium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp. antigens (Stick Crypto-Giardia, OPERON, S.A., Spain) were performed according to the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 DNA Isolation and PCR Amplification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDNA was extracted with a commercial stool DNA isolation kit (A\u0026amp;A Biotechnology, Gdańsk, Poland) following the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s protocol. The isolated DNA was resuspended in purified water. The concentration and purity were assessed using a NanoDrop One spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, Illinois, USA). Isolates were stored at -20℃ until molecular assays. PCR tests targeting intestinal protozoan DNA were carried out using primers and protocols previously described in literature (see Table 4). Amplification products were electrophoresed in 1.5% agarose gel for 25 minutes and visualized by UV transillumination. For \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e, PCR products were purified with a gel-extraction kit (Gel-Out Concentrator, A\u0026amp;A Biotechnology, Gdańsk, Poland) before sequencing. Sequencing was outsourced to a commercial laboratory, and raw data were analyzed with Chromas version 2.6.6 (Technelysium Pty Ltd, South Brisbane, Australia). The BLAST tool (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi) was employed to align the obtained nucleotide sequences with entries in the NCBI GenBank database. Identification of \u003cem\u003eGiardia\u003c/em\u003e species and assemblages was carried out using MEGA software version 7 [20].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e. Overview of primers used in this study for PCR detection of gastrointestinal parasites in primates in Polish zoos.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"669\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParasite\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePCR type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGene locus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eprimer sequence 5\u0026rsquo;3\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eforward primer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eprimer sequence 5\u0026rsquo;3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ereverse primer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[21]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enested PCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e753 bp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;-giardin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-AAGCCCGACGACCTCACCCGCAGTGC-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG759\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-GAGGCCGCCCTGGATCTTCGAGACGAC-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[22]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e511 bp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;-giardin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-GAACGAACGAGATCGAGGTCCG-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-CTCGACGAGCTTCGTGTT-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003espp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[23]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enested PCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1325 bp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;SSU rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026prime;-TTCTAGAGCTAATACATGCG-3\u0026prime;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026prime;-CCCTAATCCTTCGAAACAGGA-3\u0026prime;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e840 bp; \u0026nbsp;SSU rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-AACCTGGTTGATCCTGCCAGTAGTC-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-TGATCCTTCTGCAGGTTCACCTACG-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePentatrichomonas\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ehominis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[24]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econventional PCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e339 bp; 18S rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTh3 5\u0026prime;-TGTAAACGATGCCGACAGAG-3\u0026prime;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTh5 5\u0026prime;-CAACACTGAAGCCAATGCGAGG-3\u0026prime;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[25]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enested PCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e550 bp; SSU rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntam1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026prime;-GTTGATCCTGCCAGTATTATATG-3\u0026prime;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntam2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026prime;-CACTATTGGAGCTGGAATTAC-3\u0026prime;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e166 bp; SSU rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcoliF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-CTAAGCACAAAGTCCTAGTATGATG - 3\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcoliR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-CCTCATCGATTA CACTCCCAGAG-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba histolytica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 88px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[26]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emultiplex PCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e166 bp; SSU rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 125px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntaF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026rsquo;-ATGCACGAGAGCGAAAGCAT-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEhR 5\u0026rsquo;-GATCTAGAAACAATGCTTCTCT-3\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba dispar\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e752 bp; SSU rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdR 5\u0026rsquo;-CACCACTTACTATCCCTACC-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntamoeba moshkovskii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e580 bp; SSU rRNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmR 5\u0026rsquo;-TGACCGGAGCCAGAGACAT-3\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4 Statistical analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were performed with IBM SPSS Statistics (version 29.0, Armonk, NY, USA) to assess the relationship between parasites occurrence and factors such as suborder, group size, access to an outdoor enclosure, substrate type, and presence of direct contact with humans. In the following analysis, we report only statistically significant (p \u0026le; 0.05) and marginally significant (0.05 \u0026lt; p \u0026le; 0.1) results. Results were analyzed using basic descriptive statistics, using the Wilson score to calculate the 95% confidence interval (CI) (https://www.statskingdom.com/ proportionconfidence-interval-calculator.html).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Microscopic examination\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eVarious parasites were observed in 31 of the 58 stool samples, with a positive rate of 53.4% (95% CI: 40.47\u0026ndash;66.50) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Helminths were detected in 12 samples (20.69%; 95% CI: 11,81-33.49), while protozoa were identified in 26 samples (44.83%; 95% CI: 32.52\u0026ndash;57.80). In 16 cases (27.59%; 95% CI: 16.97\u0026ndash;40.46) mixed infestations involving at least two parasitic morphologically identified forms were observed. The most frequently detected nematode was \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp., found in seven groups across three gardens (12.07% (95% CI: 5.8\u0026ndash;23.10). In each case, the number of eggs was classified as low. Numerous larvae and eggs identified as Strongylida suborder were also observed based on morphology. A few \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e sp. eggs, most closely resembling \u003cem\u003eCapillaria hepatica\u003c/em\u003e, were detected in a pooled stool sample from six Sacred Langurs. The only detected representative of Cestoda was the eggs of the rat tapeworm (\u003cem\u003eHymenolepis diminuta\u003c/em\u003e), found in a pooled sample from 11 ring-tailed lemurs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProtozoa were detected more frequently than helminths. \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp. and Trichomonadidae family pseudocysts occurred in 15 and 14 samples, respectively, across all gardens. \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp. were observed in eight pooled samples in four zoos. However, given the limitations of morphology for species identification, PCR assays were then employed to detect and differentiate a few common intestinal protozoa. Parasites occurrence in groups was presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Molecular identification\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGenomic DNA isolated from stool samples was used for PCR analysis to detect parasitic infections. The genetic material of \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba coli\u003c/em\u003e was detected in 12 samples with a positive rate of 20.34% (95% CI: 11.61\u0026ndash;32.92). Two samples tested positive for \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba dispar\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba moshkovskii\u003c/em\u003e respectively. No genomic DNA of \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba histolytica\u003c/em\u003e was identified in the examined samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOut of 59 analyzed samples, 16 tested positive for \u003cem\u003eP. hominis\u003c/em\u003e DNA (27.12%; 95% CI: 16.69\u0026ndash;39.77). In this case, only one result was confirmed by both microscopic and molecular tests (sample no. 1, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo DNA of \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u003c/em\u003e spp. was detected using the selected PCR test, despite 15 positive results obtained from the rapid immunochromatographic test.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Detection of \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn order to detect \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e, microscopic examinations, RIT, and nested PCR were performed. Summary cysts, antigens, or genomic DNA were detected in 9 samples with a positive rate of 15.3% (95% CI: 7.95\u0026ndash;26.95) (Table. 5). In group of Black howler monkeys and Ring-tailed lemurs, RIT gave a positive result. However, numerous forms resembling pseudocysts of the Trichomonadidae family or \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e cyst were visible in the direct smear.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing purification, the genetic material was sequenced by a commercial laboratory. As a result, all samples were identified as belonging to assemblage B. The phylogenetic relationships among selected \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e assemblages (GI) isolated from primates were inferred using the neighbor-joining method implemented in MEGA version 7 [20]. This analysis was based on nucleotide sequences from the β-giardin gene (\u003cem\u003ebg\u003c/em\u003e), employing the Kimura 2-parameter model. The names of the compared isolates along with their corresponding GenBank accession numbers are provided. \u003cem\u003eGiardia muris\u003c/em\u003e was included as an outgroup to root the tree (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of positive results obtained from three diagnostic methods (zinc sulfate flotation, immunochromatographic strip test for antigen detection, and nested PCR) for the detection of \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e in primates from Polish zoological gardens selected for parasitological monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnclosure number\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic examination\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFast Ag Test\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMolecular identification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWestern pygmy marmoset\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eCebuella pygmaea\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSacred langur\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eSemnopithecus entellus\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlack howler monkey\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eAlouatta caraya\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJavan langur\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eTrachypithecus auratus\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbyssinian black-and-white colobus\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eColobus guereza\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlack howler monkey\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eAlouatta caraya\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRing-tailed lemur\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Parasite detection and affiliation to primate suborder\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA chi-square test revealed a significant relationship between parasite detection and the suborder of the tested primates. Primates belonging to the \u003cem\u003eCatarrhini\u003c/em\u003e suborder were the most likely to be infested with parasites (χ\u0026sup2;(4)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.02, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01, Cramer's V\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.335).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Parasite detection and access to outdoor enclosures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA chi-square test for independence showed a marginally significant relationship between parasite detection and access to outdoor enclosures, with the highest number of parasite detections found in animals that had access to these enclosures (χ\u0026sup2;(2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.16, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.076, Cramer's V\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.298).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Parasite detection and habitat preference\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA chi-square test suggested a marginally significant link between parasite detection and the habitat preference in the tested primates. Arboreal primates were less likely to be infested with parasites (χ\u0026sup2;(2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.43, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.066, Cramer's V\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.303).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.4 Parasite detection and animal group size\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA one-sided Spearman correlation was used to examine the relationship between parasite detection and animal group size. The analysis revealed a significant positive correlation (rs (59)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.234, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.039), indicating that larger groups were more likely to have higher rates of parasite detection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we found parasites in more than half (53.4%; 95% CI: 40.47\u0026ndash;66.50) of the microscopically examined samples, which is a similar positivity rate that observed in zoological institutions in France (53.6%) [19]. When molecular tests were also taken into account, the total positive rate increased to 78.0% (95% CI: 65.36\u0026ndash;87.03). This outcome is closer to the results reported in the Rio de Janeiro Zoo (68.2%) [27] and Beni-Suef Zoo in Egypt (75%) [4]. The results of our study are significantly higher than in other studies conducted in European zoos [3, 28], and also higher than the previously reported positivity rate in primates at the Warsaw zoo, where the FLOTAC technique revealed a 35% positivity rate [29].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicroscopic examination showed that protozoa were much more common than helminths. This may be explained by their simple life cycle, which does not require an intermediate host, direct invasiveness after excretion, low infectious dose required, and high resistance of cysts and oocysts to environmental conditions [12, 19]. Similar results were obtained in zoos in Belgium, France, and Spain[11, 16, 19, 29]. In contrast, in other zoos, helminth developmental stages predominated in microscopic examinations [10, 27, 28, 30, 31].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThose differences may be related to the methods used, climatic and sanitary conditions, and deworming protocols. Samples in all zoos were collected around the time the spring season in Poland. It is possible that, under different weather conditions at other times of the year, the results might vary. However, long-term studies conducted in Slovenia\u0026mdash;a country with a similar climate\u0026mdash;covering multiple periods throughout the year, did not show consistent seasonal differences [28].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 10 pooled samples, the presence of soil-transmitted nematodes (STNs) was reported. Comprehensive species classification was not performed. This study did not attempt the molecular characterization of eggs. However, based on the morphology of the detected eggs, we classified them into the following groups: \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp., Strongylida suborder. A common feature of these parasites is the presence of infective stages in the soil. In this study, STNs were detected in terrestrial primates and in one semi-arboreal group. With the exception of hookworms, which infect hosts via skin penetration, all other parasites detected are transmitted through the faecal-oral route [32]. It is important to note that some primate species have been observed engaging in geophagy (soil consumption), which further increases the risk of infection with STNs [33]. Additionally, from a behavioral perspective, these parasites pose a greater risk to NHPs that are terrestrial or forage on the ground, and have access to outdoor enclosures with natural soil. The frequency of infections may also vary depending on the season (NHPs are often not allowed in outdoor enclosures when the temperature is below 10\u0026deg;C) as well as the age and sex of the individuals [32].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp. eggs were identified microscopically in three zoological gardens, in a total of seven primate groups, and they were the most frequently detected nematode eggs in this study. Historically, \u003cem\u003eTrichuris trichura\u003c/em\u003e was considered the primary species infecting NHPs. However, according to the latest reports based on molecular diagnostics, primates may also be carriers of other, yet unidentified \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e species [11, 34\u0026ndash;36]. The presence of \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp. has also been frequently reported in other zoological gardens [16, 27, 31, 35, 37]. The positive primate groups belonged to \u003cem\u003eCatarrhini\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cem\u003eCercopithecidae\u003c/em\u003e and one group of gibbons (\u003cem\u003eHylobatidae\u003c/em\u003e), whereas \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp. was not detected in \u003cem\u003ePlatyrrhine\u003c/em\u003e monkeys, which is consistent with findings from other zoological gardens [10, 11, 16, 27, 35]. In 24 zoological gardens in China, out of 195 samples positive for \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp., only two were found in \u003cem\u003ePlatyrrhines\u003c/em\u003e [31]. This may be related to their predominantly arboreal lifestyle [38]. In our study, except for Patas monkeys, all animals had access to outdoor enclosures with natural soil. Many of the species in which \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp. was detected are ground-dwelling or forage on the ground. \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp. is a STN acquired via the faecal-oral route [32, 39, 40]. Among wild primates, \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp. has been identified as one of the STNs, with documented transmission between NHPs and nearby human populations [32, 39]. In our study, the carriers were asymptomatic, however, a fatal case was reported in \u003cem\u003ePapio hamadryas\u003c/em\u003e [41], so the presence of whipworms should not be ignored. These observations may indicate a higher susceptibility to \u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e infections in \u003cem\u003eCatarrhini\u003c/em\u003e, potentially related to their ecological and behavioral traits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a pooled sample from Sacred langurs, we detected the presence of \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e spp. eggs morphologically resembling \u003cem\u003eC. hepatica\u003c/em\u003e [42]. Prior to the Sacred langurs, a group of Common Patas Monkeys inhabited the same enclosure, and several individuals died from unexplained causes. Histopathological examination of the liver tissue revealed helminthic inflammation, although no parasites were detected. According to the attending veterinarian's report, the enclosure was cleaned before the introduction of the new group, and the Sacred langurs did not exhibit any clinical signs of illness. In previous studies on primates, \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e spp. infections have been rarely diagnosed [13]. In the United Kingdom, a retrospective analysis of liver samples from 60 primates revealed granulomatous or fibrotic changes in 33% of cases, though \u003cem\u003eC hepatica\u003c/em\u003e eggs were detected in only 5%. Moreover, despite confirmed hepatic capillariasis, no \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e eggs were detected in feces [43]. Microscopically, \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e sp. was identified in Tufted capuchin (\u003cem\u003eSapajus apella)\u003c/em\u003e from Piano dell\u0026rsquo;Abatino Park in Italy [14], Moustached tamarin (\u003cem\u003eSaguinus mystax\u003c/em\u003e) and Golden-headed lion tamarin (\u003cem\u003eLeontopithecus chrysomelas\u003c/em\u003e) from Rio de Janeiro zoo [27]. In wild macaques in Sri Lanka living in areas with high human activity, the prevalence was reported at 20.4%, which is significantly higher than in zoological gardens [44]. No molecular identification of the detected eggs was performed in the mentioned studies. Capillariasis is not only a zoonotic disease but also an anthroponotic one and can pose a serious threat to endangered primate species. Moreover, different \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e species may cause distinct clinical symptoms (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). Therefore, further investigation into the specific species of \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e detected in primates is warranted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOval, thin-walled eggs were identified in three samples. Eggs containing developed larvae or hatched larvae were detected in Cotton-top tamarin, Gambian chimpanzees, and Ring-tailed lemurs, and classified as Strongylida suborder. Infection with these nematodes can occur through skin penetration by invasive larvae or via ingestion of larvae or eggs present in contaminated food or water [45]. Additionally, first-stage larvae of \u003cem\u003eStrongyloides stercoralis\u003c/em\u003e may cause endogenous autoinfection [46]. In captive primates, \u003cem\u003eS. cebus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eS. fuelleborni\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eS. stercoralis\u003c/em\u003e have been identified, with \u003cem\u003eS. stercoralis\u003c/em\u003e being the most commonly detected species. It has been molecularly confirmed in captive Chimpanzees and Bornean orangutans [47, 48]. In Europe, \u003cem\u003eStrongyloides\u003c/em\u003e spp. Infections are less frequently encountered compared to Asia or Africa [46]. However, in some zoological institutions, they were among the most commonly detected parasites [31]. Ancylostomatidae nematodes are reported less frequently than \u003cem\u003eStrongylidaes\u003c/em\u003e spp. A few \u003cem\u003eAncylostoma\u003c/em\u003e sp. infections were detected in 2023 in gibbons (\u003cem\u003eHylobates\u003c/em\u003e sp.) and rhesus macaques (\u003cem\u003eMacaca mulatta\u003c/em\u003e) in Bangladesh, where transmission was associated with contaminated soil or food [45].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a more detailed taxonomic classification was not performed, so it cannot be excluded that these larvae belong to other nematode species or environmental nematodes. The presence of \u003cem\u003eStrongyloides\u003c/em\u003e spp. in white-tufted tamarins is particularly intriguing, as these animals primarily inhabit elevated areas and were housed in an indoor enclosure without natural soil. Previous studies have predominantly detected these parasites in terrestrial primates [48].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH. diminuta\u003c/em\u003e eggs were detected in pooled stool samples from eleven Ring-tailed lemurs. NHPs and humans can acquire this parasite through the ingestion of an intermediate host, an insect harboring \u003cem\u003eH. diminuta\u003c/em\u003e cysticercoids [49]. Although Ring-tailed lemurs primarily consume fruits, leaves, and seeds, they are also insectivorous. This dietary behavior facilitates the completion of the parasite's life cycle. Rodents, particularly rats, are the most common definitive hosts, while other mammals, including primates, act as incidental hosts [49]. Carriage in rats has also been documented in zoos [12]. Rodent infestations remain a persistent challenge in zoological gardens, including those in Poland [5]. [50] demonstrated the presence of \u003cem\u003eH. diminuta\u003c/em\u003e eggs in primate feces, adult parasite forms in rats, and cysticercoids in cockroaches at the Wrocław Zoo, thus confirming the potential for the parasite\u0026rsquo;s life cycle to be completed in zoological environments in Poland. [50] Previously, \u003cem\u003eH. diminuta\u003c/em\u003e infections in monkeys were documented in various species of free-ranging NHPs [40, 51]. In Ring-tailed lemur, fatal infections with \u003cem\u003eHymenolepis nana\u003c/em\u003e, a closely related cestode species, have also been reported, suggesting that immunocompromised primates may be particularly vulnerable to severe clinical manifestations of hymenolepiasis [52].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicroscopically, pseudocysts of protozoa from the Trichomonadidae family were detected in 13 samples (22%; 95% CI: 13.21\u0026ndash;35.23). This result is comparable to the positivity rate observed in Cali Zoo (27.5%) among NHPs from the \u003cem\u003eCebidae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCallitrichidae\u003c/em\u003e families, where trichomonads were the second most frequently detected parasite under microscopy [15]. Coproscopic methods may have limited sensitivity, as some trichomonads exist only as trophozoitesc [53]. PCR targeting \u003cem\u003eP. hominis\u003c/em\u003e using feline trichomoniasis diagnostics and primers from primate studies, detected 16 positive isolates (27.12%; 95% CI: 16.69\u0026ndash;39.77), although sequencing was not performed [24, 54]. Overall, Trichomonadidae were detected in 57.5% (95% CI: 44.76\u0026ndash;69.59) of samples, making them the most prevalent parasites in the study. Only one molecular result correlated with microscopic findings in feces from Sykes' monkey (\u003cem\u003eCercopithecus mitis albogularis\u003c/em\u003e). In primates inhabiting Changchun Wildlife Park in northern China, a zoonotic \u003cem\u003eP. hominis\u003c/em\u003e strain (CC1) was detected in 46.67% of cases using microscopic, cell culture, nested PCR, and sequencing [54]. According to the authors, PCR detected more cases than microscopy, which does not allow species-level identification of Trichomonadidae; however, the degree of concordance between methods was not specified.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA study using molecular techniques in NHPs from Czech zoos identified three isolates (\u003cem\u003eColobus angolensis, V. variegata\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eC. jacchus\u003c/em\u003e) that were highly similar to sequences previously reported for \u003cem\u003eP. hominis\u003c/em\u003e in cattle and humans, confirming its passage through NHPs [53]. Additionally, eight or nine distinct species of the \u003cem\u003eTrichomonas\u003c/em\u003e group A were identified, none of which resembled those previously described in humans, apart from \u003cem\u003eP. hominis\u003c/em\u003e. These findings confirm that primates harbor intestinal trichomonads different from those found in humans [53]. The zoonotic potential of trichomonads detected in primates remains unclear. While \u003cem\u003eP. hominis\u003c/em\u003e is found in both humans and NHPs, suggesting possible transmission [55]. However, a study conducted in the Dzanga-Sangha forest ecosystem found no evidence of interspecies transmission, despite high prevalence in both populations [56]. Nonetheless, in 2024, \u003cem\u003eTrichomitus batrachorum\u003c/em\u003e was identified in both primates and a zookeeper, indicating the potential for interspecies transmission of some trichomonads [57].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntestinal trichomonads are common in NHPs, but their pathogenicity is not well understood [57]. In our study, animals were mostly asymptomatic at the time of sampling. Nevertheless, a fatal case of invasive trichomoniasis occurred in several lemurs (\u003cem\u003eVarecia variegata\u003c/em\u003e) at Cali Zoo in 2015 [15]. Moreover, recent reports from China described cases of trichomonad-associated diarrhea in monkey [55]. In summary, molecular diagnostics are essential for the identification of specific Trichomonadidae species and assessing their pathogenicity and zoonotic potential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e is one of the most frequently detected cosmopolitan, intestinal parasites in humans and animals including captive mammals such as NHPs [2, 16, 27]. The frequency of recorded infections is lower in Europe than in Africa, Asia and South America [58]. However, few parasitological studies have been conducted in Polish zoological gardens. In the Poznań zoo, \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e was identified in eight non-primate species, as well as in chimpanzees (\u003cem\u003eChimpansee trioglodytes\u003c/em\u003e), and marmosets (\u003cem\u003eCallithrix argentata\u003c/em\u003e) [59, 60]. The one from non-primate animal was genotyped as assemblage B [60]. Additionally, at the Warsaw Zoo, the FLOTAC technique revealed \u003cem\u003eGiardia\u003c/em\u003e cysts in three samples from a Gorilla (\u003cem\u003eGorilla gorilla)\u003c/em\u003e, Ruffed lemur (\u003cem\u003eVarecia variegata)\u003c/em\u003e and Capuchin monkey (\u003cem\u003eCebus apella\u003c/em\u003e), yielding a 15% positivity rate, although no molecular identification has been performed [29].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e was detected in 15.3% of the tested samples (95% CI: 7.95\u0026ndash;26.95). Higher detection rates were obtained in recent studies: 33,3% in Italy using PCR assays targeting the beta-giardin (\u003cem\u003ebp)\u003c/em\u003e and triose phosphate isomerase (\u003cem\u003etpi)\u003c/em\u003e loci [12] and 43.75% at Beni-Suef Zoo in Egypt, where multilocus PCR targeting \u003cem\u003ebg\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003etpi\u003c/em\u003e, glutamate dehydrogenase (\u003cem\u003egdh)\u003c/em\u003e, and small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA) was performed [4]. Our study relied on PCR assays targeting only the \u003cem\u003ebg\u003c/em\u003e locus, which may have contributed to the comparatively lower detection rate. Antigen detection assays and microscopy were also employed, with a 55.5% concordance between methods, indicating that future studies should incorporate multilocus genotyping for more comprehensive results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe isolated and sequenced \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e assemblage B DNA in six species in which the presence of this assemblage had previously been reported in GenBank: \u003cem\u003eCebuella pygmaea\u003c/em\u003e [3], \u003cem\u003eSemnopithecus entellus\u003c/em\u003e [2] \u003cem\u003eTrachypithecus auratus\u003c/em\u003e [61], \u003cem\u003eLemur catta\u003c/em\u003e [62], \u003cem\u003eColobus guereza\u003c/em\u003e [63], and \u003cem\u003eAlouatta caraya\u003c/em\u003e [64]. In free-living and captive primates, the presence of assemblages A, B and E have been reported [2, 12], with assemblage B being the most frequently detected in European zoos [12, 63, 65\u0026ndash;67]. Dominance of assemblage B has also been observed in China [68].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings support the role of NHPs as reservoirs of zoonotic \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e genotypes. Molecular confirmation of transmission between NHPs and zookeepers has also been reported [66, 68]. However, the pathogenicity of \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e and its assemblage is not fully understood. Treatment of giardiasis in NHPs has been reported to be challenging [2, 65], and in young primates, infections can manifest by diarrhoea and impaired growth [68]. In line with previous research, in this study the detected carriers were mostly asymptomatic. The exception was a Sacred langur, which exhibited periodic diarrhea during the study period. Although this may have been associated with the presence of atypical mycobacteria (Didkowska et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCysts morphologically consistent with amoebae were the second most frequently detected in pooled samples, accounting for 25.4% of all parasites identified. This result is similar to that reported in Rio de Janeiro zoo [27] and significantly higher than prevalence achieved in China (0.25%) [31]. The presence of \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp. cysts has also been observed in other European zoos [16, 69]. \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e species morphologically are indistinguishable, s o molecular methods were used for differentiation. Molecular tests were positive for the presence of genomic DNA of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e (20.3%) \u003cem\u003eE. moshkovskii\u003c/em\u003e (3.4%) and \u003cem\u003eE. dispar\u003c/em\u003e (3.4%). The overlap between microscopic and molecular studies was only 26.1%. Such low concordance may be due to the presence of other \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e species not targeted in our molecular assays, e.g. \u003cem\u003eE. nuttalli, E. polecki, E. hartmanni\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eE. chattoni\u003c/em\u003e, as well as species not yet described [15, 27, 70].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe high presence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e has been reported in primates previously [70, 71]. In collared mangabey (\u003cem\u003eCercocebus torquatus\u003c/em\u003e), common patas monkey (\u003cem\u003eErythrocebus patas\u003c/em\u003e) and Sykes' monkey (\u003cem\u003eCercopithecus mitis albogularis)\u003c/em\u003e, we detected amoebic cysts with 5 or more nuclei and genomic DNA of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e .which strongly supports the species-level identification of the detected forms of the parasites [19, 27].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo genomic DNA of \u003cem\u003eE. histolytica\u003c/em\u003e was detected. The presence of this protozoan in humans is usually associated with severe gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloody diarrhoea and intestinal ulceration [58], which can lead to cachexia and even death. On the other hand, in a 2010 study on a large group of asymptomatic captive NHPs, \u003cem\u003eE. histolytica\u003c/em\u003e was detected in 36% of \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp. positive samples [70]. Detection of commensal \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp. appears to be more common than that of pathogenic species [65]. Therefore, the use of molecular methods for accurate identification of pathogenic species is justified.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp. is one of the most frequently detected protozoa in both humans and NHPs, in Europe and globally [12, 58]. In Italian zoological gardens, it was among the most commonly identified parasites, with a notably high positivity rate of 84.6% [12]. Similarly, in two zoos in France, qPCR analysis revealed that 60.3% (44/73) of the samples and 59.0% (23/39) of the primate species tested were positive for \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e sp. [72]. Furthermore, The \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e subtypes (STs) detected in NHPs predominantly included ST1, ST2, ST3, ST5, and ST8, whereas ST4, ST7, ST10, ST13, and ST15 were identified less often [71\u0026ndash;74]. The detection rate of \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e cysts in our study was 13.8%, significantly lower than that reported in previous research. This discrepancy is most likely due to differences in molecular methods, particularly the use of PCR [15, 71, 75]. The high prevalence of \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e in certain groups of captive NHPs, combined with the genetic similarity of isolates found in humans, may indicate a potential risk of zoonotic or anthroponotic transmission [72]. For example, in the Perth Zoo, zookeepers, including those working with primates, who reported gastrointestinal symptoms were found to be infected with \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e, albeit with uncomplicated clinical outcomes [75]. Although \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e is often described as an asymptomatic commensal in NHPs, it is possible that under stressful conditions, it may contribute to disease development [71]. Overall, current data highlight the importance of monitoring its presence in zoological gardens, which represent environments with an elevated risk of zoonotic transmission [12, 15].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the case of \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u003c/em\u003e spp., the selected microscopic technique was not sufficiently accurate for oocyst detection. Consequently, molecular analyses were performed, given their well-documented high sensitivity [76]. No genetic material of \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u003c/em\u003e spp. was detected, which did not confirm the results obtained using a rapid strip test for \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium parvum\u003c/em\u003e antigens. This discrepancy may stem from the lack of validation of such tests for species other than those commonly associated with human infections, potentially resulting in false-positive results [27, 76]. Nevertheless, since no diagnostic tests are specifically designed for NHPs, we assessed the test as a potential screening tool for animal caretakers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA 2010 study conducted in Italy employed the widely used Ziehl\u0026ndash;Neelsen staining method, which yielded a high positivity rate (66%) among primates [30]. However, this method is prone to false positives, as oocysts can be misidentified as yeast cells or bacterial spores. Moreover, oocyst morphology is variable, and microscopic techniques do not allow for species-level identification. A a result, there is increasing support for the routine application of molecular diagnostic methods [76, 77]. It is important, that even highly sensitive techniques, such as nested PCR or ELISA, are not entirely free from error. Comparable findings have been reported in other zoological gardens, where no \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u003c/em\u003e spp. DNA was detected [5, 12]. Such outcomes may also reflect improved zoo management practices, including enhanced water quality control and stricter hygiene protocols for the handling of fruits and vegetables. Accordingly, we recommend confirming the presence of \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u003c/em\u003e spp. using at least two diagnostic approches from different methodological categories. In future studies, the use of more sensitive techniques, such as qPCR, may be preferable [76].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on statistical analysis, we conclude that \u003cem\u003eCatarrhini\u003c/em\u003e were the most frequently affected by parasitic infections, which is consistent with findings from France [19]. Furthermore, our results confirm observations from a large-scale study on primates in China, indicating that arboreal NHPs were less frequently infected with parasites [31]. Despite efforts to replicate natural habitats, the living conditions in zoological gardens differ significantly from those in the wild. Consequently, animal behaviors and routines may also vary. In the zoos studied, animals are housed in carefully adapted environments, often with access to natural substrates, outdoor areas and standing water bodies, which provide exposure to soil. To facilitate species-specific behaviors, many enclosures were equipped with exchangeable bedding, platforms, trees, and suspended structures. However, the complete removal of contaminants from such surfaces remains particularly challenging. Moreover, animals in zoological gardens are confined to limited spaces, which may reduce their exposure to external sources of infection. However, such confinement also facilitates the rapid spread of pathogens within groups and promotes the accumulation of infectious stages in the environment, thereby increasing the risk of autoinfection. All these factors may contribute to the accumulation of invasive forms in a closed environment [12]. Our study revealed considerable variation in enclosure conditions both between and within zoological gardens. However, no differences in the rate of parasite occurrence were found between the individual zoological gardens (χ\u0026sup2;(4)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.78, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.311).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA significant part of the diet of many primates in zoos consists of raw vegetables and fruits, which may serve as a source of foodborne parasites known to infect humans, such as \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis, Entamoeba\u003c/em\u003e spp., and \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e sp. [17]. Improper handling of animals or their food by caretakers can increase the risk of zoonotic transmission [28]. Numerous studies have documented the negative effects of close contact between NHPs and zoo personnel or visitors [63]. Humans may introduce pathogens into enclosures via outerwear, footwear, tools, or transfer them through direct contact [27]. Additionally, caretakers moving between enclosures without adhering proper hygiene precautions may facilitate cross- contamination between different primate groups [28]. In our study, statistical analysis did not reveal a correlation between direct human-animal contact and the presence of gastrointestinal parasites. This may be due to the fact that caretakers in the zoos studied are well-trained and adhere to strict personal hygiene protocols before, during, and after contact, minimises anthropogenic infections.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother crucial external factor contributing to parasite transmission is the presence of insects, small mammals such (e.g. rats, mice, squirrels, and hedgehogs), as well as birds, which may act as intermediate hosts or reservoirs, facilitating the spread of pathogens within enclosures and water sources [27]. Larger animals can also enter zoo premises uncontrollably, such as free-roaming cats in Poland, which may be carriers of \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e and other parasites [78]. Unfortunately, the presence of small wild animals cannot be effectively controlled in zoological settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, regular examinations and targeted treatment significantly impact the health and welfare of primates kept in captivity and should be standard practice in well-managed zoological gardens. Long-term studies conducted at Ljubljana Zoo in Slovenia demonstrated that regular monitoring and treatment reduced mortality caused by parasitic infections [28].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, effective parasite control in zoological settings requires the implementation of strict hygiene measures, limitations on human\u0026ndash;animal contact, regular enclosure sanitation, health screening, and post-transport quarantine protocols. Education of zoo staff and visitors regarding biosecurity is also essential [19, 30].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy limitations\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt should be noted that our study had certain methodological limitations: fecal samples were pooled and collected from the ground during a single collection; molecular screening targeted selected protozoan species; helminth eggs were not subjected to molecular identification; and no targeted staining method was employed. Despite that, we ensured the results obtained were reliable and comparable with findings from other zoological gardens.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the case of NHPs, rectal sampling would have required invasive procedures and cause a significant stress. Moreover, in the zoos studied, individual sampling was not possible due to animal welfare concerns - animals are kept in social groups and cannot be isolated. Furthermore, repeated entry into enclosures would also disrupt their routines. Therefore, faecal samples were collected during regular enclosure visits, with the assistance of handlers, to minimise environmental disturbance. Enclosures were cleaned 24 hours before the sampling, ensuring the material collected was no older than one day. Samples were taken from the upper part, avoiding contact with the substrate and minimasing contamination. Pool size was adjusted to the number of animals in the group, and it was randomly collected from the majority of faeces found in the enclosure. The sampling method was based on previously published articles [27, 63].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe focused on the morphological identification of detected helminths and molecular identification of protozoa, though extended molecular analyses are planned for future studies. A widely applied and effective concentration technique was used, suitable for detecting both protozoa and helminths. Direct smears were prepared to detect protozoan trophozoites. However, due to their high susceptibility to environmental changes and rapidly degrade upon leaving the host organism. Therefore, molecular methods were employed for genome detection. To our research, we selected starters targeted the most common diarrhoea-causing protozoa in humans: \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis, E. histolytica\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u003c/em\u003e spp., along with morphologically similar protozoa [5]. We also used well-tested and widely applied primers and protocols for molecular diagnostics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that, despite a high level of awareness regarding parasitic infections in primates housed in zoological gardens, infection prevalence within captive populations remains substantial. Our findings indicate that both lifestyle and access to outdoor enclosures have a significant impact on the parasite occurrence, emphasizing the critical importance of maintaining high hygiene standards for enclosure surfaces. Regular faecal examinations and targeted deworming are essential for effective parasite control in captive animals. Future research should include expanded molecular diagnostics and investigate the potential role of zoo staff in the transmission of anthropozoonotic parasites within Polish zoological gardens.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ebg\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e- beta-giardin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003egdh\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e- glutamate dehydrogenase\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGI \u0026ndash;\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Giardia intestinalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eassemblages\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNHP \u0026ndash; non-human primates\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePCR - polymerase chain reaction\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSSU-rRNA - small subunit ribosomal RNA\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eST - \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e subtypes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSTN\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;-\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003esoil-transmitted nematodes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003etpi\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e- triose phosphate isomerase\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was not required for this study as the sampling was non-invasive and did not cause any harm or distress to the animals. All procedures were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe publication fee was covered by Science development fund of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences \u0026ndash; SGGW.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe individual contributions were as follows: M.N. - conceptualization, project administration, methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, resources, writing - original draft, main manuscript text preparation, preparation of Figure 1, graphical abstract and all tables; D.J. - methodology, supervision, validation, resources, \u0026nbsp; visualisation (figure 1 and 2), review and editing; A.D. - conceptualization, resources, validation, review and editing; O.S. - data curation, review and editing; R.S. - statistical analysis, review and editing; P.Ż. and P.K. - methodology, resources, funding acquisition; N.Z., M.K., A.C., M.Z. - validation, resources and investigation, review; K.A. - project administration, funding acquisition, review, supervision. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHabel A, Mroczkowski S (2015) Cele I Zadania Ogrod\u0026oacute;w Zoologicznych = The Objectives And Tasks Of Zoos. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.32287\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCapasso M, Ciuca L, Procesi IG, et al (2022) Single and Synergistic Effects of Fenbendazole and Metronidazole Against Subclinical Infection by Giardia duodenalis in Non-Human Primates in a Zoological Garden in Southern Italy. Front Vet Sci 9:929443. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.929443\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eK\u0026ouml;ster PC, Lapuente J, Cruz I, et al (2022) Human-Borne Pathogens: Are They Threatening Wild Great Ape Populations? 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Piast\u0026oacute;w Slaskich we Wroclawiu\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLima TA, Salgado PAB, Chagas CRF, et al (2020) Feral Cats: Parasitic Reservoirs in Our Zoos? OJVM 10:126\u0026ndash;138. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojvm.2020.108011\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Non-human primates, intestinal parasites, zoonoses, public health, nested PCR, zoological gardens","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7240201/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7240201/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eZoological gardens play a crucial role in the conservation of endangered species. Non-human primates (NHPs) in captivity are exposed to close human contact and various stressors, increasing their susceptibility to numerous diseases, mostly zoonotic. In this study, we conducted a parasitological analysis of primates in five zoological gardens in Poland.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFecal samples were collected from 182 animals, representing 37 NHP species, living in 59 groups. The samples were analyzed using a concentrated smear technique, rapid antigen immunochromatographic tests, and molecular diagnostics targeting protozoa. Additionally, sequencing was conducted on samples that tested positive for \u003cem\u003eGiardia intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParasites were detected in 78% of samples. Microscopic examination revealed the presence of nematodes (\u003cem\u003eTrichuris\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eCapillaria\u003c/em\u003e spp., Strongylida suborder), cestode (\u003cem\u003eHymenolepis diminuta\u003c/em\u003e), and protozoa (\u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e, Trichostomadidae family, intestinal amoebas, and \u003cem\u003eBlastocystis\u003c/em\u003e spp.). Molecular analysis confirmed the presence of genomic DNA from \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePentatrichomonas hominis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba spp.\u003c/em\u003e No \u003cem\u003eCryptosporidium\u003c/em\u003e spp. or \u003cem\u003eEntamoeba histolytica\u003c/em\u003e DNA were detected. Sequencing identified \u003cem\u003eG. intestinalis\u003c/em\u003e subtype B in six NHPs species. As a result of statistical analysis, it turned out that parasites occurred more frequently in \u003cem\u003eCatarrhini\u003c/em\u003e parvorder and in primates with a terrestrial lifestyle.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study presents investigation of intestinal parasites in captive primates in Poland, covering multiple zoological gardens and employing comprehensive molecular diagnostics. Our findings highlight the necessity of regular parasitological screening of primates and further research into transmission pathways and zoonotic potential.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Intestinal Parasites in Captive Non-Human Primates in Polish Zoological Gardens: Molecular Identification of Common Intestinal Protozoa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-06 12:32:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7240201/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"233823c9-f823-4ef5-aea8-ccb6f9b76231","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":55792817,"name":"Health sciences/Diseases"},{"id":55792818,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":55792819,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology"},{"id":55792820,"name":"Biological sciences/Microbiology"},{"id":55792821,"name":"Biological sciences/Zoology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-06T12:32:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-06 12:32:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7240201","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7240201","identity":"rs-7240201","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}