English Medium Instruction (EMI), Challenges, and Coping Strategies: Stances of Dalit Students and Teaches in Institutes of HE in India

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Learning through English medium instruction is a pervasive problem for Dalit students whose English is generally considered poor due to poor schooling. The objective of this study is to explore the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu. While doing so, this study also attempts to understand their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and successes concerning EMI at HE. The findings are based on an analysis of a questionnaire survey completed by 57 research students and 25 teacher interviews. Findings show that English is the preferred medium of HE, especially for accessing knowledge, resources, and educational and employment opportunities globally. However, they also view the use of their mother tongue as a strategic tool to mitigate Dalit Students’ dual challenge: a) mastering content and b) managing EMI in HE. The findings of this study recommend that teachers and other stakeholders of HE reconsider equity, linguistic justice, and democratisation of choice of MI and adopt linguistically and culturally responsive pedagogies that recognise and empower Dalit students. English medium Instruction (EMI) Higher Education (HE) Dalit students and teachers language attitudes India Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction English Medium Instruction (EMI) is an expanding global phenomenon because many countries now adopt it as a medium of graduate and postgraduate programmes (Macaro et al., 2017). EMI is defined here as “the use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself) in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English” (Macaro et al., 2017. P.36). In many Asian and African countries, it continues to proliferate as the exclusive medium of higher education (HE), especially in science, law, arts, and commerce education (Jayaram, 1993), despite the government’s policies to promote vernacular language and culture (Ramanathan, 2005; Ramanathan, 2016). EMI is seen as a means to promote the internationalization of HE and a form of linguistic capital that provides more access to educational and employment opportunities globally. This relentless EMI trend stems from the assumption that teaching technical and non-language subjects in English can enhance students’ English language competency and content knowledge, which, in turn, may provide more opportunities for better socioeconomic mobility (Bhattacharya, 2013; Evans & Morrison, 2016; Tollefson, 2015) Because of the predominant position of EMI in HE, acquiring adequate English language skills is essential for successful academic performance (Deshpande & Zacharias, 2013) and thriving in the competitive global job market. However, students who lack English language proficiency often struggle to succeed academically, which can result in poor academic performance, low self-esteem, and restricted access to knowledge, resources and opportunities. Some students from elite-educated classes, where English has been taught for generations, acquire English language skills naturally and find learning through EMI easy. On the other hand, most students from marginalised and oppressed sections, who mostly do not have adequate exposure to English, find learning through EMI a massive challenge in HE. Therefore, using English as the exclusive medium of HE creates educational disparities between those who know English and those who do not (Ramanathan, 2005). This highlights that English has become a double-edged sword; it can be a weapon of empowerment and disempowerment. While English is a language of power and status, it also functions as a tool of discrimination, marginalisation, and inequality (Rathod, 2023), one of the odds against which most Dalit students suffer at tertiary-level education (Singh, 2013). Several studies have explored the impact of EMI in HE, focusing on pedagogical challenges, policy implementations, and its implications (Bradford, 2016; Galloway & Rose, 2021; Kirkpatrick, 2014; Sah & Li, 2017). Similarly, studies on Dalit students at HE in India have explored accessibility, challenges and coping strategies (Bhoi & Gorringe, 2023; Mahapatra, 2018), and exclusion and discrimination (Deshpande & Zacharias, 2013; Ovichegan, 2015; Rathod, 2023; Singh, 2017; Sukumar, 2022). However, very little research focuses specifically on how EMI in HE impact Dalit students and teachers (Bhoi & Gorringe, 2023; Mahapatra, 2018; Ramanathan, 2005; Vaish, 2008). This area remains an utterly neglected field. This present study aims to address this gap, focusing on Dalit students’ challenges, sufferings, and coping strategies in relation to EMI at the tertiary level (Dong & Han, 2023). The objective of this study is to explore the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu. While doing so, this study also attempts to understand their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and successes concerning EMI at HE. EMI, Inclusivity, and Social Justice in Higher Education Implementing the EMI policy may engender equality and social justice concerns in many Asian countries (Fang, 2025). In India, English as a sole medium of higher education is another form of social division and exclusion (Mohanty, 2017; Pennycook, 2017). As Tai (2022) argues that learners’ opportunities to succeed or fail in education can be influenced in many complex ways by factors such as language barriers, disabilities, gender, social class, and ethnicity, EMI policy in India primarily benefits those elite who have many centuries of formal education, lucrative jobs, and English-speaking backgrounds and disadvantages those from rural and socioeconomically marginalised and non-English-speaking background (Mohanty, 2017; Ramanathan, 2005; Rao, 2017). Since colonial times, English education has been associated with elites and vernacular education with ‘multitudes’ (Devy, 2013). These disparities, known as the English-vernacular divide (Ramanathan, 2005), have been developed through colonial and post-colonial policies, institutional policies, and pedagogical practices, which, in turn, perpetuate and reinforce power and knowledge inequalities between those who know English and those who do not. English remains inaccessible to Dalits because of their caste and/ or class (Ramanathan, 2005), and EMI, caste, and class together weaken the opportunities of Dalit students’ access to knowledge and resources and participation in higher education (Devy, 2013). Since English is the medium through which all knowledge deemed to be “sacred and sanctimonious” is produced (Devy, 2013), the lack of adequate English language skills is the greatest obstacle faced by Dalit students in education (Rathod, 2023; Sabharwal & Malish, 2016) because they need to “cope with content as well as English language learning” (Meganathan, 2025, p. 371). The sufferings of these students resulting from their poor English competency are described as “cumulative disadvantage”—deficiency accumulated in schooling continues to affect their upward mobility in education and job market (Sen, 2000, 2008). For instance, the classroom transaction happens invariably in English marginalising these students: Dalit students often feel excluded when teachers and other students interact with those who can converse in fluent English (Devy, 2013). This highlights that EMI perpetuate linguistic marginalisation and educational inequality, causing injustice for children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This kind of epistemic injustice— "a wrong done to someone especially in their capacity as a knower” (Fricker, 2007, p. 1) often happens when individuals or group of people are marginalised, and their experiences, perspectives, and ways of knowing are being “devalued or overlooked” (Dong & Han, 2023, p. 2). Also, English as the exclusive medium of higher education, especially in content-area subjects (science, technology, mathematics, and social science), undermines education in local languages (Sah & Li, 2024). Neglecting to account for the language students are comfortable in is an active form of social exclusion. However, the recent trend indicates a change in linguistic ecology that recognises the value of local and native languages in education (Patel et al., 2023). Although the demand for exclusive EMI prevails, a growing body of evidence suggests that local languages are integrated within EMI classrooms to facilitate various classroom tasks and interactions. Integrating students’ common first language and cultural settings that students share with their teacher and other classmates can create equal opportunities and social inclusion in the classroom (Tai, 2022), promote social justice fighting social exclusion and working towards equity (Salend & Garrick-Duhaney, 1999), improve students’ academic achievement, and increase peer acceptance and self-esteem (ibid). The following section briefly overviews perceptions of EMI, unequal access to HE, and social exclusion in India. Background Perceiving English as the gatekeeper of HE and higher-paying jobs (Bhattacharya, 2013), people from lower socio-economic sections express a strong desire to acquire English (Bhattacharya, 2013). Particularly, Dalits consider English an emancipatory tool that can be used to overcome traditional caste-based discrimination and oppression (Mathew, 2022). It is true that quality English education can help, but it is beyond the reach of Dalits because of their caste and/or economy (Ramanathan, 2005). In other words, the simplistic development perspective of English contributes to the production and reproduction of social inequalities. For instance, thinking that EMI helps their children develop English proficiency and access better job opportunities, poor parents spend a large portion of their income on sending their children to low-cost English medium schools, where the quality of instruction is generally considered poor. As a result, Dalit children develop poor English competency, which further impoverishes or doubly disadvantages Dalit students (Bhattacharya, 2013; Mathew, 2022). Therefore, the relationship between English and development is paradoxical because it is the language of elite formation and mass exclusion in India. This is what Bedi (2020) calls a language of dichotomy: English positively impacts economic growth but plays a negative role in inclusive growth. Differential English language proficiency and type of schooling (English or vernacular) have become a means of social exclusion and discrimination (Ramanathan, 2005). Students who attended vernacular medium school are disdained as “an inferior category”, and consequently, they also suffer from an inferiority complex (Jayaram, 1993, p. 112). The prevalence of this dual system of education—the rich and low-resourced schools—is what exacerbates the elitism of English speakers. To quote Sunder Rajan (1992): the existence of (a small number of) expensive public schools where English is the MI from the lowest classes, along with (a preponderance of) regional-language schools, for the most part run by governments or municipalities, where English is taught—badly—as a subject for a few years. (p. 19) During colonial times, the medium of HE was English, and access to HE required proficiency in English. Those elite minorities who received EMI played an intermediate role between the British administrators and Indians and performed administrative jobs in the British government of India. The knowledge of English gave them lucrative jobs, power, and prestige. These elite English-speaking Indians enjoyed a monopoly of EMI, and hence, they showed “a vested interest in its continuance in postcolonial India (Basu, 1989, p. 168). As many features of the colonial education system continue even today (Basu, 1989), EMI benefits only those affluents who have centuries of formal education in their family. In addition, Ramanathan (2005) argues that access to English is confined to the elite and middle classes through state and nationwide institutional policies and certain pedagogical practices, disseminating knowledge and power unequally between those who know English and those who do not. This is the paradox that Tollefson (2000: 8) warns: “At a time when English is widely seen as a key to the economic success of nations and the economic well-being of individuals, the spread of English also contributes to significant social, political, and economic inequalities.” Dalit students’ lack of English competency is “a pervasive problem” even for academically brilliant students in HE (Rathod, 2023, p. 106). They find it a ‘deeply unnerving experience’ transitioning from regional medium school education to English medium HE (Deshpande & Zacharias, 2013, p. 300). Many struggle to comprehend their lecturers’ fluent English and have become vulnerable in university settings. For instance, Rathod (2023) observes that their poor English language skills are reflected in “their academic performance, self-confidence and social relationships with peers who appear sophisticated” (p. 206). As Dalit students are aware of the interference of their mother tongue in their accent when they speak English, Dalit students often feel uncomfortable interacting with their peers who are fluent in English: their apprehension is to avoid being hurt by people's rude and sarcastic comments about their accents (Mahapatra, 2018). This significantly exacerbates their feelings of low self-confidence, dissecting them from their English-speaking upper-caste peers. The challenge is even worse for first-generation Dalit students who do not know basic English. Some feel the need to improve their English language skills even after enrolling in their PhD programme. They feel more anxious about their academic work, especially academic writing conducted in English, which also leads to them dropping out of their doctoral studies (Rathod, 2023). This shows that lack of English competency affects their academic journey in HE, from undergraduate to PhD, and remains a persistent obstacle to their academic success and future career prospects (Rathod, 2023). Exploring the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu, this present study attempts to understand their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and successes concerning EMI at HE. Research Questions What are the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI (EMI) in institutes HE in Tamil Nadu? What coping strategies are employed by Dalit students and teachers to manage the challenges posed by EMI in HE? Methodology Students A survey questionnaire consisting of both open and closed items was distributed to one hundred and thirty students between the ages of 25 and 35, pursuing PhD and MPhil courses in various disciplines from various higher educational institutions in Tamil Nadu. Only 124 students returned the filled-in questionnaire, including 114 completed and 10 incomplete ones. Of 114, 57 (49 males and 8 females) were the study samples, which included 45 first-generation learners and 12 second-generation (Table 1 ). This study could not maintain a balanced gender proportion between male and female participants due to the methodological restraint of using the exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling technique to collect data. The rationale for choosing this sampling technique is to avoid caste-based stereotypes, which is a very sensitive issue in India. Moreover, the skewed gender ratio in this study could be the result of gender inequality persisting in HE; female students face a significant challenge in obtaining equal opportunities as their male students. In addition, as most Dalit students are first-generation English learners, this study could not ensure an equal number of participants from the first- and second-generation learners. Table 1 Details of the Student Participants’ MOI, Learning Generation and Category MOI Generation Category SC ST MBC BC OC Total Tamil First-generation learners 34 1 7 9 1 52 Second or more-generation learners 6 0 1 2 0 9 Total 40 1 8 11 1 61 English First-generation learners 11 0 4 6 3 24 Second or more-generation learners 6 1 6 9 7 29 Total 17 1 10 15 10 53 Total First-generation learners 45 1 11 15 4 76 Second or more-generation learners 12 1 7 11 7 38 Total 57 2 18 26 11 114 *SC = Schedule Caste *ST = Schedule Tribe *MBC = Most Backward Castes *BC = Backward Caste *OC = Other Caste Teachers Initially, 40 teachers who teach English at a tertiary level were approached and informed about the purposes of the study through telephone conversation. Of 40, 39 teachers expressed willingness to provide data, but some frequently postponed their meetings due to busy schedules and other constraints. Then, 29 one-to-one interviews were conducted, which included 22 male teachers and 7 female teachers with teaching experience ranging from 5 to 27 years. Analysis Teachers’ interview responses were analysed to identify themes and patterns (Braun & Clark, 2006). First, 25 teacher interviews were transcribed and read several times by the researchers to familiarise themselves with the data. Then, initial codes were developed, and responses aligned with these codes were grouped. Finally, these codes were mapped into themes. A similar procedure was used to analyse the responses obtained for the open-ended items in the questionnaire. Responses obtained for the closed-ended items were analysed using quantitative descriptive analysis. Ethical Consideration This study was conducted in accordance with research ethical standards. It was approved by Institutional Ethics Committee, University of Hyderabad, India. Also, an informed consent form was obtained from all participants, and their participation in this study was completely voluntary. Moreover, the confidentiality of the participants was ensured, and their identities were not revealed throughout the study process. For example, respondents were assigned numbers when analysing the data and reporting the findings. Findings Given below are the attitudes of teachers regarding MI in HE. Teachers’ Interview Analysis In India, poor English language skills lead to caste-based discrimination and social exclusion in HE (Ovichegan, 2015 ). As English is the MI in HE, poor English proficiency becomes a huge obstacle that prohibits Dalit students from participating in classroom discussions (Maurya, 2018 ; Rathod, 2023 ). It is essential to know how students’ English language proficiency affects teachers’ attitudes towards the MI. This section reports teachers’ responses to the following question: What is your belief about the MI in HE? Their responses have been thematically mapped and reported in Table 2 . The themes mapped are: Bilingual or mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBE) is effective. English is the necessary MI. These two themes explain teachers’ multiple and conflicting attitudes towards the MI in HE. Responses in these themes demonstrate whether teachers, as language planners at the institute level, accept or resist the English medium policy in HE and show that their choice of MI is influenced by Dalit students in HE. Table 2 Teachers’ beliefs about the medium of HE Theme Interview Excerpts Bilingual or mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBE) is effective. IN3…Bilingualism is good because we can have a good rapport with students… I must make them understand the subject… They gain confidence and don’t feel inferior... IN9…We can have a second, the global medium… but… universities must be free places for learning in the mother tongue. It is students’ choice. IN22… Most first-generation learners… find it difficult to understand English. So, bringing parallel in mother tongue… will make the students grasp it easily. In 23… In HE, students face difficulties…because English is not taught properly at the primary level…when they come to college, they are neither good at their mother tongue nor proficient in English. English is a necessary MI at the tertiary level. IN.6… at the tertiary level, education must be in global language primarily because of the availability of resources, especially in science and technology…A student who studies economics in Tamil medium may never get opportunities to do HE or a career outside the state. IN.8. In the current scenario, you feel the impact of globalisation on all walks of human life. Now, English education has become very important… which makes you a very important person in the job market. IN18…when you go for higher studies, especially science and engineering, English will give us enormous circumstances or situations. IN19…English is a necessary evil. English…is affecting some people…the problem is that the government is not focusing on the grassroots level…teachers should be trained properly. The first theme—The importance of mother tongue-based education (MTBE)—show the language attitudes of teachers who acknowledge the significance of mother tongue for creating empowering learning environments. These teachers' responses reflect their belief that bilingual pedagogy is beneficial for establishing rapport with students, enhancing students’ understanding, and increasing their confidence levels. Their responses also demonstrate their critical awareness of the need to challenge and resist the prevalent EMI at the tertiary level. For instance, Respondent 9 argues that the medium of HE must be the student’s choice. In this theme, teachers explain the significance of a medium of education, especially to enhance accessibility and understanding, democratise language choice, and promote language rights. Teachers’ affirmative attitudes towards mother tongue-based bilingual education indicate their resistance against the hegemonic English-only medium and commitment to promoting inclusivity and equity in education. The second theme, English is the primary medium of HE, shows the language attitudes of teachers who accept the dominance of EMI at the tertiary level but are also critical of differential language proficiencies among students. Their responses demonstrate the common consensus that proficiency in English is essential for academic and professional success globally. Teachers' attitudes suggest that English language skills are often overrated as essential to competitiveness in the global marketplace and accessing greater educational resources (especially in science and technology. Moreover, the excerpts also reveal a dichotomous attitude among teachers: while they acknowledge English as a tool for advancement, they are also critical of the systemic inequality it creates between students who are proficient in English and those who are not. This is evident when Respondent 19 says, “English is a necessary evil.” The critical issue highlighted here is not just about EMI itself but the poor implementation of the medium of HE policy, lack of adequate teacher training, and other socio-economic and institutional barriers. Overall, the positive language attitudes convey the ideological standpoint of teachers who believe in the instrumental aspects of English in navigating resources and opportunities. Dalit teachers’ experience with learning and teaching English Dalit students, particularly first-generation learners from rural and poor socio-economic backgrounds, are often exposed to humiliation and discrimination in HE because of their poor English competency (Maurya, 2018 ; Rathod, 2023 ; Sukumar, 2023). As Rathod ( 2023 ) points out, the lack of English proficiency has also become the “biggest obstacle” to Dalit students’ “academic progress” throughout their undergraduate and postgraduate degrees (p. 126). Although these studies mainly focus on Dalit students’ struggles in HE, there is still much to explore about their educational experiences of learning (in) English. This section reports teachers’ responses to the question: What did you think of English as a learner? Can you describe some important aspects of your English learning experience? In Table 3 , their responses have been mapped into three themes: First-generation learners find learning (in) English very difficult. Second-generation learners find learning (in) English relatively easy. First-generation students’ English learning strategies. The first theme, first-generation learners find learning (in) English difficult, provides insights into the language attitudes of Dalit teachers who once navigated through the challenges of English-medium HE. As these teachers share their learning experiences, their reflections reveal their emotional and academic struggles associated with transitioning from Tamil-medium school education to English-medium HE. The description of their feeling of “inferiority, hesitation, and nervousness” highlights how language barriers affect students’ self-esteem, academic engagement, and sense of belonging in the academic sphere. Furthermore, teachers’ observation about the school education system—which encourages rote learning over genuine comprehension—highlights their critical view that such a system leaves students poorly prepared for English-medium HE and creates an academic gap. These critical attitudes represent teachers’ ideological views that the exclusive use of EMI threatens Dalit students’ sense of belonging in HE and may lead to high dropouts (Singh, 2017 ). Table 3 Teachers’ experience with learning and teaching (in) English Theme Interview Excerpts First-generation learners find learning (in) English very difficult. IN.1… Even after completing my post-graduation, I was not able to speak or write one complete sentence in English, proper and errorless English. IN.4… When I entered…my UG, I had many problems in speaking English and communicating with others. I faced an inferiority complex, …hesitation and nervousness. IN.24…we studied English as one of the subjects… we used to memorise the answers and reproduce them in the exams. So, we learn expressions without understanding the meaning. Second-generation learners find learning (in) English relatively easy. IN.3… I learnt to speak in English in my childhood days. My father used to communicate with me in English. Since I’m brought up in a good family background… I didn’t find any difficulty. IN.15… I had my parents to support me… there were my grandparents to teach me proper English. So, I was able to come up. IN.16…I learnt English at a very early age. My aunt and parents introduced me to reading English books when I was in school. So, there is no difficulty… First-generation students’ learning strategies i. Talking to friends ii. Reading books iii. Constructing imaginary dialogues IN.1 My roommate was an Oriya. So, I was forced to communicate with him in English…writing letters and talking to my roommate, I picked up my English. IN.20…I think my learning English comes from there, me talking to my classmates, my hostel mates, my friends. I can see the improvement that happened. IN 18. The campus helped me meet many people and talk in English. It has given me the opportunity and the platform to speak in English… IN.18… doing the second year PG, …We decided to speak in English for three months. So, the main transition took place. Plus, reading helps me a lot. IN.21 My strategy was to read the dictionary like it’s a book... The dictionary is next to me most of the time because I want to use different words. IN.19... When I travel to places, I usually talk to myself in English. When you practice regular, you can also speak English. IN.24… I often construct an imaginary dialogue within myself where I will always be answering the questions, and the other self of me asks questions…. So, that also helped me pick up some key expressions, sentence structures and all that. The second set of responses, Second-generation learners find learning (in) English relatively easy, are language attitudes conveyed by Dalit teachers who perceive learning (in) English as less challenging. Their language attitudes indicate generational differences among Dalit teachers concerning their English learning experiences. Their responses in Table 3 suggest that parental education and early exposure to English can significantly enhance students’ English language proficiency and support their academic performance. In this theme, teachers’ responses reflect their belief that educated parents can provide an English-speaking environment at home, making learning (through) English more accessible and less daunting for second-generation students. For interviewee 3, learning English was augmented at home and became easy, not intimidating. The first two themes reflect contrasting educational experiences and persistent inequalities within the Dalit community regarding learning (in) English. While first-generation learners do not have any supportive system to access resources and get exposure to English, second-generation learners benefit significantly from an environment where English is already a part of domestic and academic practice. This highlights the need for educational policies and pedagogical practices to address these disparities and develop more sensitive approaches to support first-generation learners. The third theme, first-generation students’ English learning strategies, expresses the language attitude of teachers who reflect on acquiring English language proficiency as first-generation learners. Their personal learning strategies—engaging in conversation with peers (Mahapatra, 2018 ), reading English materials such as books and dictionaries, and constructing imaginary dialogues—indicate a self-directed and immersive approach to language acquisition (see Table 3 ). In this theme, teachers illustrate that strong perseverance, consistent practice, and regular social interaction are essential for acquiring English. Such efforts made without family support highlights the significance of institutional and peer environments. For instance, respondents 1 and 18 report that their English language skills were enhanced in institutes of HE. Here, teachers’ responses reflect their strong perseverance and self-directed efforts to overcome their language barriers consciously. Thus, the language attitudes expressed by these teachers convey a proactive approach that, despite their social, economic, and linguistic constraints, their efforts make learning (via) English practical in the long run. Their attitude also emphasises that a more supportive learning environment is required to augment Dalit students’ learning. Difficulties faced by Dalit students in EMI When asked to report the challenges that teachers or their students face(d) as first-generation English learners, the interview responses yelled the following sub-themes: Articulatory issues in speaking English Lack of vocabulary in English Lack of confidence in using English Lack of exposure to English The excerpts in Table 4 highlight key challenges of first-generation ESL learners, particularly those from the marginalised and oppressed sections. The challenges articulated by teachers are multifaced, including articulatory issues, limited vocabulary, lack of confidence, and inadequate exposure. The prominent theme is the issue of articulation, which conveys the language attitudes of teachers who were anxious about mother-tongue interference—a common hurdle faced by almost all learners that may not be simply a Dalit students’ issues. However, the excerpts also highlight their belief that such issues can be overcome with appropriate support and a more inclusive learning environment. Next, their other problems include limited vocabulary, lack of confidence, and inadequate exposure, which led to low self-efficacy and unwillingness to participate in classroom discussions, which, in turn, hampers overall academic performance. Moreover, teachers explain that Dalit students’ anxiety results from their fear of peers’ sarcastic and intimidating comments. For instance, respondent 19 points out that Dalit students know English, but they are apprehensive because “others may find fault” with their language and “tease” them. This suggests that Dalit students’ struggle in English-medium HE is a much broader issue that cuts across language, caste and other socio-economic disadvantages. Table 4 Difficulties faced by first-generation students in HE regarding EMI Themes Sub-Theme Interview Excerpts Challenges of Learning English Articulatory issues In 8, it is at their articulatory level. It is not only for Dalit students again… all face this kind of problem…the mother tongue influence is also there. IN.11 Basically, with regard to articulation…In our college, they get very many opportunities and platforms… by the third year, they are as good as anyone on campus. Lack of vocabularies IN.18… You take any first-generation learner… they don’t have enough words to speak in English. IN.24. They are not comfortable with new words. So, they lack vocabulary…they lack grammar and they fear pronouncing certain words in class. Lack of confidence IN.3 They lack confidence in themselves. Even though they know the answer, they are hesitant to answer in front of other classmates. IN.19… They know the language… the hindrance is that lack of confidence. If we speak English, others may find fault with our language. They may tease us; that is the main problem. Lack of exposure In.2…there is nobody at home to monitor what stuff they are reading or what problems they are facing. IN.13… All my students invariably face very similar kinds of problems… Though they come from different castes… when it comes to learning English, they are equally bad. Students’ Perspectives on Their English Language Proficiency EMI has become a source of social exclusion and discrimination in HE in India (Chattopadhyay et al., 2021). Sukumar (2023) argues that classroom teaching conducted exclusively in English further marginalises Dalit students. Due to a lack of English skills, most students find the transformation from regional medium school education to English medium HE frightening. They experience a sort of inferiority complex (Singh, 2013) and social exclusion (Sukumar, 2023). This section reports students’ responses to their self-perception about English language skills. Figure 1 shows students' perceptions of their English language ability. Almost all students (93%) believe they can express themselves in English. As they have been learning (in) English for about two decades (average of 21.27 years with SD. 3.362), they are confident about their English language proficiency at the current stage. Although these students report that they are confident about their English language skills, it is helpful to know their experience of learning through the English language, especially to understand their struggles, perceptions, and coping strategies to aid their needs in HE. Therefore, Dalit students were further asked to rate their English learning experience on a five-point Likert scale using the following options: very hard, hard, manageable, easy, and very easy. Figure 2 shows the experience of Dalit students learning English. They have mixed feelings about learning English, ranging from difficult to easy. Most students (41%) rated their learning experience as manageable, indicating their flexibility and adaptability. A significant proportion of participants (35%) found it easy, while a small group (10.2%) found it challenging. Some (6.8%) found it very difficult, and very few (3.4%) found it very easy. These results are further strengthened in students’ descriptive responses to this question, where they mention reasons for their choice. The major themes mapped in students’ written responses are the following: Students’ feelings about learning English are ranging. First-generation students struggle to learn English. Learning English happens in HE. Learning English is easy. The first theme, Students’ feelings about learning English differ, refers to the attitudes of students who experience different feelings at different stages of learning English. They explain that learning English was very difficult at the beginning, manageable at a later stage, and eventually easier. For instance, Respondent 39 found learning through English medium challenging at the beginning of his tertiary education, but he managed to speak and write gradually (Table 5). This shows that students’ strong perseverance and more exposure to English are vital in enhancing their language competencies. This finding also suggests that language barriers or learning difficulties are not inherent quality of these students, although they can be linked to socio-economic and cultural background. The second theme—First-generation students struggle to learn English—shows the language attitudes of first-generation students who think that learning English is difficult without an appropriate sociocultural setup. In this theme, they acknowledge that they could not get familial support to use English at home because most of their parents (53%) are illiterate. For instance, Respondent 41 states that writing is one of the most challenging skills for him to acquire. Their responses in Table 5 emphasize their awareness of the importance of exposure to English and English-speaking culture in acquiring the language, and lack of these hinders them from acquiring it. While it is true that Dalit students may not have anyone at home to help them improve their English language skills, they can find plenty of opportunities and resources online to improve and practice their English language skills. The third set of responses in Table 5 under the theme, Learning English happens in HE, are language attitudes exhibited by Dalit students who admit their English learning takes place in HE. These students believe that the need to undertake extensive academic work in English in HE contributes to developing their English language skills. For instance, Respondent 1 remarks that apart from studying English as a subject, he did not receive any meaningful exposure to the language at school and that he overcame this language barrier by engaging in extensive academic work in English in HE. Furthermore, these students acknowledge that they developed their speaking and writing skills respectively by interacting with English-speaking peers and working on feedback received on their writing. This reflects the language attitudes of students who believe that learning through the English medium at HE helped them improve their English language competencies. Table 5. Students’ self-perception of Difficulty in learning English Theme Excerpts from students’ writing Students’ feelings about learning English range from very difficult to manageable to easy. Res.23…It was hard when I started. It has three stages: the first stage is very hard, the second stage is easier than the first, and the last stage is the easiest. Res.39… After entering college, it is difficult to manage for the first three months. After that, I learned some English… write and speak slowly. First-generation students struggle to learn English. Res.40…As the first generation…, we are not given that much exposure. We are not trained to speak English at home. Res.41…I am also a first-generation learner…. I struggle with writing skills. English belongs to a different language family…So, learning its grammar was not sophisticated. Res.42…It is very hard to learn because no one at home knows English. Learning English happens in HE. Res.01… Until my 12 th standard...I did not have a connection with English except the English subject. After getting into a college, reading and studying in English is inevitable... now I find it easy. Res.02…After 12 th … I picked up conversation skills in English from English-speaking friends. At university, I got more feedback on my write-ups. Res.52…after school, the college and university environment enabled me to expand my vocabulary. English is the preferred MI in HE in India (Chattopadhyay et al., 2021). However, many students who lack English language skills find themselves falling behind their contemporaries. Students, particularly those from disadvantaged communities, will perform poorly if the MI is exclusively confined to English. It is imperative to understand how Dalit students perceive EMI in HE. Such exploration will contribute to the development of inclusivity in HE. To understand students’ preference for the MI, they were asked to respond to the following question using the provided options: EMI in HE is_____? a. Necessary, b. Desirable, c. Optional, d. Undesirable, and e. Unnecessary The following bar chart presents the student preferences for MI. Figure 3 shows that English is essential as a MI for higher studies. It is often rated as 'necessary' and 'desirable'. Only a few students rate it as 'optional' and 'undesirable'. A cross-investigation of the students’ responses reveals that most students who did not prefer English as their medium of learning are first-generation learners. Thus, English as the MI policy at many institutes facilitates students’ outward mobility (Chattopadhyay et al., 2021). This underscores the global significance of English today: doing away with English in HE is undesirable because that negatively impacts students’ educational and employment opportunities globally. These results are further strengthened in the students’ descriptive responses to the question about their preferred MI, where they enumerate the reasons behind their choices. Three themes mapped in their written responses are the following: English is a global medium of communication. Mother tongue medium helps understanding concepts. These three themes illustrate students’ conflicting and multiple attitudes towards English as the medium of HE in Tamil Nadu. In Table 6, students’ responses within the mapped theme are reported. Analysis of these responses demonstrates how students equate EMI with English language skills (Rathod, 2022) to highlight its significance. The first category, English is a global language, shows Dalit students’ uncritical acceptance of English as an essential language of upward socio-economic mobility in a globalised world. Their acceptance of English as a ‘universal language’ positions English as the dominant international language because of its entrenched link to widespread communication with ‘universal communities’ and its deep rootedness as a language of school and HE in many countries worldwide (Macaro et al., 2017). In this theme, students express their consensus that English opens more educational and employment opportunities globally and enables individuals to navigate and succeed in an increasingly globalised economy. They appreciate the global significance of English, as it results from the force that comes through 'globalisation' and 'universality’ For instance, Respondent 1 admits that competency in the English language is essential for accessing a wide range of resources and opportunities. The responses in Table 6 convey affirmative attitudes of students who accept English as the language of international communication for socio and economic mobilisation. Table 6. Perceived importance of English in HE Themes Excerpts from students’ writing English is a global medium of communication. Res.33…For survival in all places, not only in India but in the world. Res.37…The necessity of the English language comes out of the forces and impact of globalisation and universality. Res.28… English is the most used communicative language in the world. Res.52 …it enables one to participate in global employment opportunities. Res.21…In HE, English is necessary to understand research articles, identify and resolve problems, and create innovation for scientific research. Mother tongue medium is important. Res. 01… Mother-tongue is very necessary for everyone. Even to learn a new language, mother tongue is inevitable. Res.7… Mother tongue or regional language is better to understand concepts… Res. 50 … Our mother-tongue is the base of our learning. The second theme—Mother tongue medium is important—illustrates the stances of some students who prefer the mother tongue medium in HE, which, they feel, is essential to comprehend complex concepts and learn English and other foreign languages (Table 6). These students highlight their awareness of the enriching roles their mother tongue (Tamil) plays in their education, making their lessons easier and more enjoyable. Although these students acknowledge the significance of English in today’s world, they are reluctant to accept the dominant notion that EMI is essential for studying their subjects. This finding advocates for incorporating the mother tongue to create a more inclusive and conducive learning environment (Sukumar, 2013). Discussion and Conclusion This study sets out to depict Dalit students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu. The study focuses on their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and academic successes. This section mainly presents the discussion of results pertaining to research questions and suggests ways of understanding the language attitudes of Dalit students and teachers’ attitudes towards EMI. RQ1: What are the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI (EMI) in institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu? It can be inferred from the analysis that students and teachers have different attitudes to MI at school and HE. Their responses can be classified into the following categories: Bilingual or mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBE) is effective. Supporting the use of English as the primary MI in HE. These broad categorisations indicate a complex interplay of social, cognitive, and affective factors that shape the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards MI. In the first category, despite the fact that English is the medium of HE, Dalit students and teachers favour mother tongue-based bilingual education, which is seen as a strategic pedagogical tool for creating a more supportive learning environment, building rapport with students, scaffolding students’ learning, fostering students’ confidence, creating inclusivity, mitigating caste-based discrimination. This is in line with the findings of other research in this area that Dalit students and teachers show positive attitudes to the use of their mother tongue in HE (Sukumar, 2008; Deshpande & Zacharias, 2013), which allows students to use their existing linguistic and cultural resources to comprehend more complex concepts without any cognitive burden. This reveals that Dalits and students practise sustainable additive bilingualism, using their mother tongue in addition to English in HE. However, the findings also reveal the intricate conflict between the use of the mother tongue for better comprehension and the need for more exposure to the English language for educational and career advancements. While Tamil provides cognitive support and promotes better learning, some teachers insist that excessive use of the language may limit students’ exposure to the English language, preventing them from developing English language competency and hindering their long-term educational and socio-economic mobility. Their language attitudes indicate that English language instruction in core subjects will enhance students’ English competence and open the possibilities for better economic and social mobility (Bhattacharya, 2013; Sah & Li, 2017). This conflict reflects the sociolinguist problem of the medium of HE, especially in multilingual postcolonial countries like India, emphasising the need to balance linguistic rights and justice. To overcome this dichotomy, educationists must consider additive bilingualism that recognises the value of the mother tongue while providing meaningful exposure to English. In the second category, Attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI reveal the complex interplay between socio-economic aspiration, structural constraints in regional languages, and the sociopolitical significance of languages in India. Although Dalit students and teachers value their mother tongue, their preferred medium of HE is English as a means of educational and socio-economic advancement (Vaish, 2008). Consequently, education in the mother tongue in a globalised world is criticised for restricting access to resources, education, and employment. This is in line with findings of other studies that English is seen as a source of livelihood and linguistic capital—a means to achieve economic, social, and cultural capital, fight traditional oppression, and create equal opportunities (Mahapatra & Mishra, 2019). Their preference for EMI in HE is to access educational resources and opportunities; more prestigious institutions of HE in India offer STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Medicine) exclusively through English MI (Jayaram, 1993; Macaro et al., 2017; Mahapatra & Mishra, 2019). Dalit students and teachers aspire to embrace the instrumental functionality of English, but mainly, it does not happen at the cost of discarding their mother tongue. However, unequal access to English and differential linguistic competencies between students from privileged backgrounds and students from marginalised sections creates inequalities within HE institutions, which reinforce and strengthen caste-based hierarchies (Ramanathan, 2005). RQ 2: What are the coping strategies employed by Dalit students and teachers to manage the challenges posed by EMI in HE? Findings highlight Dalit students’ linguistic challenge in English-medium HE due to their poor linguistic competency and lack of confidence. The findings reveal that compared to second and more-generation Dalit students, first-generation students from rural and marginalised backgrounds become vulnerable during the first year of their graduation, which is similar to the findings of other studies (Jayaram, 1993; Paik, 2014; Sangole, 2018). They show inhibition in participating in classroom discussions because they fear that their peers may criticise or mock them for committing mistakes and bearing mother tongue interference. This finding aligns with existing research (Maurya, 2018; Sukumar, 2008), which shows that due to mother-tongue interference, Dalit students often feel uncomfortable talking to English-speaking peers. Their apprehension results from fear of being hurt by peer’s rude and sarcastic comments about their accents (Mahapatra, 2020). As a result, Dalit students experience social exclusion and discrimination on campus (Despande & Zacharia, 2013; Mahapatra, 2018; Singh, 2017; Sukumar, 2008). However, the findings also highlight that Dalit teachers and students view the use of their mother tongue as a strategic tool to mitigate a dual challenge: a) mastering content and b) managing EMI (Mahapatra & Mishra, 2019; Sah & Li, 2017). In fact, with the use of their mother tongue, Dalit students and teachers express their “resistance perspective” towards English as the exclusive medium of HE, where they “find ways to negotiate, alter, and oppose political structures, and reconstruct their languages, cultures, and identities to their advantage. The intention is not to reject English, but to reconstitute it in more inclusive, ethical, and democratic terms, and so bring about the creative resolutions to their linguistic conflicts…” (Canagarajah, 1999, p. 2). Findings show that first-generation Dalit students face many challenges in English-medium HE due to their lack of preparatory courses and privilege. Their burden is that they must work hard and study. Despite this, they demonstrate strong resilience and agency by using different strategies—such as reading, peer interaction, and imagined dialogues—to overcome their English language barriers. 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Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800417984-004 Vaish, V. (2008). Language attitudes of urban disadvantaged female students in India: An ethnographic approach. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 29 (3), 198–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434630802147619 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7452889","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":505214072,"identity":"62630ab4-5914-4e0d-bf26-0079ca8546a6","order_by":0,"name":"S Ramamoorthy","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyA+AMRybAyHQbSEDNFajPkYjyWAtPAQpQUEEuWYz4DZhLWYs599eLiiZlsCG9uZz69u1FjwMLAfProBnxbLnnSDg2eO3c5j4zm7zTrnGNBhPGlpN/A67EAaw8EGttvFbBJntxnnsAG1SPCY4ddy/hlQy7/biW3yb54Z5/wjRssNoC2NbUAtDGeYH+e2EaUFaEtj321jNoZjZsy5fRI8bAT9cj6N+WPDt9ty8g2HH3/O+VYnx89++BheLciATQJMEqscBJg/kKJ6FIyCUTAKRg4AAPQoTYsjTZBCAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1135-5865","institution":"SR University, Waranga","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"S","middleName":"","lastName":"Ramamoorthy","suffix":""},{"id":505214073,"identity":"e611f4b0-3d9a-44fc-83a5-982ab2c60aef","order_by":1,"name":"A Dinesh","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-1760-9146","institution":"2Siva Sivani Institute of Management, Hyderabad","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"A","middleName":"","lastName":"Dinesh","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-25 10:45:58","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7452889/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7452889/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89888359,"identity":"b8f811ff-e92a-45d8-8842-a8448ad0e2f0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-26 07:06:06","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13502,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudents' self-perception about their ability to express themselves in English\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7452889/v1/ec3f94b8e98398398feafb62.png"},{"id":89888360,"identity":"2c2e7219-3190-40b7-9c28-14bce09f672d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-26 07:06:07","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17987,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudents' rattings of their feelings about learning English\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7452889/v1/16d60ff733cedf9b796a61ed.png"},{"id":89889631,"identity":"ece8f8c5-c868-4c7a-9762-4112ea173b6a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-26 07:22:07","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14764,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudents' prefernces for EMI in HE\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7452889/v1/5e981ce0cefc2b95abb33b9d.png"},{"id":89890614,"identity":"6f391339-d8d0-4498-9acb-855d540a1609","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-26 07:30:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":759765,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7452889/v1/59e2863f-7b1b-4188-a862-e7ab90ce4bce.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnglish Medium Instruction (EMI), Challenges, and Coping Strategies: Stances of Dalit Students and Teaches in Institutes of HE in India\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eEnglish Medium Instruction (EMI) is an expanding global phenomenon because many countries now adopt it as a medium of graduate and postgraduate programmes (Macaro et al., 2017). EMI is defined here as\u0026nbsp;“the use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself) in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English”\u0026nbsp;(Macaro et al., 2017. P.36). In many Asian and African countries, it continues to proliferate as the exclusive medium of higher education (HE), especially in science, law, arts, and commerce education (Jayaram, 1993), despite the government’s policies to promote vernacular language and culture (Ramanathan, 2005; Ramanathan, 2016). EMI is seen as a means to promote the internationalization of HE and a form of linguistic capital that provides more access to educational and employment opportunities globally. This relentless EMI trend stems from the assumption that teaching technical and non-language subjects in English can enhance students’ English language competency and content knowledge, which, in turn, may provide more opportunities for better socioeconomic mobility (Bhattacharya, 2013; Evans \u0026amp; Morrison, 2016; Tollefson, 2015)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBecause of the predominant position of EMI in HE, acquiring adequate English language skills is essential for successful academic performance (Deshpande \u0026amp; Zacharias, 2013) and thriving in the competitive global job market. However, students who lack English language proficiency often struggle to succeed academically, which can result in poor academic performance, low self-esteem, and restricted access to knowledge, resources and opportunities. Some students from elite-educated classes, where English has been taught for generations, acquire English language skills naturally and find learning through EMI easy. On the other hand, most students from marginalised and oppressed sections, who mostly do not have adequate exposure to English, find learning through EMI a massive challenge in HE. Therefore, using English as the exclusive medium of HE creates educational disparities between those who know English and those who do not (Ramanathan, 2005). This highlights that English has become a double-edged sword; it can be a weapon of empowerment and disempowerment. While English is a language of power and status, it also functions as a tool of discrimination, marginalisation, and inequality (Rathod, 2023), one of the odds against which most Dalit students suffer at tertiary-level education (Singh, 2013).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have explored the impact of EMI in HE, focusing on pedagogical challenges, policy implementations, and its implications (Bradford, 2016; Galloway \u0026amp; Rose, 2021; Kirkpatrick, 2014; Sah \u0026amp; Li, 2017). Similarly, studies on Dalit students at HE in India have explored accessibility, challenges and coping strategies (Bhoi \u0026amp; Gorringe, 2023; Mahapatra, 2018), and exclusion and discrimination (Deshpande \u0026amp; Zacharias, 2013; Ovichegan, 2015; Rathod, 2023; Singh, 2017; Sukumar, 2022). However, very little research focuses specifically on how EMI in HE impact Dalit students and teachers (Bhoi \u0026amp; Gorringe, 2023; Mahapatra, 2018; Ramanathan, 2005;\u0026nbsp;Vaish, 2008). This area remains an utterly neglected field. This present study aims to address this gap, focusing on\u0026nbsp;Dalit students’ challenges, sufferings, and coping strategies in relation to EMI at the tertiary level (Dong \u0026amp; Han, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe objective of this study is to explore the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu. While doing so, this study also attempts to understand their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and successes concerning EMI at HE.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEMI, Inclusivity, and Social Justice in Higher Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImplementing the EMI policy may engender equality and social justice concerns in many Asian countries (Fang, 2025). In India, English as a sole medium of higher education is another form of social division and exclusion (Mohanty, 2017; Pennycook, 2017). As Tai (2022) argues that learners’ opportunities to succeed or fail in education can be influenced in many complex ways by factors such as language barriers, disabilities, gender, social class, and ethnicity, EMI policy in India primarily benefits those elite who have many centuries of formal education, lucrative jobs, and\u0026nbsp;English-speaking backgrounds and disadvantages those from rural and socioeconomically marginalised and non-English-speaking background (Mohanty, 2017; Ramanathan, 2005; Rao, 2017). Since colonial times, English education has been associated with elites and vernacular education with ‘multitudes’ (Devy, 2013). These disparities, known as the English-vernacular divide (Ramanathan, 2005), have been developed through colonial and post-colonial policies, institutional policies, and pedagogical practices, which, in turn, perpetuate and reinforce power and knowledge inequalities between those who know English and those who do not. English remains inaccessible to Dalits because of their caste and/ or class (Ramanathan, 2005), and EMI, caste, and class together weaken the opportunities of Dalit students’ access to knowledge and resources and participation in higher education (Devy, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince English is the medium through which all knowledge deemed to be “sacred and sanctimonious” is produced (Devy, 2013), the lack of adequate English language skills is the greatest obstacle faced by Dalit students in education (Rathod, 2023; Sabharwal \u0026amp; Malish, 2016) because they need to “cope with content as well as English language learning” (Meganathan, 2025, p. 371). The sufferings of these students resulting from their poor English competency are described as “cumulative disadvantage”—deficiency accumulated in schooling continues to affect their upward mobility in education and job market (Sen, 2000, 2008). For instance, the classroom transaction happens invariably in English marginalising these students: Dalit students often feel excluded when teachers and other students interact with those who can converse in fluent English (Devy, 2013). This highlights that EMI perpetuate linguistic marginalisation and educational inequality, causing injustice for children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This kind of epistemic injustice— \"a wrong done to someone especially in their capacity as a knower” (Fricker, 2007, p. 1) often happens when individuals or group of people are marginalised, and their experiences, perspectives, and ways of knowing are being “devalued or overlooked” (Dong \u0026amp; Han, 2023, p. 2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlso, English as the exclusive medium of higher education, especially in content-area subjects (science, technology, mathematics, and social science), undermines education in local languages (Sah \u0026amp; Li, 2024). Neglecting to account for the language students are comfortable in is an active form of social exclusion. However, the recent trend indicates a change in linguistic ecology that recognises the value of local and native languages in education (Patel et al., 2023). Although the demand for exclusive EMI prevails, a growing body of evidence suggests that local languages are integrated within EMI classrooms to facilitate various classroom tasks and interactions. Integrating students’ common first language and cultural settings that students share with their teacher and other classmates can create equal opportunities and social inclusion in the classroom (Tai, 2022), promote social justice fighting social exclusion and working towards equity (Salend \u0026amp; Garrick-Duhaney, 1999), improve students’ academic achievement, and increase peer acceptance and self-esteem (ibid).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following section briefly overviews perceptions of EMI, unequal access to HE, and social exclusion in India.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerceiving English as the gatekeeper of HE and higher-paying jobs (Bhattacharya, 2013), people from lower socio-economic sections express a strong desire to acquire English (Bhattacharya, 2013). Particularly, Dalits consider English an emancipatory tool that can be used to overcome traditional caste-based discrimination and oppression (Mathew, 2022). It is true that quality English education can help, but it is beyond the reach of Dalits because of their caste and/or economy (Ramanathan, 2005). In other words, the simplistic development perspective of English contributes to the production and reproduction of social inequalities. For instance, thinking that EMI helps their children develop English proficiency and access better job opportunities, poor parents spend a large portion of their income on sending their children to low-cost English medium schools, where the quality of instruction is generally considered poor. As a result, Dalit children develop poor English competency, which further impoverishes or doubly disadvantages Dalit students (Bhattacharya, 2013; Mathew, 2022). Therefore, the relationship between English and development is paradoxical because it is the language of elite formation and mass exclusion in India. This is what Bedi (2020) calls a language of dichotomy: English positively impacts economic growth but plays a negative role in inclusive growth.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifferential English language proficiency and type of schooling (English or vernacular) have become a means of social exclusion and discrimination (Ramanathan, 2005). Students who attended vernacular medium school are disdained as “an inferior category”, and consequently, they also suffer from an inferiority complex (Jayaram, 1993, p. 112). The prevalence of this dual system of education—the rich and low-resourced schools—is what exacerbates the elitism of English speakers. To quote Sunder Rajan (1992):\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ethe existence of (a small number of) expensive public schools where English is the MI from the lowest classes, along with (a preponderance of) regional-language schools, for the most part run by governments or municipalities, where English is taught—badly—as a subject for a few years. (p. 19)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring colonial times, the medium of HE was English, and access to HE required proficiency in English. Those elite minorities who received EMI played an intermediate role between the British administrators and Indians and performed administrative jobs in the British government of India. The knowledge of English gave them lucrative jobs, power, and prestige. These elite English-speaking Indians enjoyed a monopoly of EMI, and hence, they showed “a vested interest in its continuance in postcolonial India (Basu, 1989, p. 168). As many features of the colonial education system continue even today (Basu, 1989), EMI benefits only those affluents who have centuries of formal education in their family. In addition, Ramanathan (2005) argues that access to English is confined to the elite and middle classes through state and nationwide institutional policies and certain pedagogical practices, disseminating knowledge and power unequally between those who know English and those who do not. This is the paradox that Tollefson (2000: 8) warns: “At a time when English is widely seen as a key to the economic success of nations and the economic well-being of individuals, the spread of English also contributes to significant social, political, and economic inequalities.”\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDalit students’ lack of English competency is “a pervasive problem” even for academically brilliant students in HE (Rathod, 2023, p. 106). They find it a ‘deeply unnerving experience’ transitioning from regional medium school education to English medium HE (Deshpande \u0026amp; Zacharias, 2013, p. 300). Many struggle to comprehend their lecturers’ fluent English and have become vulnerable in university settings. For instance, Rathod (2023) observes that their poor English language skills are reflected in “their academic performance, self-confidence and social relationships with peers who appear sophisticated” (p. 206). As Dalit students are aware of the interference of their mother tongue in their accent when they speak English, Dalit students often feel uncomfortable interacting with their peers who are fluent in English: their apprehension is to avoid being hurt by people's rude and sarcastic comments about their accents (Mahapatra, 2018). This significantly exacerbates their feelings of low self-confidence, dissecting them from their English-speaking upper-caste peers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe challenge is even worse for first-generation Dalit students who do not know basic English. Some feel the need to improve their English language skills even after enrolling in their PhD programme. They feel more anxious about their academic work, especially academic writing conducted in English, which also leads to them dropping out of their doctoral studies (Rathod, 2023). This shows that lack of English competency affects their academic journey in HE, from undergraduate to PhD, and remains a persistent obstacle to their academic success and future career prospects (Rathod, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExploring the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu, this present study attempts to understand their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and successes concerning EMI at HE.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResearch Questions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhat are the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI (EMI) in institutes HE in Tamil Nadu?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhat coping strategies are employed by Dalit students and teachers to manage the challenges posed by EMI in HE?\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudents\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA survey questionnaire consisting of both open and closed items was distributed to one hundred and thirty students between the ages of 25 and 35, pursuing PhD and MPhil courses in various disciplines from various higher educational institutions in Tamil Nadu. Only 124 students returned the filled-in questionnaire, including 114 completed and 10 incomplete ones. Of 114, 57 (49 males and 8 females) were the study samples, which included 45 first-generation learners and 12 second-generation (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This study could not maintain a balanced gender proportion between male and female participants due to the methodological restraint of using the exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling technique to collect data. The rationale for choosing this sampling technique is to avoid caste-based stereotypes, which is a very sensitive issue in India. Moreover, the skewed gender ratio in this study could be the result of gender inequality persisting in HE; female students face a significant challenge in obtaining equal opportunities as their male students. In addition, as most Dalit students are first-generation English learners, this study could not ensure an equal number of participants from the first- and second-generation learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetails of the Student Participants\u0026rsquo; MOI, Learning Generation and Category\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMOI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eST\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMBC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTamil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst-generation learners\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond or more-generation learners\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst-generation learners\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond or more-generation learners\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst-generation learners\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond or more-generation learners\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*SC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Schedule Caste *ST\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Schedule Tribe *MBC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Most Backward Castes\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*BC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Backward Caste *OC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Other Caste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTeachers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitially, 40 teachers who teach English at a tertiary level were approached and informed about the purposes of the study through telephone conversation. Of 40, 39 teachers expressed willingness to provide data, but some frequently postponed their meetings due to busy schedules and other constraints. Then, 29 one-to-one interviews were conducted, which included 22 male teachers and 7 female teachers with teaching experience ranging from 5 to 27 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnalysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; interview responses were analysed to identify themes and patterns (Braun \u0026amp; Clark, 2006). First, 25 teacher interviews were transcribed and read several times by the researchers to familiarise themselves with the data. Then, initial codes were developed, and responses aligned with these codes were grouped. Finally, these codes were mapped into themes. A similar procedure was used to analyse the responses obtained for the open-ended items in the questionnaire. Responses obtained for the closed-ended items were analysed using quantitative descriptive analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical Consideration\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e This study was conducted in accordance with research ethical standards. It was approved by Institutional Ethics Committee, University of Hyderabad, India. Also, an informed consent form was obtained from all participants, and their participation in this study was completely voluntary. Moreover, the confidentiality of the participants was ensured, and their identities were not revealed throughout the study process. For example, respondents were assigned numbers when analysing the data and reporting the findings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eGiven below are the attitudes of teachers regarding MI in HE.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; Interview Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn India, poor English language skills lead to caste-based discrimination and social exclusion in HE (Ovichegan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). As English is the MI in HE, poor English proficiency becomes a huge obstacle that prohibits Dalit students from participating in classroom discussions (Maurya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Rathod, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It is essential to know how students\u0026rsquo; English language proficiency affects teachers\u0026rsquo; attitudes towards the MI. This section reports teachers\u0026rsquo; responses to the following question: What is your belief about the MI in HE? Their responses have been thematically mapped and reported in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The themes mapped are:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eBilingual or mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBE) is effective.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish is the necessary MI.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese two themes explain teachers\u0026rsquo; multiple and conflicting attitudes towards the MI in HE. Responses in these themes demonstrate whether teachers, as language planners at the institute level, accept or resist the English medium policy in HE and show that their choice of MI is influenced by Dalit students in HE.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; beliefs about the medium of HE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterview Excerpts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBilingual or mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBE) is effective.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN3\u0026hellip;Bilingualism is good because we can have a good rapport with students\u0026hellip; I must make them understand the subject\u0026hellip; They gain confidence and don\u0026rsquo;t feel inferior...\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN9\u0026hellip;We can have a second, the global medium\u0026hellip; but\u0026hellip; universities must be free places for learning in the mother tongue. It is students\u0026rsquo; choice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN22\u0026hellip; Most first-generation learners\u0026hellip; find it difficult to understand English. So, bringing parallel in mother tongue\u0026hellip; will make the students grasp it easily.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 23\u0026hellip; In HE, students face difficulties\u0026hellip;because English is not taught properly at the primary level\u0026hellip;when they come to college, they are neither good at their mother tongue nor proficient in English.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish is a necessary MI at the\u0026nbsp;tertiary level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.6\u0026hellip; at the tertiary level, education must be in global language primarily because of the availability of resources, especially in science and technology\u0026hellip;A student who studies economics in Tamil medium may never get opportunities to do HE or a career outside the state.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.8. In the current scenario, you feel the impact of globalisation on all walks of human life. Now, English education has become very important\u0026hellip; which makes you a very important person in the job market.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN18\u0026hellip;when you go for higher studies, especially science and engineering, English will give us enormous circumstances or situations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN19\u0026hellip;English is a necessary evil. English\u0026hellip;is affecting some people\u0026hellip;the problem is that the government is not focusing on the grassroots level\u0026hellip;teachers should be trained properly.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first theme\u0026mdash;The importance of mother tongue-based education (MTBE)\u0026mdash;show the language attitudes of teachers who acknowledge the significance of mother tongue for creating empowering learning environments. These teachers' responses reflect their belief that bilingual pedagogy is beneficial for establishing rapport with students, enhancing students\u0026rsquo; understanding, and increasing their confidence levels. Their responses also demonstrate their critical awareness of the need to challenge and resist the prevalent EMI at the tertiary level. For instance, Respondent 9 argues that the medium of HE must be the student\u0026rsquo;s choice. In this theme, teachers explain the significance of a medium of education, especially to enhance accessibility and understanding, democratise language choice, and promote language rights. Teachers\u0026rsquo; affirmative attitudes towards mother tongue-based bilingual education indicate their resistance against the hegemonic English-only medium and commitment to promoting inclusivity and equity in education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second theme, English is the primary medium of HE, shows the language attitudes of teachers who accept the dominance of EMI at the tertiary level but are also critical of differential language proficiencies among students. Their responses demonstrate the common consensus that proficiency in English is essential for academic and professional success globally. Teachers' attitudes suggest that English language skills are often overrated as essential to competitiveness in the global marketplace and accessing greater educational resources (especially in science and technology. Moreover, the excerpts also reveal a dichotomous attitude among teachers: while they acknowledge English as a tool for advancement, they are also critical of the systemic inequality it creates between students who are proficient in English and those who are not. This is evident when Respondent 19 says, \u0026ldquo;English is a necessary evil.\u0026rdquo; The critical issue highlighted here is not just about EMI itself but the poor implementation of the medium of HE policy, lack of adequate teacher training, and other socio-economic and institutional barriers. Overall, the positive language attitudes convey the ideological standpoint of teachers who believe in the instrumental aspects of English in navigating resources and opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDalit teachers’ experience with learning and teaching English\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDalit students, particularly first-generation learners from rural and poor socio-economic backgrounds, are often exposed to humiliation and discrimination in HE because of their poor English competency (Maurya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Rathod, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sukumar, 2023). As Rathod (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) points out, the lack of English proficiency has also become the \u0026ldquo;biggest obstacle\u0026rdquo; to Dalit students\u0026rsquo; \u0026ldquo;academic progress\u0026rdquo; throughout their undergraduate and postgraduate degrees (p. 126). Although these studies mainly focus on Dalit students\u0026rsquo; struggles in HE, there is still much to explore about their educational experiences of learning (in) English. This section reports teachers\u0026rsquo; responses to the question: What did you think of English as a learner? Can you describe some important aspects of your English learning experience? In Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, their responses have been mapped into three themes:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst-generation learners find learning (in) English very difficult.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond-generation learners find learning (in) English relatively easy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst-generation students\u0026rsquo; English learning strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first theme, first-generation learners find learning (in) English difficult, provides insights into the language attitudes of Dalit teachers who once navigated through the challenges of English-medium HE. As these teachers share their learning experiences, their reflections reveal their emotional and academic struggles associated with transitioning from Tamil-medium school education to English-medium HE. The description of their feeling of \u0026ldquo;inferiority, hesitation, and nervousness\u0026rdquo; highlights how language barriers affect students\u0026rsquo; self-esteem, academic engagement, and sense of belonging in the academic sphere. Furthermore, teachers\u0026rsquo; observation about the school education system\u0026mdash;which encourages rote learning over genuine comprehension\u0026mdash;highlights their critical view that such a system leaves students poorly prepared for English-medium HE and creates an academic gap. These critical attitudes represent teachers\u0026rsquo; ideological views that the exclusive use of EMI threatens Dalit students\u0026rsquo; sense of belonging in HE and may lead to high dropouts (Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; experience with learning and teaching (in) English\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterview Excerpts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst-generation learners find learning (in) English very difficult.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.1\u0026hellip; Even after completing my post-graduation, I was not able to speak or write one complete sentence in English, proper and errorless English.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.4\u0026hellip; When I entered\u0026hellip;my UG, I had many problems in speaking English and communicating with others. I faced an inferiority complex, \u0026hellip;hesitation and nervousness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.24\u0026hellip;we studied English as one of the subjects\u0026hellip; we used to memorise the answers and reproduce them in the exams. So, we learn expressions without understanding the meaning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond-generation learners find learning (in) English relatively easy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.3\u0026hellip; I learnt to speak in English in my childhood days. My father used to communicate with me in English. Since I\u0026rsquo;m brought up in a good family background\u0026hellip; I didn\u0026rsquo;t find any difficulty.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.15\u0026hellip; I had my parents to support me\u0026hellip; there were my grandparents to teach me proper English. So, I was able to come up.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.16\u0026hellip;I learnt English at a\u0026nbsp;very early age. My aunt and parents introduced me to reading English books when I was in school. So, there is no difficulty\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst-generation students\u0026rsquo; learning strategies\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ei. Talking to friends\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eii. Reading books\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eiii. Constructing imaginary dialogues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.1 My roommate was an Oriya. So, I was forced to communicate with him in English\u0026hellip;writing letters and talking to my roommate, I picked up my English.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.20\u0026hellip;I think my learning English comes from there, me talking to my classmates, my hostel mates, my friends. I can see the improvement that happened.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN 18. The campus helped me meet many people and talk in English. It has given me the opportunity and the platform to speak in English\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.18\u0026hellip; doing the second year PG, \u0026hellip;We decided to speak in English for three months. So, the main transition took place. Plus, reading helps me a lot.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.21 My strategy was to read the dictionary like it\u0026rsquo;s a book... The dictionary is next to me most of the time because I want to use different words.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.19... When I travel to places, I usually talk to myself in English. When you practice regular, you can also speak English.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.24\u0026hellip; I often construct an imaginary dialogue within myself where I will always be answering the questions, and the other self of me asks questions\u0026hellip;. So, that also helped me pick up some key expressions, sentence structures and all that.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second set of responses, Second-generation learners find learning (in) English relatively easy, are language attitudes conveyed by Dalit teachers who perceive learning (in) English as less challenging. Their language attitudes indicate generational differences among Dalit teachers concerning their English learning experiences. Their responses in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e suggest that parental education and early exposure to English can significantly enhance students\u0026rsquo; English language proficiency and support their academic performance. In this theme, teachers\u0026rsquo; responses reflect their belief that educated parents can provide an English-speaking environment at home, making learning (through) English more accessible and less daunting for second-generation students. For interviewee 3, learning English was augmented at home and became easy, not intimidating.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first two themes reflect contrasting educational experiences and persistent inequalities within the Dalit community regarding learning (in) English. While first-generation learners do not have any supportive system to access resources and get exposure to English, second-generation learners benefit significantly from an environment where English is already a part of domestic and academic practice. This highlights the need for educational policies and pedagogical practices to address these disparities and develop more sensitive approaches to support first-generation learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe third theme, first-generation students\u0026rsquo; English learning strategies, expresses the language attitude of teachers who reflect on acquiring English language proficiency as first-generation learners. Their personal learning strategies\u0026mdash;engaging in conversation with peers (Mahapatra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), reading English materials such as books and dictionaries, and constructing imaginary dialogues\u0026mdash;indicate a self-directed and immersive approach to language acquisition (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). In this theme, teachers illustrate that strong perseverance, consistent practice, and regular social interaction are essential for acquiring English. Such efforts made without family support highlights the significance of institutional and peer environments. For instance, respondents 1 and 18 report that their English language skills were enhanced in institutes of HE. Here, teachers\u0026rsquo; responses reflect their strong perseverance and self-directed efforts to overcome their language barriers consciously. Thus, the language attitudes expressed by these teachers convey a proactive approach that, despite their social, economic, and linguistic constraints, their efforts make learning (via) English practical in the long run. Their attitude also emphasises that a more supportive learning environment is required to augment Dalit students\u0026rsquo; learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDifficulties faced by Dalit students in EMI\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen asked to report the challenges that teachers or their students face(d) as first-generation English learners, the interview responses yelled the following sub-themes:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticulatory issues in speaking English\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of vocabulary in English\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of confidence in using English\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of exposure to English\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe excerpts in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e highlight key challenges of first-generation ESL learners, particularly those from the marginalised and oppressed sections. The challenges articulated by teachers are multifaced, including articulatory issues, limited vocabulary, lack of confidence, and inadequate exposure. The prominent theme is the issue of articulation, which conveys the language attitudes of teachers who were anxious about mother-tongue interference\u0026mdash;a common hurdle faced by almost all learners that may not be simply a Dalit students\u0026rsquo; issues. However, the excerpts also highlight their belief that such issues can be overcome with appropriate support and a more inclusive learning environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNext, their other problems include limited vocabulary, lack of confidence, and inadequate exposure, which led to low self-efficacy and unwillingness to participate in classroom discussions, which, in turn, hampers overall academic performance. Moreover, teachers explain that Dalit students\u0026rsquo; anxiety results from their fear of peers\u0026rsquo; sarcastic and intimidating comments. For instance, respondent 19 points out that Dalit students know English, but they are apprehensive because \u0026ldquo;others may find fault\u0026rdquo; with their language and \u0026ldquo;tease\u0026rdquo; them. This suggests that Dalit students\u0026rsquo; struggle in English-medium HE is a much broader issue that cuts across language, caste and other socio-economic disadvantages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifficulties faced by first-generation students in HE regarding EMI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThemes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-Theme\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterview Excerpts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChallenges of Learning English\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticulatory issues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn\u0026nbsp;8, it is at their articulatory level. It is not only for Dalit students again\u0026hellip; all face this kind of problem\u0026hellip;the mother tongue influence is also there.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.11 Basically, with regard to articulation\u0026hellip;In our college, they get very many opportunities and platforms\u0026hellip; by the third year, they are as good as anyone on campus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of vocabularies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.18\u0026hellip; You take any first-generation learner\u0026hellip; they don\u0026rsquo;t have enough words to speak in English.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.24. They are not comfortable with new words. So, they lack vocabulary\u0026hellip;they lack grammar and they fear pronouncing certain words in class.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of confidence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.3 They lack confidence in themselves. Even though they know the answer, they are hesitant to answer in front of\u0026nbsp;other classmates.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.19\u0026hellip; They know the language\u0026hellip; the hindrance is that lack of confidence. If we speak English, others may find fault with our language. They may tease us; that is the main problem.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of exposure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn.2\u0026hellip;there is nobody at home to monitor what stuff they are reading or what problems they are facing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN.13\u0026hellip; All my students invariably face very similar kinds of problems\u0026hellip; Though they come from different castes\u0026hellip; when it comes to learning English, they are equally bad.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; Perspectives on Their English Language Proficiency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEMI has become a source of social exclusion and discrimination in HE in India (Chattopadhyay et al., 2021). Sukumar (2023) argues that classroom teaching conducted exclusively in English further marginalises Dalit students. Due to a lack of English skills, most students find the transformation from regional medium school education to English medium HE frightening. They experience a sort of inferiority complex (Singh, 2013) and social exclusion (Sukumar, 2023). This section reports students\u0026rsquo; responses to their self-perception about English language skills.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 shows students\u0026apos; perceptions of their English language ability. Almost all students (93%) believe they can express themselves in English. As they have been learning (in) English for about two decades (average of 21.27 years with SD. 3.362), they are confident about their English language proficiency at the current stage.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough these students report that they are confident about their English language skills, it is helpful to know their experience of learning through the English language, especially to understand their struggles, perceptions, and coping strategies to aid their needs in HE. Therefore, Dalit students were further asked to rate their English learning experience on a five-point Likert scale using the following options: very hard, hard, manageable, easy, and very easy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 shows the experience of Dalit students learning English. They have mixed feelings about learning English, ranging from difficult to easy. Most students (41%) rated their learning experience as manageable, indicating their flexibility and adaptability. A significant proportion of participants (35%) found it easy, while a small group (10.2%) found it challenging. Some (6.8%) found it very difficult, and very few (3.4%) found it very easy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results are further strengthened in students\u0026rsquo; descriptive responses to this question, where they mention reasons for their choice. The major themes mapped in students\u0026rsquo; written responses are the following:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; feelings about learning English are ranging.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFirst-generation students struggle to learn English.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLearning English happens in HE.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLearning English is easy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first theme, Students\u0026rsquo; feelings about learning English differ, refers to the attitudes of students who experience different feelings at different stages of learning English. They explain that learning English was very difficult at the beginning, manageable at a later stage, and eventually easier. For instance, Respondent 39 found learning through English medium challenging at the beginning of his tertiary education, but he managed to speak and write gradually (Table 5). This shows that students\u0026rsquo; strong perseverance and more exposure to English are vital in enhancing their language competencies. This finding also suggests that language barriers or learning difficulties are not inherent quality of these students, although they can be linked to socio-economic and cultural background.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe second theme\u0026mdash;First-generation students struggle to learn English\u0026mdash;shows the language attitudes of first-generation students who think that learning English is difficult without an appropriate sociocultural setup. In this theme, they acknowledge that they could not get familial support to use English at home because most of their parents (53%) are illiterate. For instance, Respondent 41 states that writing is one of the most challenging skills for him to acquire. Their responses in Table 5 emphasize their awareness of the importance of exposure to English and English-speaking culture in acquiring the language, and lack of these hinders them from acquiring it. While it is true that Dalit students may not have anyone at home to help them improve their English language skills, they can find plenty of opportunities and resources online to improve and practice their English language skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe third set of responses in Table 5 under the theme, Learning English happens in HE, are language attitudes exhibited by Dalit students who admit their English learning takes place in HE. These students believe that the need to undertake extensive academic work in English in HE contributes to developing their English language skills. For instance, Respondent 1 remarks that apart from studying English as a subject, he did not receive any meaningful exposure to the language at school and that he overcame this language barrier by engaging in extensive academic work in English in HE. Furthermore, these students acknowledge that they developed their speaking and writing skills respectively by interacting with English-speaking peers and working on feedback received on their writing. This reflects the language attitudes of students who believe that learning through the English medium at HE helped them improve their English language competencies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 601px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5. Students\u0026rsquo; self-perception of Difficulty in learning English\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTheme\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 441px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExcerpts from students\u0026rsquo; writing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; feelings about learning English range from very difficult to manageable to easy.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 441px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.23\u0026hellip;It was hard when I started. It has three stages: the first stage is very hard, the second stage is easier than the first, and the last stage is the easiest.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.39\u0026hellip; After entering college, it is difficult to manage for the first three months. After that, I learned some English\u0026hellip; write and speak slowly.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFirst-generation students struggle to learn English.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 441px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.40\u0026hellip;As the first generation\u0026hellip;, we are not given that much exposure. We are not trained to speak English at home.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.41\u0026hellip;I am also a first-generation learner\u0026hellip;. I struggle with writing skills. English belongs to a different language family\u0026hellip;So, learning its grammar was not sophisticated.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.42\u0026hellip;It is very hard to learn because no one at home knows English.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 160px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning English happens in HE.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 441px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.01\u0026hellip; Until my 12\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e standard...I did not have a connection with English except the English subject. After getting into a college, reading and studying in English is inevitable... now I find it easy.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.02\u0026hellip;After 12\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026hellip; I picked up conversation skills in English from English-speaking friends. At university, I got more feedback on my write-ups.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.52\u0026hellip;after school, the college and university environment enabled me to expand my vocabulary.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnglish is the preferred MI in HE in India (Chattopadhyay et al., 2021). However, many students who lack English language skills find themselves falling behind their contemporaries. Students, particularly those from disadvantaged communities, will perform poorly if the MI is exclusively confined to English. It is imperative to understand how Dalit students perceive EMI in HE. Such exploration will contribute to the development of inclusivity in HE. To understand students\u0026rsquo; preference for the MI, they were asked to respond to the following question using the provided options:\u0026nbsp;EMI in HE is_____? a. Necessary, b. Desirable, c. Optional, d. Undesirable, and e. Unnecessary\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following bar chart presents the student preferences for MI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 shows that English is essential as a MI for higher studies. It is often rated as \u0026apos;necessary\u0026apos; and \u0026apos;desirable\u0026apos;. Only a few students rate it as \u0026apos;optional\u0026apos; and \u0026apos;undesirable\u0026apos;. A cross-investigation of the students\u0026rsquo; responses reveals that most students who did not prefer English as their medium of learning are first-generation learners. Thus, English as the MI policy at many institutes facilitates students\u0026rsquo; outward mobility (Chattopadhyay et al., 2021). This underscores the global significance of English today: doing away with English in HE is undesirable because that negatively impacts students\u0026rsquo; educational and employment opportunities globally. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results are further strengthened in the students\u0026rsquo; descriptive responses to the question about their preferred MI, where they enumerate the reasons behind their choices. Three themes mapped in their written responses are the following:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEnglish is a global medium of communication.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMother tongue medium helps understanding concepts.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese three themes illustrate students\u0026rsquo; conflicting and multiple attitudes towards English as the medium of HE in Tamil Nadu. In Table 6, students\u0026rsquo; responses within the mapped theme are reported. Analysis of these responses demonstrates how students equate EMI with English language skills (Rathod, 2022)\u0026nbsp;to highlight its significance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first category, English is a global language, shows Dalit students\u0026rsquo; uncritical acceptance of English as an essential language of upward socio-economic mobility in a globalised world. Their acceptance of English as a \u0026lsquo;universal language\u0026rsquo; positions English as the dominant international language because of its entrenched link to widespread communication with \u0026lsquo;universal communities\u0026rsquo; and its deep rootedness as a language of school and HE in many countries worldwide (Macaro et al., 2017). In this theme, students express their consensus that English opens more educational and employment opportunities globally and enables individuals to navigate and succeed in an increasingly globalised economy. They appreciate the global significance of English, as it results from the force that comes through \u0026apos;globalisation\u0026apos; and \u0026apos;universality\u0026rsquo; For instance, Respondent 1 admits that competency in the English language is essential for accessing a wide range of resources and opportunities. The responses in Table 6 convey affirmative attitudes of students who accept English as the language of international communication for socio and economic mobilisation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 601px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6. Perceived importance of English in HE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThemes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 403px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExcerpts from students\u0026rsquo; writing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnglish is a global medium of communication.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 403px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.33\u0026hellip;For survival in all places, not only in India but in the world.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.37\u0026hellip;The necessity of the English language comes out of the forces and impact of globalisation and universality.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.28\u0026hellip; English is the most used communicative language in the world.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.52 \u0026hellip;it enables one to participate in global employment opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.21\u0026hellip;In HE, English is necessary to understand research articles, identify and resolve problems, and create innovation for scientific research.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother tongue medium is important.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 403px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes. 01\u0026hellip; Mother-tongue is very necessary for everyone. Even to learn a new language, mother tongue is inevitable.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes.7\u0026hellip; Mother tongue or regional language is better to understand concepts\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRes. 50 \u0026hellip; Our mother-tongue is the base of our learning.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe second theme\u0026mdash;Mother tongue medium is important\u0026mdash;illustrates the stances of some students who prefer the mother tongue medium in HE, which, they feel, is essential to comprehend complex concepts and learn English and other foreign languages (Table 6). These students highlight their awareness of the enriching roles their mother tongue (Tamil) plays in their education, making their lessons easier and more enjoyable. Although these students acknowledge the significance of English in today\u0026rsquo;s world, they are reluctant to accept the dominant notion that EMI is essential for studying their subjects. This finding advocates for incorporating the mother tongue to create a more inclusive and conducive learning environment (Sukumar, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion and Conclusion ","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study sets out to depict Dalit students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu. The study focuses on their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and academic successes. This section mainly presents the discussion of results pertaining to research questions and suggests ways of understanding the language attitudes of Dalit students and teachers’ attitudes towards EMI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRQ1:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhat\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;are the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI (EMI) in institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt can be inferred from the analysis that students and teachers have different attitudes to MI at school and HE. Their responses can be classified into the following categories:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBilingual or mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBE) is effective.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSupporting the use of English as the primary MI in HE.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese broad categorisations indicate a complex interplay of social, cognitive, and affective factors that shape the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards MI. In the first category, despite the fact that English is the medium of HE, Dalit students and teachers favour mother tongue-based bilingual education, which is seen as a strategic pedagogical tool for creating a more supportive learning environment, building rapport with students, scaffolding students’ learning, fostering students’ confidence, creating inclusivity, mitigating caste-based discrimination. This is in line with the findings of other research in this area that Dalit students and teachers show positive attitudes to the use of their mother tongue in HE (Sukumar, 2008; Deshpande \u0026amp; Zacharias, 2013), which allows students to use their existing linguistic and cultural resources to comprehend more complex concepts without any cognitive burden. This reveals that Dalits and students practise sustainable additive bilingualism, using their mother tongue in addition to English in HE.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the findings also reveal the intricate conflict between the use of the mother tongue for better comprehension and the need for more exposure to the English language for educational and career advancements. While Tamil provides cognitive support and promotes better learning, some teachers insist that excessive use of the language may limit students’ exposure to the English language, preventing them from developing English language competency and hindering their long-term educational and socio-economic mobility. Their language attitudes indicate that English language instruction in core subjects will enhance students’ English competence and open the possibilities for better economic and social mobility (Bhattacharya, 2013; Sah \u0026amp; Li, 2017). This conflict reflects the sociolinguist problem of the medium of HE, especially in multilingual postcolonial countries like India, emphasising the need to balance linguistic rights and justice. To overcome this dichotomy, educationists must consider additive bilingualism that recognises the value of the mother tongue while providing meaningful exposure to English.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the second category, Attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI reveal the complex interplay between socio-economic aspiration, structural constraints in regional languages, and the sociopolitical significance of languages in India. Although Dalit students and teachers value their mother tongue, their preferred medium of HE is English as a means of educational and socio-economic advancement (Vaish, 2008). Consequently, education in the mother tongue in a globalised world is criticised for restricting access to resources, education, and employment. This is in line with findings of other studies that English is seen as a source of livelihood and linguistic capital—a means to achieve economic, social, and cultural capital, fight traditional oppression, and create equal opportunities (Mahapatra \u0026amp; Mishra, 2019).\u0026nbsp;Their preference for EMI in HE is to access educational resources and opportunities; more prestigious institutions of HE in India offer STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Medicine) exclusively through English MI (Jayaram, 1993; Macaro et al., 2017; Mahapatra \u0026amp; Mishra, 2019).\u0026nbsp;Dalit students and teachers aspire to embrace the instrumental functionality of English, but mainly, it does not happen at the cost of discarding their mother tongue.\u0026nbsp;However, unequal access to English and differential linguistic competencies between students from privileged backgrounds and students from marginalised sections creates inequalities within HE institutions, which reinforce and strengthen caste-based hierarchies (Ramanathan, 2005).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRQ 2: What are the coping strategies employed by\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eDalit students and teachers to manage the challenges posed by EMI in HE?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings highlight Dalit students’ linguistic challenge in English-medium HE due to their poor linguistic competency and lack of confidence. The findings reveal that compared to second and more-generation Dalit students, first-generation students from rural and marginalised backgrounds become vulnerable during the first year of their graduation, which is similar to the findings of other studies (Jayaram, 1993; Paik, 2014; Sangole, 2018). They show inhibition in participating in classroom discussions because they fear that their peers may criticise or mock them for committing mistakes and bearing mother tongue interference. This finding aligns with existing research (Maurya, 2018;\u0026nbsp;Sukumar, 2008), which shows that due to mother-tongue interference, Dalit students often feel uncomfortable talking to English-speaking peers. Their apprehension results from fear of being hurt by peer’s rude and sarcastic comments about their accents (Mahapatra, 2020). As a result, Dalit students experience social exclusion and discrimination on campus (Despande \u0026amp; Zacharia, 2013; Mahapatra, 2018; Singh, 2017;\u0026nbsp;Sukumar, 2008).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the findings also highlight that Dalit teachers and students view the use of their mother tongue as a strategic tool to mitigate a dual challenge: a) mastering content and b) managing EMI (Mahapatra \u0026amp; Mishra, 2019; Sah \u0026amp; Li, 2017). In fact, with the use of their mother tongue, Dalit students and teachers express their “resistance perspective” towards English as the exclusive medium of HE, where they “find ways to negotiate, alter, and oppose political structures, and reconstruct their languages, cultures, and identities to their advantage. The intention is not to \u003cem\u003ereject\u003c/em\u003e English, but to \u003cem\u003ereconstitute\u003c/em\u003e it in more inclusive, ethical, and democratic terms, and so bring about the creative resolutions to their linguistic conflicts…” (Canagarajah, 1999, p. 2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings show that first-generation Dalit students face many challenges in English-medium HE due to their lack of preparatory courses and privilege. Their burden is that they must work hard and study. Despite this, they demonstrate strong resilience and agency by using different strategies—such as reading, peer interaction, and imagined dialogues—to overcome their English language barriers. Rather than being a passive recipient of the oppressive educational model, they develop their strategies to survive and succeed. Dalit student' strategies to adapt themselves to HE show their resistance to inequalities in HE. Their individual efforts to bridge the academic gap reflect their determination and expose the failure of the HE system in supporting Dalit students. This calls for rethinking equity and inclusivity in HE, going beyond traditional, unequal access to HE by working towards social justice and adopting linguistically and culturally responsive pedagogies that recognise and empower Dalit students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBasu, A. (1989). Indian higher education: Colonialism and beyond. In Altbach, P.G., \u0026amp; Selvaratnam, V. (eds), \u003cem\u003eFrom Dependence to Autonomy \u003c/em\u003e(pp. 167-186). Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2563-2_7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBedi, J. (2020). \u003cem\u003eEnglish Language in India: A Dichotomy between Economic Growth and Inclusive Growth\u003c/em\u003e (1st ed.). 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Learning through English medium instruction is a pervasive problem for Dalit students whose English is generally considered poor due to poor schooling. The objective of this study is to explore the attitudes of Dalit students and teachers towards EMI at institutes of HE in Tamil Nadu. While doing so, this study also attempts to understand their desires, struggles, coping strategies, disappointments, and successes concerning EMI at HE. The findings are based on an analysis of a questionnaire survey completed by 57 research students and 25 teacher interviews. Findings show that English is the preferred medium of HE, especially for accessing knowledge, resources, and educational and employment opportunities globally. However, they also view the use of their mother tongue as a strategic tool to mitigate Dalit Students’ dual challenge: a) mastering content and b) managing EMI in HE. The findings of this study recommend that teachers and other stakeholders of HE reconsider equity, linguistic justice, and democratisation of choice of MI and adopt linguistically and culturally responsive pedagogies that recognise and empower Dalit students.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"English Medium Instruction (EMI), Challenges, and Coping Strategies: Stances of Dalit Students and Teaches in Institutes of HE in India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-26 07:06:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7452889/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dfd4bd1d-f64e-42d8-9f16-5356ca9621cd","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-26T07:06:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-26 07:06:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7452889","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7452889","identity":"rs-7452889","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}