Evaluation of Physical Properties of Locally Available Materials Used for the Production of Radiation Shielding Concrete in Northern Nigeria.

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Muhammad Bello Gusau This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8472836/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study evaluates the physical properties of locally sourced cement and aggregates for the production of radiation shielding concrete in Northern Nigeria. Tests conducted on Dangote Portland-limestone cement showed a specific gravity of 3.04, a 3 mm soundness, a fineness of 6%, initial and final setting times of 60 min and 164 min, and a normal consistency of 30%, all within ASTM and SON standards. Aggregate tests revealed bulk density values ranging from 1557.70 kg/m³ (granite) to 3006.42 kg/m³ (magnetite), and specific gravities ranging from 2.50 (river sand) to 4.79 (hematite). Gradation analysis showed that river sand and magnetite were well-graded, whereas coarse granite, coarse barite, and hematite failed to comply with ASTM C33 requirements, indicating poor grading. Moisture content and water absorption values varied between 0.5–1.01% and 1.17–2.02%, respectively. Overall, the tested materials exhibited favorable physical properties for use in radiation-shielding concrete. Civil Engineering Radiation shielding cement concrete magnetite specific gravity aggregate bulk density Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1.0 Introduction Concrete is the most widely used material in the construction industry since it is used to build most infrastructure designs, including buildings, bridges, highways, seaports, harbors, runways, and drainage systems [ 1 , 2 ]. The quality of concrete plays a major role in the strength, structural integrity, and safety of concrete construction [ 1 ]. The main components of concrete mixtures are typically water, cementitious materials (which serve as a binder), fine aggregates (mainly sand), coarse aggregates (such as crushed stone or gravel), and occasionally additives and admixtures [ 3 , 1 ]. The qualities and volume fractions of these main ingredients, as well as the water-to-cementitious materials (w/c) ratio, determine the fresh and hardened properties of concrete [ 3 ]. The behavior of the concrete is likely to change if there is an anomalous state in any one of these components or if it results from the combination of components [3.4]. Cement is a binding material that combines various building materials to create a compacted assembly due to its cohesive and adhesive properties [ 5 ]. According to [ 6 ], cement is the substance that binds the coarse aggregate (gravel, broken granite, etc.) and fine aggregate (typically sand) together to create a solid, rigid mass that can support loads and gives the concrete strength. The quality and quantity of cement, which serves as the primary source of strength in concrete by binding the fine and coarse aggregates together to create a rigid mass that can support loads, primarily determine the strength of concrete [ 7 ]. When determining concrete strength, researchers typically focus on the quality of the cement paste. However, in addition to the quality of the cement paste and the strength of the hydrated product, the characteristics of the aggregates also affect the strength of concrete. The properties of the aggregates directly or indirectly impact the durability and performance of concretes and mortars in use [ 8 , 9 ]. Aggregates are necessary raw materials in the fabrication of composite building materials like concrete and mortar [ 8 ]. Since aggregates make up around 75% to 80% of the volume of concrete, their physical and mechanical properties, such as maximum size, gradation, texture, shape, and strength, have a significant impact on the concrete's overall properties and behavior [ 8 , 10 , 11 ]. Aggregates have a significant impact on the strength and stiffness of concrete and mortar, giving the hardened material the rigidity required for engineering applications. Moreover, among the raw elements used in the production of concrete/mortar, aggregates are the most stable and durable component, which has an impact on the durability of the hardened end product [ 8 , 12 ]. The application of concrete has expanded to include specialized functions, such as radiation shielding in medical, nuclear, and research facilities. Its effectiveness as a shield is attributed to its high density, which facilitates the attenuation of ionizing radiation like gamma rays and neutrons [ 13 ]. The shielding capability is significantly enhanced by incorporating high-density aggregates, such as magnetite and barite, which contain heavy elements that efficiently absorb radiation [ 14 ]. Recent studies have shown that the use of materials like iron ore and galena can greatly improve the linear attenuation coefficients of concrete, allowing for thinner yet more effective protective barriers [ 15 , 16 ]. The type and size of aggregates are crucial factors, with research indicating that specific local aggregates can be optimized to produce concrete with superior shielding properties [ 17 ]. This study aimed to evaluate the physical properties of cement and aggregates sourced from local stocks to assess the impacts of these materials on the quality and the overall behavior of the shielding concrete, and also assess the potential of using the local materials as radiation shielding concrete. This study can enhance the use of local materials and therefore reduce the cost of radiation shielding in nuclear and radiological facilities. This study can also be used by competent Authorities to produce new regulations or update the existing ones. In addition, the study can be used by mining operators to study the behaviour of the local materials and therefore enhance the mining activities in Northern Nigeria. All the examinations were conducted at the Material Testing Laboratory of the Building Department, Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, Nigeria. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials 2.1.1. Cement The cement used in this study was the Dangote brand of Normal Portland-limestone cement, CEM II B-L 42.5N CB, which is locally available in all Nigerian markets. 2.1.1 Fine Aggregate The fine aggregates used in this study are natural river sand, barite, hematite, and magnetite. The natural river sand was obtained from local vendors in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The barite, hematite, and magnetite aggregates were sourced from local stocks in Nasarawa State, Nigeria, where they are available in commercial quantities. 2.1.2 Coarse Aggregate The coarse aggregates used in this study are granite and barite. The granite was obtained from local vendors in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The maximum size of the granite aggregate was 10mm, and the maximum size of the coarse barite was 20mm as shown in Fig. 1 . Table 3 summarizes the sizes of both fine and coarse aggregates. 2.1.3. Water The quality of water is important because contaminants can adversely affect the quality of concrete. Drinking water free from contaminants was used in this study 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Tests on Cement The following tests were conducted to check the conformity of the cement to the quality requirements stipulated in [ 18 ] 2.2.1.1 Fineness of the cement Fineness influences the rate of hydration of cement, which, by extension, determines the rate of strength development of the concrete. A sample of 10g of cement powder was measured using an Avery scale termed as w 1, and sieved using a 45-µm (No. 325) sieve. The weight of the sample retained was recorded as w 2 . Eq. 1 was used to determine the percentage retained (Ikumapayi and Oluwabusuyi, 2019). This examination was conducted in compliance with [ 19 ] $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:finess=\frac{{w}_{2}}{{w}_{1}}\:\times\:\:100\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:1$$ 2.2.1.2 The soundness of the cement Soundness refers to the resistance of cement to expansion caused by the presence of excess sulfur trioxide (SO 3 ) or magnesium oxide (MgO) in the cement. The cement soundness test was carried out using the Le Chatelier method. The test was conducted to measure the expansivity of the cement paste upon heating. Using the Le-Chatelier apparatus, cement paste (cement and water) was prepared, leveled, and properly dressed, then kept for 24 hours for setting. The paste was removed and the length was measured as L 1 and placed in a water bath at 950℃ for 1hour 30 minutes, and then allowed to cool. The length (L 2 ) after boiling was measured. The rate of expansion (expansivity) of the cement, otherwise known as the soundness of the cement, was computed using Eq. 2.2 [ 20 ] $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:Soundness=\:{L}_{2}-{L}_{1}\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:2$$ 2.2.1.3 Cement Setting Times A setting time test was conducted to determine how long it would take for the cement (concrete or mortar) to set, or harden. An Avery scale was used to measure 400g of cement powder; the mass of water was determined by calculating and weighing 30% of the 400g. Following thorough mixing, the cement samples were put into the Vicat mold, which was set on a lightly oiled glass surface with the surface properly treated. To comply with [ 21 ], the Vicat plunger was then released to touch the mortar cement. The scale was used to determine the depth values the plunger penetrated at a specified time interval. 2.2.1.4 Consistency Test A standard (normal) consistency test was conducted to determine the cement's fluidity or wetness. The purpose of this test method is to determine the amount of water required to produce hydraulic cement pastes of standard consistency. The test ensures that all subsequent tests are performed under consistent water-cement ratio conditions. Eq. 2.3 was used to compute the standard consistency of the cement [ 20 ]. The test was conducted following [ 22 ]. $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:Consistency=\:\frac{Amount\:of\:water\:used}{Quantity\:of\:Cement}\:\times\:\:100\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:3$$ 2.2.2 Tests on Aggregates Specimens 2.2.2.1 Specific Gravity of the Aggregate Specific gravity is an important parameter for aggregate classification in terms of their densities and the proportioning of concrete constituents. Absorption of aggregation is equally useful for adjusting the adequate water needed for concrete production. These properties of the aggregate were determined following the procedure outlined in [ 23 ]. A test for specific gravity was conducted in compliance with [ 24 ]. The weight of the empty measuring cylinder was designated as w 1 , the weight of the sample and the cylinder was designated as w 2, then the water was added and measured as w 3, while the weight of the cylinder and water only was designated as w 4 . Eq. 2.4 was used to determine the specific gravities of the aggregates [ 20 ]. $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:Specific\:gravity\:\left({G}_{s}\right)=\frac{{w}_{2}-{w}_{1}}{({w}_{2}-{w}_{1})-{(w}_{3}-{w}_{4})}\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:4$$ where, w 1 = mass of measuring cylinder, w 2 = mass of measuring cylinder + dry sample w 3 = mass of measuring cylinder + water + dry sample and w 4 = Weight of measuring cylinder + water (full) only 2.2.2.2 Bulk Density In addition to specific gravity, the bulk density of aggregate is equally significant for aggregate classification based on their densities and for the proportioning of concrete constituents. The bulk density of the aggregates was examined using the [ 25 ] procedure. Eq. 2.5 was used to determine the bulk density [ 20 ]. $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:Bulk\:density=\:\frac{Weight\:of\:sample\:\left(W\right)}{Volume\:of\:mould\:\left(V\right)}\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:5$$ 2.2.2.3 Gradation (Sieve Analysis) This is to examine the particle size distribution of aggregate, which is fundamental for developing concrete of good quality in terms of density, strength, and durability. The sieves used in the analysis were arranged in ascending order of aperture size. After being placed in the sieve stack at the topmost sieve, the measured sample was vigorously vibrated for ten to fifteen minutes. After carefully separating the sieves, the weight of the sample retained on each sieve was measured and recorded. The percentage retained and percentage passing on each sieve were calculated using Equations 2.6 and 2.7 [ 20 ] in line with the procedure outlined in [ 26 ], while fineness modulus (FM) was computed using Eq. 2.8 [ 27 ]. $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\%\:Retained=\frac{Mass\:retained\:\left(g\right)}{Total\:mass\:\left(g\right)}\:\times\:\:100\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:6$$ $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\%\:Passing=100-\%\:Cummulative\:Retained\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:7$$ $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:Fineness\:Modolus=\:\frac{\sum\:\%cumulative\:retained}{100}\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:8$$ 2.2.2.4 Natural Moisture Content and Water Absorption Tests Five cans, designated A, B, C, D, and E, were weighed and recorded. The moist samples of River Sand, Granite, Barite, Magnetite, and Hematite were then measured and transferred into the designated five cans, weighed, and recorded, and then placed in the oven for a full day (24 hours). In compliance with [ 24 ], it was later removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. Equations 2.9 and 2.10 were used in computing the Moisture Contents and Water Absorptions of concrete materials [ 20 ]. $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:Moisture\:Content\:\left({M}_{C}\right)=\frac{{(w}_{2}-{w}_{1})\:-{(w}_{3}-{w}_{1})}{({w}_{2}-{w}_{1})}x\:100\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:9$$ $$\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:Water\:Absoption\:\left({W}_{A}\right)=\frac{{(w}_{4}-{w}_{1})\:-{(w}_{3}-{w}_{1})}{({w}_{3}-{w}_{1})}x\:100\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:10$$ Where, w 1 = weight of empty can, w 2 = weight of can + wet sample, w 3 = weight of can + oven dry (OD) sample and w 4 = weight of can + saturated surface dry (SSD) sample 3.0 Discussion 3.1 Tests on Cement According to [ 28 ], cement tests are divided into two categories: field testing and laboratory testing. The laboratory tests are listed as follows: fineness, setting time, strength, soundness, and heat of hydration tests [ 5 ]. However, for this study, the following tests were performed on the Dangote brand of Normal Portland-limestone cement, CEM II B-L 42.5N CB: specific gravity, soundness, fineness, setting time, and consistency test to check the quality of the cement for use in production of shielding concrete in line with the requirement of Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) [ 29 ] and American Society for Testing and Materials [ 18 ] standard specification. The values for the various tests were presented in Table 1 Table 1 Tests on Cement Cement Brand Specific Gravity Soundness Fineness Setting Time Consistency Dangote, CEM II B-L 42.5N. CB Initial final 3.04 3mm 6% 1hr: 44min 2hrs: 44min 30% 3.1.1 Specific gravity The result obtained in this study is 3.04, which is marginally below the world standard of 3.15. However,[ 30 ] has reported the results of specific gravity tests on thirty various types of cement to fall between 3.026 and 3.138; the value of specific gravity obtained from this study is within the range stated by Butler. Furthermore, [ 5 ] reported the values of the specific gravity of 3.02, 3.01, and 2.92 for Dangote cement, Lafarge cement, and Purechem cement, respectively. The value of specific gravity obtained by [ 5 ] for Dangote cement (3.02) is slightly lower than the result of this study, and all values fall within the range reported by [ 30 ]. Meanwhile, [ 31 ] reported the specific gravity values of 2.4, 2.33, 2.46, and 2.4 for Dangote Cement grade 42.5, Dangote Cement grade 32.5, Elephant S cement, and Elephant cement, respectively. However, these values are far below the standard specific gravity of the cement (3.15) and are not in line with the range reported by [ 30 ] or the value obtained from this study. 3.1.2 Soundness A soundness test for the cement was conducted using the Le Chatelier method. The presence of free lime and magnesia in an unsound cement causes volumetric expansion, which in turn leads to deterioration of the concrete; therefore, the concentration of free lime and magnesia in a cement must be kept within acceptable limits. Free lime and magnesia slake very slowly and trigger expansion, which will result in damage to the concrete if it occurs after the concrete has set [ 32 ]. Cements should not expand more than 10 mm using the Le Chatelier method or more than 0.8% using the Autoclave method [ 18 , 32 ]. The value obtained for the soundness test for this study was found to be 3 mm, which is within the acceptable limit of 10 mm. This is an indication that the free lime and magnesia concentrations in the cement are within the acceptable limit. In a study conducted by [ 33 ], the soundness values of 7 mm and 5 mm were obtained for PLC Grade 32.5N and PLC Grade 42.5N, respectively. ]32] reported the soundness values of 1.7 mm, 1.17 mm, 1.2 mm, and 2.5 mm for Dangote, Bua, Ashaka, and Sokoto cements, respectively. Furthermore, a study carried out by [ 20 ] found the soundness of three different Grade 42.5 Portland lime cements, designated as cements A, B, and C from three distinct companies, to be 1.56 mm, 2.32 mm, and 2.21 mm, respectively. The result of this study is higher than the results reported by [ 20 , 32 ] but significantly lower than the value reported by [ 33 ] for the Dangote Grade 42.5 Portland lime cement. 3.1.3 Fineness The fineness test was another important physical property of the cement, carried out in this study to check the quality of the cement. This test was conducted using sieve number 325 (45-µm) to verify if the cements were properly ground or had the right particle size [ 20 ]. The fineness of cement affects the rate of reaction. The early development of strength is accelerated by finer grinding since it increases the rate of reaction, and vice versa. Concrete bleeds as coarser cement particles settle in the mixture. Additionally, too much fineness can be detrimental since it may cause more heat and make concrete more prone to cracking. Fineness can be expressed as surface area in cm² per gram of cement or as the percentage weight retained after cement has been sieved [ 32 ]. The fineness result obtained in this study was 6%. This value is within the permissible limit, which states that there should be no more than 10% of residual by weight on 1590 misconceive for OPC [ 29 , 32 ]. The fineness values found by [ 20 ] for three different Grade 42.5 Portland lime cements, designated as cements A, B, and C, were 1.0%, 1.2% and 3.4% respectively. Although all the values are within the permissible limit of not more than 10% [ 29 , 32 ], the cements designated as A and B are too fine and can generate more heat, leading to the cracking of the concrete. Furthermore, [ 32 ] reported the fineness values 6.3%, 5%, 6.3% and 5% for Dangote, Bua, Sokoto, and Ashaka cements, respectively. These values are within the permissible limit of not more than 10% [ 29 ]. 3.1.4 Setting Time The initial and final setting times were found to be 60 minutes and 164 minutes, respectively. The initial and final setting times obtained in this study comply with the requirements of the Standard Organization of Nigeria [ 29 ], which stated that ordinary and rapid-hardening cements should have an initial setting time of at least 30 minutes. Additionally, for all cement types, the final setting time shouldn't exceed 600 minutes (10 hours) [ 29 , 32 ]. Furthermore, [ 33 ] reported the initial and final setting times of 201 minutes and 429 minutes for PLC Grade 32.5N, and 117 minutes and 258 minutes for PLC Grade 42.5N, respectively. Additionally, [ 5 ] obtained initial and final setting times for Dangote cement of 75 minutes and 270 minutes, for Lafarge cement of 90 minutes and 315 minutes, and Purechem cement of 135 minutes and 405 minutes, respectively. In a study carried out by [ 33 ], the initial setting and final setting times were 77 minutes and 190 minutes for Dangote cement, 72 minutes and 182 minutes for Bua cement, 62 minutes and 175 minutes for Sokoto cement, and 93 minutes and 212 minutes for Ashaka cement, respectively. Moreover, [ 20 ] obtained initial and final setting times for three different Grade 42.5 Portland lime cements, designated as cements A, B, and C, as 92 minutes and 540 minutes for cement A, 74 minutes and 600 minutes for cement B, and 60 minutes and 540 minutes for cement C, respectively. The initial and final setting times reported by the aforementioned scholars for Dangote Grade 42.5 Portland lime cement are in agreement with this study and fall within the permissible limit. 3.1.5 Consistency test The result for the consistency test obtained in this study was 30%. Normal consistency values for Portland cement range between 26% to 33% [ 22 , 34 ]; therefore, a value of 30% falls within the normal range. This implies that 30% water by weight of dry cement is required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency. [ 32 ] obtained standard consistency values of 31.5%, 31.5%, 32.5% and 31.5% for Dangote, Bua, Sokoto, and Ashaka cements. These values are in agreement with the value obtained in this study and are all within the permissible limit. 3.2 Test on aggregates Aggregates used in the production of concrete and mortar must meet the minimal requirements for strength, durability, and cleanliness (i.e., they must be significantly free of harmful compounds) [ 8 , 35 ]. The physical properties of the aggregates, such as bulk density, specific gravity, percentage voids, gradation test, moisture content, and water absorption, were determined to assess the impacts of these aggregates on the properties and the overall behavior of the concrete. These tests are conducted in line with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard specifications. Table 2 presents the results of various aggregate tests. Table 2 Results for aggregate tests Aggregates Maximum Aggregate Size (mm) Bulk density (kg/m 3 ) Specific gravity (g/cm 3 ) Fineness modulus Moisture content (%) Water Absorption (%) River Sand 2.36 1674.17 2.5 2.9 0.50 2.01 Granite 10.00 1557.70 2.64 - 0.50 1.17 Fine Barite 2.26 2661.00 3.77 3.3 - - Coarse Barite 20.00 2527.41 3.93 - 0.83 1.26 Hematite 2.26 2935.05 4.79 1.7 1.01 2.02 Magnetite 2.26 3006.42 4.56 2.4 1.00 2.02 3.2.1 Bulk density The bulk density of the aggregates is the mass of a unit volume of bulk aggregate material, where the volume comprises the volume of the individual particles as well as the volume of the voids between the particles. It is expressed in kilograms per cubic meter [ 25 ]. Many techniques of choosing proportions for concrete mixtures require the use of bulk density values [ 25 ]. Bulk density tests of the aggregates were conducted in compliance with [ 25 ]. The values for the bulk densities of various aggregates were presented in Table 2 the results showed that magnetite aggregates are denser than the other aggregates, with a value of 3006.42 kgm − 3 , followed closely by hematite with a bulk density value of 2935.05 kgm − 3 , the bulk densities of fine and coarse barite aggregates were determined to be 2661 kgm − 3 and 2527.41 kgm − 3 while the bulk densities of river sand were found to be 1674.17 kgm − 3 and that of the granite was determined to be 1557.7 kgm − 3 . The bulk density of magnetite from this study is higher than the result of 1860 kgm − 3 reported by [ 36 ]. However, the bulk density of magnetite from this study is significantly lower than the value of 4400 kgm − 3 reported by [ 37 ]. Furthermore, the bulk density of hematite from this study is higher than the results of 1956 kgm − 3 and 1962 kgm − 3 reported by [ 38 , 39 ], respectively. The bulk density for sand in saturated surface dry (SSD) condition reported by [ 39 ] was 1600 kg/m 3 . This value is slightly lower than the bulk density value for river sand (1674.17 kgm − 3 ) obtained in this study. The bulk density for granite aggregate reported by [ 36 , 38 , 39 ] were 1635 kgm − 3 ,1676 kgm − 3 , and 1450 kgm − 3, respectively; these values are slightly different from the 1557.7 kgm − 3 obtained in this study. The variation of bulk densities of the coarse granite aggregates is due to the differences in aggregate maximum sizes [ 39 ]. The maximum size of the coarse granite aggregate in this study is 10 mm, while in [ 36 , 38 , 39 ], the maximum size was 25mm, 12.5mm, and 20mm, respectively. Furthermore, the processing method used to crush the aggregates into fine and coarse aggregates affects the bulk density of the other aggregates [ 39 ]. The results of the bulk densities of fine and coarse barite aggregates, 2661 kgm − 3 and 2527.41 kgm − 3 respectively, have demonstrated that fine aggregates are denser than coarse aggregates of the same volume, which implies that there are more voids in coarse aggregates than the fine aggregates, necessitating increasing the cement content and using a lower water-to-cement ratio for stronger and quality concrete [ 3 ]. On a last note, [ 39 ] have reported that heavyweight aggregates such as barite, magnetite, and hematite can have a bulk density of more than 3000 kgm − 3 . 3.2.2 Specific gravity The test for specific gravity was carried out following [ 24 ]. The weight of the aggregate particles relative to the volume of water equivalent is known as the specific gravity [ 39 ]. Specific gravity, also known as relative density, is an important physical property of aggregates that can be used to give information on the aggregate volume in different mixtures. The volume of voids in an aggregate can also be estimated using specific gravity [ 8 ]. The specific gravities for all the aggregates are presented in Table 2 . Hematite has the highest value with a specific gravity of 4.79 g/cm 3 , followed closely by magnetite with a value of 4.56 g/cm 3 and coarse barite aggregate with a specific gravity of 3.93 g/cm 3 ; the specific gravity of fine barite was determined to be 3.77 g/cm 3 , while that of granite, and river sand were determined to be 2.64 g/cm 3 , and 2.50 g/cm 3 respectively. Granite and river sand normally have specific gravities in the range of 2.55–2.75 g/cm 3 [ 39 ]. The specific gravity results for granite in this study fall within the previously mentioned range while that of river sand marginally falls below the lower limit of the range. The specific gravity of the granite and sand aggregates reported by [ 39 ] were 2.70 g/cm³ and 2.62 g/cm³, and by [ 38 ] were 2.70 g/cm³ and 2.63 g/cm³, respectively, while the values reported by [ 36 ] were 2.70 g/cm³ and 2.40 g/cm³ for granite and river sand respectively. According to [ 38 ], pure hematite can have a specific gravity between 4.9 g/cm 3 − 5.5 g/cm 3 . However, it depends on the source rock types, the rock location, the chemical composition of the hematite, and the processing method used to obtain the final product [ 39 ]. The expected range of specific gravity for hematite ore is normally between 3.2 and 4.3 g/cm³ [ 39 ]. The specific gravity for hematite in this study was determined to be 4.79 g/cm 3 , which is marginally below the lower limit of the specific gravity 4.9 g/cm 3 for pure hematite and slightly above the upper limit of the specific gravity 4.3 g/cm 3 for hematite ore. [ 39 ] reported a specific gravity of 3.44 g/cm 3 and 3.30 g/cm 3 for the coarse and fine hematite ore, respectively, while [ 38 ] reported that for fine and coarse hematite, the specific gravity was 3.75 g/cm 3 and 4.00 g/cm 3 , respectively. The values obtained by these researchers fall below the upper limit of the classification of hematite ore and as well as below the value of specific gravity obtained in this study. On another note, [ 36 ] reported a specific gravity value of 4.60 g/cm 3 for magnetite, which is slightly higher than the magnetite result (4.56 g/cm 3 ) obtained in this study. However, the result for magnetite reported by [ 40 ], 2.86 g/cm 3 , is significantly lower than the result of this study. Furthermore, [ 38 ] state that the value of specific gravity (relative density) for barite is between 2.5–3.5 g/cm 3 . The specific gravity for coarse barite, 3.93 g/cm 3 and fine barite, 3.77 g/cm 3 obtained in this study, is greater than 2.5–3.5 g/cm 3 . In a study carried out by [ 40 ], the specific gravity for coarse and fine barite aggregates was determined to be 4.04 g/cm 3 and 4.00 g/cm 3 ; these values are marginally lower than the results of the current study. 3.2.3 Sieve Analysis The Sieve analysis or gradation is a technique for the determination of the particle size distribution of the aggregate. Additionally, it is also used to determine the fineness modulus, which is an indicator of the fineness, coarseness, and uniformity of aggregates. These properties of the aggregate significantly affect the properties of the concrete, such as strength and long-term durability of concrete. Sieve analysis and fineness modulus of fine aggregate were carried out to verify the compliance of fine aggregate grading per [ 41 ]. According to [ 41 ], fine aggregate must not be more than 45% after passing through one sieve and being retained on to the next sieve, and the fineness modulus should not be less than 2.2 or more than 3.2. According to reports in the literature, fine aggregates that include organic impurities may also hinder the hydration process, which could compromise the strength development of concrete [ 3 , 42 ]. Therefore, in assessing the performance of structural concrete, the quality of both fine and coarse aggregates must be taken into consideration. However, many local contractors in various parts of Africa frequently use readily available fine and coarse aggregates without considering their potential impact on the concrete's performance [ 3 , 42 ]. Furthermore, many of these contractors lack the expertise and resources necessary to perform quality control on these aggregates before they are used on the job site. Because of this, the fine aggregate that is frequently used to produce concrete on most building sites may not be appropriately graded and may contain excessive particles (such as silt and clay) as well as organic impurities that can weaken the concrete [ 42 ]. The sieve analysis (gradations) results of the fine and coarse aggregates were presented on Figs. 2 and Fig. 3 , respectively. From Fig. 2 , only hematite aggregate does not comply with the 45% sieve retention requirement; 53.8% of the aggregate is retained at 0.03 m sieve size, and the fineness modulus of the fine aggregates was determined to be 2.9, 3.3, 1.7, and 2.4 for river sand, barite, hematite, and magnetite, respectively (Table 2 ). The fineness modulus for river sand and magnetite falls within the normal range of ≤ 2.2 to ≥ 3.2, while the fineness modulus of barite is marginally above the upper grading limit, and hematite falls below the lower grading limit. The results demonstrate that the fine aggregates of river sand, magnetite are well-graded, and the fine aggregate of barite is slightly coarser than the well-graded distribution, while on the other hand, the fine aggregate of hematite is significantly finer than the specified grading range and therefore a poorly graded aggregate. It was observed from Fig. 3 that the coarse aggregates of both granite and barite are poorly graded; none of the aggregates complies with the 45% sieve retention requirement. This implies that most particles are nearly of the same size with little or no variation, and therefore certain particle sizes are missing in the gradation. The aggregate might not be adequately compressed if all of the particles are the same size. Conversely, if the aggregate is well-graded and its particles are of varying sizes, the smaller particles will fill the spaces between the larger ones, thereby reducing the voids between the particles and improving the quality of the concrete [ 3 , 10 , 11 ]. Table 3 compares the compliance of fine aggregates with the ASTM C33-03 requirements. Table 3 Compliance of fine aggregates with ASTM C33-03 requirements Property River sand Barite Hematite Magnetite Particle size distribution Spread across a wide range Spread across a wide range Concentrated in a narrow range Spread across a wide range % retained between two consecutive sieves Consistently < 45% Consistently 45% Consistently < 45% Fineness modulus (normal range ≤ 2.2 to ≥ 3.2) 2.9 3.3 1.7 2.4 Grading quality Well graded Well graded Poorly graded (uniformly graded) Well graded Compliance with the ASTM requirement In conformity with the requirement Partly comply with the requirement Does not comply with the requirement In conformity with the requirement The gradation results demonstrate that only the hematite aggregate is not in compliance with the ASTM standard due to its narrow particle size distribution, which results in poor grading (Fig. 4 ). In contrast, river sand, barite, and magnetite aggregates demonstrate a well-graded distribution with no single fraction exceeding 45%, thereby complying with this ASTM standard. This shows the limitation of the hematite fine aggregate in terms of grading, which may consequently affect the workability, strength, and long-term durability of the hardened concrete material if not corrected during the batching process with other materials. 3.2.4 Water Absorption Water absorption is an important physical property of the aggregates that is used to reveal information about the quality of aggregates. Since aggregates are porous materials, it is widely known that they will either swell or shrink when water is released or absorbed. As a result, they have a significant impact on the strength, cracking resistance, and other properties of composite materials [ 8 , 43 ]. When designing a concrete or mortar mix, the moisture content of an aggregate, which is determined by the porosity of the aggregate, has an impact on the ratio of water to cementitious materials. Because concrete aggregates are often dry, some of the water used in mixing tends to be absorbed by the aggregate. In order to maintain a constant water/cement ratio and ensure that the desired final strength of the hardened composite material is unaffected, the mix design must be adjusted in line with the capacity of the aggregate to absorb water [ 8 ]. The test for moisture content was conducted to get necessary information regarding the overall moisture conditions of the stockpile aggregates, which significantly impact the strength, water-to-cement ratio, watertightness, and long-term durability of the concrete [ 44 ]. The water absorption test was conducted in compliance with [ 24 ] to determine the capacity of the aggregates to conserve water [ 45 ]. The strength and workability of concrete are influenced by its water-to-cement ratio. The concrete's strength decreases, and its workability improves as the water-to-cement ratio increases. Determining the aggregate's moisture content and absorption capability is therefore very crucial [ 27 ]). According to [ 46 ], the water absorption of high-quality aggregates should be less than 1.5%. However, [ 43 ] states that depending on the type of aggregate under examination, the water absorption of aggregates typically varies between 0.5% and 2%. However, the afore-mentioned low water absorption values are not always the case. For instance, Hawaiian basaltic coarse aggregate has been reported by [ 47 ] to absorb up to 8.8% of water. Additionally, carbonate and diabasic/basaltic aggregates quarried in Cyprus have been reported to have high water absorption values [ 8 , 48 , 49 ]. The natural moisture content and the water absorption capacity of the aggregates are presented in Table 2 . The result revealed that hematite and magnetite aggregates have the highest water absorption capacity, each with a value of 2.2% followed closely by river sand aggregate with a value of 2.1%. The water absorption capacity for the barite aggregate was determined to be 1.26%, which is the least, while on the other hand, the water absorption capacity for granite was determined to be 1.71%. [ 39 ] reported water absorption for granite aggregate at 0.50% and 0.84% for sand. These values are below the results obtained for granite and sand in this study. On the other hand, [ 38 ] reported water absorption of 2.19% and 3.13% for granite and sand, respectively; these values are greater than the water absorption obtained in this study. According to [ 39 ], the water absorptions for fine and coarse hematite are 2.04% and 1.12%. The value for the fine hematite aggregate is more than the value obtained in this study. Furthermore, [ 38 ] reported water absorptions for fine and coarse hematite aggregates at 2.35% and 1.17% respectively. The value reported for fine hematite is higher than the result of this study. Moreover, [ 36 ] reported water absorption capacity values of 1.30%, 1.80% and 1.40% for granite, sand, and magnetite, respectively. The values reported by these researchers are below the values obtained for granite, sand, and magnetite in this study. On another note, [ 37 ] reported water absorption and moisture content for magnetite to be 0.2% and 0.1% respectively; this result is significantly below the result of this study. [ 50 ] reported water absorption values of 0.5% and 0.25% for barite and magnetite, which are significantly below the water absorption results for the aggregates we investigated. The discrepancy in the results of moisture contents and water absorptions may be due to weather conditions and location for the storage of aggregates, including whether they are exposed to rain or shine before laboratory tests are conducted [ 39 ]. 4.0 Conclusion From the experimental investigations conducted on cement and the aggregates, the following conclusions were reached. All the physical properties of cement were within the acceptable limits; therefore, the cement used in this study conforms with the requirements of Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) [ 29 ] and American Society for Testing and Materials [ 18 ] standard specification, and therefore can be used to produce radiation shielding concrete of high quality. The bulk density and the specific gravity of the aggregates comply with the requirements of American Society for Testing and Materials [ 24 , 25 ]. Therefore, they can be employed to produce radiation shielding concrete of high quality. The coarse aggregates of both granite and barite are poorly graded; none of the aggregates comply with the 45% sieve retention requirement of aggregate grading per [ 41 ]. The gradation results also demonstrate that the hematite aggregate is not in compliance with the [ 41 ] due to its narrow particle size distribution, which results in poor grading. The limitations of these aggregates in terms of grading may consequently affect the workability, strength, and long-term durability of the hardened concrete material if not corrected during the batching process with other materials. The moisture contents and the water absorptions of the aggregate, although not significantly higher, can alter the water-to-cement ratio, consequently affecting the workability, strength, and long-term durability of the radiation shielding concrete if not corrected during the mixing process. Overall, the building materials investigated in this study have significantly demonstrated good physical properties. Materials with good physical properties, such as higher density and specific gravity, are known to enhance attenuation of ionizing radiation. Therefore, the properties are promising and can contribute effectively to the production of concrete with strong radiation shielding capability. 5.0 Recommendation The authors recommend that further study should be conducted on concrete mix design, mechanical properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength, and tensile strength, as well as experiments on radiation shielding using the materials to strengthen the understanding and the behaviour of these locally sourced materials in shielding applications. Declarations CRediT authorship contribution statement N. Garba: Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. M. Bello: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Data Curation, Conceptualization. R. Nasir: Visualization, Supervision, Conceptualization. U.M. Kankara: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. J. Usman: Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. U. Amadu: Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. A. Getso: Methodology, Investigation. A.M. Vatsa: Methodology, Investigation. Funding This research is funded by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), Nigeria, under the National Research Fund (NRF) with number TETF/ES/DR&D-CE/NRF2023/SETI/NRT/00159/VOL.1. Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used [GRAMMARLY] to [improve the English language grammar]. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication. 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10:42:26","extension":"html","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":137891,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8472836/v1/58b3d803ce2ae3ccd2f7735c.html"},{"id":99693625,"identity":"8d668235-8b30-43d3-99de-df7ab395cae2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 10:42:26","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":258276,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe different aggregates used in this study with (A) 10mm Barite, (B) 20mm Barite, (C) Fine Barite, (D) 10mm Granite, (E) Hermatite, (F) Magnetite, and (G) River sand,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8472836/v1/46c9c251a6af19315bd6d071.jpg"},{"id":99693626,"identity":"f4010ebb-d8a3-4b2c-aa4b-d2a205b856cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 10:42:26","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":124051,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticle size distribution of the fine aggregates\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8472836/v1/5ef98dfcb22d2471a443cdc2.png"},{"id":99693627,"identity":"332f0adf-f592-4841-86fa-061107ba0ce3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-07 10:42:26","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":60137,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticle size distribution of the coarse aggregates\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8472836/v1/532e7bfadb32c8ed5f179eac.png"},{"id":99797250,"identity":"bfce003e-ab0b-4a28-8123-a93b7ed0d9d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:45:29","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":93594,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure showing the gradation of (A) Coarse barite, (B Fine barite, (C) Coarse granite, and (D) Fine hermatite\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8472836/v1/b0c6626da9080f438cf47737.jpg"},{"id":99805352,"identity":"13893540-46fd-4400-83ac-1185f63bac8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 14:16:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1673932,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8472836/v1/8c241c4b-aa8a-483b-96bb-2877b5e1dc65.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvaluation of Physical Properties of Locally Available Materials Used for the Production of Radiation Shielding Concrete in Northern Nigeria.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eConcrete is the most widely used material in the construction industry since it is used to build most infrastructure designs, including buildings, bridges, highways, seaports, harbors, runways, and drainage systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The quality of concrete plays a major role in the strength, structural integrity, and safety of concrete construction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The main components of concrete mixtures are typically water, cementitious materials (which serve as a binder), fine aggregates (mainly sand), coarse aggregates (such as crushed stone or gravel), and occasionally additives and admixtures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The qualities and volume fractions of these main ingredients, as well as the water-to-cementitious materials (w/c) ratio, determine the fresh and hardened properties of concrete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The behavior of the concrete is likely to change if there is an anomalous state in any one of these components or if it results from the combination of components [3.4].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement is a binding material that combines various building materials to create a compacted assembly due to its cohesive and adhesive properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], cement is the substance that binds the coarse aggregate (gravel, broken granite, etc.) and fine aggregate (typically sand) together to create a solid, rigid mass that can support loads and gives the concrete strength. The quality and quantity of cement, which serves as the primary source of strength in concrete by binding the fine and coarse aggregates together to create a rigid mass that can support loads, primarily determine the strength of concrete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. When determining concrete strength, researchers typically focus on the quality of the cement paste. However, in addition to the quality of the cement paste and the strength of the hydrated product, the characteristics of the aggregates also affect the strength of concrete. The properties of the aggregates directly or indirectly impact the durability and performance of concretes and mortars in use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Aggregates are necessary raw materials in the fabrication of composite building materials like concrete and mortar [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Since aggregates make up around 75% to 80% of the volume of concrete, their physical and mechanical properties, such as maximum size, gradation, texture, shape, and strength, have a significant impact on the concrete's overall properties and behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Aggregates have a significant impact on the strength and stiffness of concrete and mortar, giving the hardened material the rigidity required for engineering applications. Moreover, among the raw elements used in the production of concrete/mortar, aggregates are the most stable and durable component, which has an impact on the durability of the hardened end product [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe application of concrete has expanded to include specialized functions, such as radiation shielding in medical, nuclear, and research facilities. Its effectiveness as a shield is attributed to its high density, which facilitates the attenuation of ionizing radiation like gamma rays and neutrons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. The shielding capability is significantly enhanced by incorporating high-density aggregates, such as magnetite and barite, which contain heavy elements that efficiently absorb radiation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent studies have shown that the use of materials like iron ore and galena can greatly improve the linear attenuation coefficients of concrete, allowing for thinner yet more effective protective barriers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The type and size of aggregates are crucial factors, with research indicating that specific local aggregates can be optimized to produce concrete with superior shielding properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. This study aimed to evaluate the physical properties of cement and aggregates sourced from local stocks to assess the impacts of these materials on the quality and the overall behavior of the shielding concrete, and also assess the potential of using the local materials as radiation shielding concrete. This study can enhance the use of local materials and therefore reduce the cost of radiation shielding in nuclear and radiological facilities. This study can also be used by competent Authorities to produce new regulations or update the existing ones. In addition, the study can be used by mining operators to study the behaviour of the local materials and therefore enhance the mining activities in Northern Nigeria. All the examinations were conducted at the Material Testing Laboratory of the Building Department, Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1. Cement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cement used in this study was the Dangote brand of Normal Portland-limestone cement, CEM II B-L 42.5N CB, which is locally available in all Nigerian markets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1 Fine Aggregate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fine aggregates used in this study are natural river sand, barite, hematite, and magnetite. The natural river sand was obtained from local vendors in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The barite, hematite, and magnetite aggregates were sourced from local stocks in Nasarawa State, Nigeria, where they are available in commercial quantities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2 Coarse Aggregate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe coarse aggregates used in this study are granite and barite. The granite was obtained from local vendors in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The maximum size of the granite aggregate was 10mm, and the maximum size of the coarse barite was 20mm as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the sizes of both fine and coarse aggregates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.3. Water\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quality of water is important because contaminants can adversely affect the quality of concrete. Drinking water free from contaminants was used in this study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Tests on Cement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following tests were conducted to check the conformity of the cement to the quality requirements stipulated in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1.1 Fineness of the cement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFineness influences the rate of hydration of cement, which, by extension, determines the rate of strength development of the concrete. A sample of 10g of cement powder was measured using an Avery scale termed as w\u003csub\u003e1,\u003c/sub\u003e and sieved using a 45-\u0026micro;m (No. 325) sieve. The weight of the sample retained was recorded as w\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. Eq.\u0026nbsp;1 was used to determine the percentage retained (Ikumapayi and Oluwabusuyi, 2019). This examination was conducted in compliance with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:finess=\\frac{{w}_{2}}{{w}_{1}}\\:\\times\\:\\:100\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:1$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1.2 The soundness of the cement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoundness refers to the resistance of cement to expansion caused by the presence of excess sulfur trioxide (SO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) or magnesium oxide (MgO) in the cement. The cement soundness test was carried out using the Le Chatelier method. The test was conducted to measure the expansivity of the cement paste upon heating. Using the Le-Chatelier apparatus, cement paste (cement and water) was prepared, leveled, and properly dressed, then kept for 24 hours for setting. The paste was removed and the length was measured as L\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e and placed in a water bath at 950℃ for 1hour 30 minutes, and then allowed to cool. The length (L\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) after boiling was measured. The rate of expansion (expansivity) of the cement, otherwise known as the soundness of the cement, was computed using Eq.\u0026nbsp;2.2 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:Soundness=\\:{L}_{2}-{L}_{1}\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:2$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1.3 Cement Setting Times\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA setting time test was conducted to determine how long it would take for the cement (concrete or mortar) to set, or harden. An Avery scale was used to measure 400g of cement powder; the mass of water was determined by calculating and weighing 30% of the 400g. Following thorough mixing, the cement samples were put into the Vicat mold, which was set on a lightly oiled glass surface with the surface properly treated. To comply with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], the Vicat plunger was then released to touch the mortar cement. The scale was used to determine the depth values the plunger penetrated at a specified time interval.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1.4 Consistency Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA standard (normal) consistency test was conducted to determine the cement's fluidity or wetness. The purpose of this test method is to determine the amount of water required to produce hydraulic cement pastes of standard consistency. The test ensures that all subsequent tests are performed under consistent water-cement ratio conditions. Eq.\u0026nbsp;2.3 was used to compute the standard consistency of the cement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The test was conducted following [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:Consistency=\\:\\frac{Amount\\:of\\:water\\:used}{Quantity\\:of\\:Cement}\\:\\times\\:\\:100\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:3$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Tests on Aggregates Specimens\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2.1 \u003cb\u003eSpecific Gravity of the Aggregate\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity is an important parameter for aggregate classification in terms of their densities and the proportioning of concrete constituents. Absorption of aggregation is equally useful for adjusting the adequate water needed for concrete production. These properties of the aggregate were determined following the procedure outlined in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. A test for specific gravity was conducted in compliance with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The weight of the empty measuring cylinder was designated as w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, the weight of the sample and the cylinder was designated as w\u003csub\u003e2,\u003c/sub\u003e then the water was added and measured as w\u003csub\u003e3,\u003c/sub\u003e while the weight of the cylinder and water only was designated as w\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e. Eq.\u0026nbsp;2.4 was used to determine the specific gravities of the aggregates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:Specific\\:gravity\\:\\left({G}_{s}\\right)=\\frac{{w}_{2}-{w}_{1}}{({w}_{2}-{w}_{1})-{(w}_{3}-{w}_{4})}\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:4$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere, w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mass of measuring cylinder, w\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mass of measuring cylinder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;dry sample w\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mass of measuring cylinder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;water\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;dry sample and w\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Weight of measuring cylinder\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;water (full) only\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2.2 Bulk Density\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to specific gravity, the bulk density of aggregate is equally significant for aggregate classification based on their densities and for the proportioning of concrete constituents. The bulk density of the aggregates was examined using the [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] procedure. Eq.\u0026nbsp;2.5 was used to determine the bulk density [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Eque\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Eque\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:Bulk\\:density=\\:\\frac{Weight\\:of\\:sample\\:\\left(W\\right)}{Volume\\:of\\:mould\\:\\left(V\\right)}\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:5$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2.3 Gradation (Sieve Analysis)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis is to examine the particle size distribution of aggregate, which is fundamental for developing concrete of good quality in terms of density, strength, and durability. The sieves used in the analysis were arranged in ascending order of aperture size. After being placed in the sieve stack at the topmost sieve, the measured sample was vigorously vibrated for ten to fifteen minutes. After carefully separating the sieves, the weight of the sample retained on each sieve was measured and recorded. The percentage retained and percentage passing on each sieve were calculated using Equations 2.6 and 2.7 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] in line with the procedure outlined in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], while fineness modulus (FM) was computed using Eq.\u0026nbsp;2.8 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equf\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equf\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\%\\:Retained=\\frac{Mass\\:retained\\:\\left(g\\right)}{Total\\:mass\\:\\left(g\\right)}\\:\\times\\:\\:100\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:6$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equg\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equg\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\%\\:Passing=100-\\%\\:Cummulative\\:Retained\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:7$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equh\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equh\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:Fineness\\:Modolus=\\:\\frac{\\sum\\:\\%cumulative\\:retained}{100}\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:8$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2.4 Natural Moisture Content and Water Absorption Tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFive cans, designated A, B, C, D, and E, were weighed and recorded. The moist samples of River Sand, Granite, Barite, Magnetite, and Hematite were then measured and transferred into the designated five cans, weighed, and recorded, and then placed in the oven for a full day (24 hours). In compliance with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], it was later removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. Equations\u0026nbsp;2.9 and 2.10 were used in computing the Moisture Contents and Water Absorptions of concrete materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equi\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equi\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:Moisture\\:Content\\:\\left({M}_{C}\\right)=\\frac{{(w}_{2}-{w}_{1})\\:-{(w}_{3}-{w}_{1})}{({w}_{2}-{w}_{1})}x\\:100\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:9$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equj\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equj\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:Water\\:Absoption\\:\\left({W}_{A}\\right)=\\frac{{(w}_{4}-{w}_{1})\\:-{(w}_{3}-{w}_{1})}{({w}_{3}-{w}_{1})}x\\:100\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:10$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere, w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of empty can, w\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of can +\u0026thinsp;wet sample, w\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of can +\u0026thinsp;oven dry (OD) sample and w\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;weight of can +\u0026thinsp;saturated surface dry (SSD) sample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Tests on Cement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], cement tests are divided into two categories: field testing and laboratory testing. The laboratory tests are listed as follows: fineness, setting time, strength, soundness, and heat of hydration tests [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. However, for this study, the following tests were performed on the Dangote brand of Normal Portland-limestone cement, CEM II B-L 42.5N CB: specific gravity, soundness, fineness, setting time, and consistency test to check the quality of the cement for use in production of shielding concrete in line with the requirement of Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] and American Society for Testing and Materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] standard specification. The values for the various tests were presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTests on Cement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement Brand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoundness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFineness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSetting Time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDangote, CEM II B-L 42.5N. CB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efinal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1hr: 44min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2hrs: 44min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Specific gravity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe result obtained in this study is 3.04, which is marginally below the world standard of 3.15. However,[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] has reported the results of specific gravity tests on thirty various types of cement to fall between 3.026 and 3.138; the value of specific gravity obtained from this study is within the range stated by Butler. Furthermore, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] reported the values of the specific gravity of 3.02, 3.01, and 2.92 for Dangote cement, Lafarge cement, and Purechem cement, respectively. The value of specific gravity obtained by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] for Dangote cement (3.02) is slightly lower than the result of this study, and all values fall within the range reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Meanwhile, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] reported the specific gravity values of 2.4, 2.33, 2.46, and 2.4 for Dangote Cement grade 42.5, Dangote Cement grade 32.5, Elephant S cement, and Elephant cement, respectively. However, these values are far below the standard specific gravity of the cement (3.15) and are not in line with the range reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] or the value obtained from this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Soundness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA soundness test for the cement was conducted using the Le Chatelier method. The presence of free lime and magnesia in an unsound cement causes volumetric expansion, which in turn leads to deterioration of the concrete; therefore, the concentration of free lime and magnesia in a cement must be kept within acceptable limits. Free lime and magnesia slake very slowly and trigger expansion, which will result in damage to the concrete if it occurs after the concrete has set [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Cements should not expand more than 10 mm using the Le Chatelier method or more than 0.8% using the Autoclave method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The value obtained for the soundness test for this study was found to be 3 mm, which is within the acceptable limit of 10 mm. This is an indication that the free lime and magnesia concentrations in the cement are within the acceptable limit. In a study conducted by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], the soundness values of 7 mm and 5 mm were obtained for PLC Grade 32.5N and PLC Grade 42.5N, respectively. ]32] reported the soundness values of 1.7 mm, 1.17 mm, 1.2 mm, and 2.5 mm for Dangote, Bua, Ashaka, and Sokoto cements, respectively. Furthermore, a study carried out by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] found the soundness of three different Grade 42.5 Portland lime cements, designated as cements A, B, and C from three distinct companies, to be 1.56 mm, 2.32 mm, and 2.21 mm, respectively. The result of this study is higher than the results reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] but significantly lower than the value reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] for the Dangote Grade 42.5 Portland lime cement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.3 Fineness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fineness test was another important physical property of the cement, carried out in this study to check the quality of the cement. This test was conducted using sieve number 325 (45-\u0026micro;m) to verify if the cements were properly ground or had the right particle size [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The fineness of cement affects the rate of reaction. The early development of strength is accelerated by finer grinding since it increases the rate of reaction, and vice versa. Concrete bleeds as coarser cement particles settle in the mixture. Additionally, too much fineness can be detrimental since it may cause more heat and make concrete more prone to cracking. Fineness can be expressed as surface area in cm\u0026sup2; per gram of cement or as the percentage weight retained after cement has been sieved [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The fineness result obtained in this study was 6%. This value is within the permissible limit, which states that there should be no more than 10% of residual by weight on 1590 misconceive for OPC [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The fineness values found by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] for three different Grade 42.5 Portland lime cements, designated as cements A, B, and C, were 1.0%, 1.2% and 3.4% respectively. Although all the values are within the permissible limit of not more than 10% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], the cements designated as A and B are too fine and can generate more heat, leading to the cracking of the concrete. Furthermore, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] reported the fineness values 6.3%, 5%, 6.3% and 5% for Dangote, Bua, Sokoto, and Ashaka cements, respectively. These values are within the permissible limit of not more than 10% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.4 Setting Time\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial and final setting times were found to be 60 minutes and 164 minutes, respectively. The initial and final setting times obtained in this study comply with the requirements of the Standard Organization of Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], which stated that ordinary and rapid-hardening cements should have an initial setting time of at least 30 minutes. Additionally, for all cement types, the final setting time shouldn't exceed 600 minutes (10 hours) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] reported the initial and final setting times of 201 minutes and 429 minutes for PLC Grade 32.5N, and 117 minutes and 258 minutes for PLC Grade 42.5N, respectively. Additionally, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] obtained initial and final setting times for Dangote cement of 75 minutes and 270 minutes, for Lafarge cement of 90 minutes and 315 minutes, and Purechem cement of 135 minutes and 405 minutes, respectively. In a study carried out by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], the initial setting and final setting times were 77 minutes and 190 minutes for Dangote cement, 72 minutes and 182 minutes for Bua cement, 62 minutes and 175 minutes for Sokoto cement, and 93 minutes and 212 minutes for Ashaka cement, respectively. Moreover, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] obtained initial and final setting times for three different Grade 42.5 Portland lime cements, designated as cements A, B, and C, as 92 minutes and 540 minutes for cement A, 74 minutes and 600 minutes for cement B, and 60 minutes and 540 minutes for cement C, respectively. The initial and final setting times reported by the aforementioned scholars for Dangote Grade 42.5 Portland lime cement are in agreement with this study and fall within the permissible limit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.5 Consistency test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe result for the consistency test obtained in this study was 30%. Normal consistency values for Portland cement range between 26% to 33% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]; therefore, a value of 30% falls within the normal range. This implies that 30% water by weight of dry cement is required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] obtained standard consistency values of 31.5%, 31.5%, 32.5% and 31.5% for Dangote, Bua, Sokoto, and Ashaka cements. These values are in agreement with the value obtained in this study and are all within the permissible limit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Test on aggregates\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAggregates used in the production of concrete and mortar must meet the minimal requirements for strength, durability, and cleanliness (i.e., they must be significantly free of harmful compounds) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The physical properties of the aggregates, such as bulk density, specific gravity, percentage voids, gradation test, moisture content, and water absorption, were determined to assess the impacts of these aggregates on the properties and the overall behavior of the concrete. These tests are conducted in line with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard specifications. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of various aggregate tests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults for aggregate tests\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAggregates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum Aggregate Size (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBulk density (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity (g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFineness modulus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater Absorption (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver Sand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1674.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGranite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1557.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFine Barite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2661.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoarse Barite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2527.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHematite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2935.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnetite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3006.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Bulk density\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bulk density of the aggregates is the mass of a unit volume of bulk aggregate material, where the volume comprises the volume of the individual particles as well as the volume of the voids between the particles. It is expressed in kilograms per cubic meter [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Many techniques of choosing proportions for concrete mixtures require the use of bulk density values [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Bulk density tests of the aggregates were conducted in compliance with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The values for the bulk densities of various aggregates were presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e the results showed that magnetite aggregates are denser than the other aggregates, with a value of 3006.42 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, followed closely by hematite with a bulk density value of 2935.05 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, the bulk densities of fine and coarse barite aggregates were determined to be 2661 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e and 2527.41 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e while the bulk densities of river sand were found to be 1674.17 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e and that of the granite was determined to be 1557.7 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e. The bulk density of magnetite from this study is higher than the result of 1860 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the bulk density of magnetite from this study is significantly lower than the value of 4400 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the bulk density of hematite from this study is higher than the results of 1956 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e and 1962 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], respectively. The bulk density for sand in saturated surface dry (SSD) condition reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] was 1600 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. This value is slightly lower than the bulk density value for river sand (1674.17 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e) obtained in this study. The bulk density for granite aggregate reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] were 1635 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e,1676 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, and 1450 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3,\u003c/sup\u003e respectively; these values are slightly different from the 1557.7 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e obtained in this study. The variation of bulk densities of the coarse granite aggregates is due to the differences in aggregate maximum sizes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The maximum size of the coarse granite aggregate in this study is 10 mm, while in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], the maximum size was 25mm, 12.5mm, and 20mm, respectively. Furthermore, the processing method used to crush the aggregates into fine and coarse aggregates affects the bulk density of the other aggregates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The results of the bulk densities of fine and coarse barite aggregates, 2661 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e and 2527.41 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e respectively, have demonstrated that fine aggregates are denser than coarse aggregates of the same volume, which implies that there are more voids in coarse aggregates than the fine aggregates, necessitating increasing the cement content and using a lower water-to-cement ratio for stronger and quality concrete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. On a last note, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] have reported that heavyweight aggregates such as barite, magnetite, and hematite can have a bulk density of more than 3000 kgm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Specific gravity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe test for specific gravity was carried out following [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The weight of the aggregate particles relative to the volume of water equivalent is known as the specific gravity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Specific gravity, also known as relative density, is an important physical property of aggregates that can be used to give information on the aggregate volume in different mixtures. The volume of voids in an aggregate can also be estimated using specific gravity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The specific gravities for all the aggregates are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Hematite has the highest value with a specific gravity of 4.79 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, followed closely by magnetite with a value of 4.56 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and coarse barite aggregate with a specific gravity of 3.93 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e; the specific gravity of fine barite was determined to be 3.77 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, while that of granite, and river sand were determined to be 2.64 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, and 2.50 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. Granite and river sand normally have specific gravities in the range of 2.55\u0026ndash;2.75 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The specific gravity results for granite in this study fall within the previously mentioned range while that of river sand marginally falls below the lower limit of the range. The specific gravity of the granite and sand aggregates reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] were 2.70 g/cm\u0026sup3; and 2.62 g/cm\u0026sup3;, and by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] were 2.70 g/cm\u0026sup3; and 2.63 g/cm\u0026sup3;, respectively, while the values reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] were 2.70 g/cm\u0026sup3; and 2.40 g/cm\u0026sup3; for granite and river sand respectively. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], pure hematite can have a specific gravity between 4.9 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.5 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. However, it depends on the source rock types, the rock location, the chemical composition of the hematite, and the processing method used to obtain the final product [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The expected range of specific gravity for hematite ore is normally between 3.2 and 4.3 g/cm\u0026sup3; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The specific gravity for hematite in this study was determined to be 4.79 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, which is marginally below the lower limit of the specific gravity 4.9 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for pure hematite and slightly above the upper limit of the specific gravity 4.3 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for hematite ore. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] reported a specific gravity of 3.44 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 3.30 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for the coarse and fine hematite ore, respectively, while [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] reported that for fine and coarse hematite, the specific gravity was 3.75 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 4.00 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively. The values obtained by these researchers fall below the upper limit of the classification of hematite ore and as well as below the value of specific gravity obtained in this study. On another note, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] reported a specific gravity value of 4.60 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for magnetite, which is slightly higher than the magnetite result (4.56 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) obtained in this study. However, the result for magnetite reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], 2.86 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, is significantly lower than the result of this study. Furthermore, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] state that the value of specific gravity (relative density) for barite is between 2.5\u0026ndash;3.5 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. The specific gravity for coarse barite, 3.93 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and fine barite, 3.77 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e obtained in this study, is greater than 2.5\u0026ndash;3.5 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. In a study carried out by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], the specific gravity for coarse and fine barite aggregates was determined to be 4.04 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 4.00 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e; these values are marginally lower than the results of the current study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Sieve Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Sieve analysis or gradation is a technique for the determination of the particle size distribution of the aggregate. Additionally, it is also used to determine the fineness modulus, which is an indicator of the fineness, coarseness, and uniformity of aggregates. These properties of the aggregate significantly affect the properties of the concrete, such as strength and long-term durability of concrete. Sieve analysis and fineness modulus of fine aggregate were carried out to verify the compliance of fine aggregate grading per [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], fine aggregate must not be more than 45% after passing through one sieve and being retained on to the next sieve, and the fineness modulus should not be less than 2.2 or more than 3.2. According to reports in the literature, fine aggregates that include organic impurities may also hinder the hydration process, which could compromise the strength development of concrete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, in assessing the performance of structural concrete, the quality of both fine and coarse aggregates must be taken into consideration. However, many local contractors in various parts of Africa frequently use readily available fine and coarse aggregates without considering their potential impact on the concrete's performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, many of these contractors lack the expertise and resources necessary to perform quality control on these aggregates before they are used on the job site. Because of this, the fine aggregate that is frequently used to produce concrete on most building sites may not be appropriately graded and may contain excessive particles (such as silt and clay) as well as organic impurities that can weaken the concrete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The sieve analysis (gradations) results of the fine and coarse aggregates were presented on Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, respectively. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, only hematite aggregate does not comply with the 45% sieve retention requirement; 53.8% of the aggregate is retained at 0.03 m sieve size, and the fineness modulus of the fine aggregates was determined to be 2.9, 3.3, 1.7, and 2.4 for river sand, barite, hematite, and magnetite, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The fineness modulus for river sand and magnetite falls within the normal range of \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;2.2 to \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;3.2, while the fineness modulus of barite is marginally above the upper grading limit, and hematite falls below the lower grading limit. The results demonstrate that the fine aggregates of river sand, magnetite are well-graded, and the fine aggregate of barite is slightly coarser than the well-graded distribution, while on the other hand, the fine aggregate of hematite is significantly finer than the specified grading range and therefore a poorly graded aggregate. It was observed from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e that the coarse aggregates of both granite and barite are poorly graded; none of the aggregates complies with the 45% sieve retention requirement. This implies that most particles are nearly of the same size with little or no variation, and therefore certain particle sizes are missing in the gradation. The aggregate might not be adequately compressed if all of the particles are the same size. Conversely, if the aggregate is well-graded and its particles are of varying sizes, the smaller particles will fill the spaces between the larger ones, thereby reducing the voids between the particles and improving the quality of the concrete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e compares the compliance of fine aggregates with the ASTM C33-03 requirements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompliance of fine aggregates with ASTM C33-03 requirements\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProperty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver sand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHematite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnetite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle size distribution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpread across a wide range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpread across a wide range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrated in a narrow range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpread across a wide range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% retained between two consecutive sieves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistently\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistently\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistently\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFineness modulus (normal range\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;2.2 to \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;3.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrading quality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWell graded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWell graded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoorly graded (uniformly graded)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWell graded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompliance with the ASTM requirement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conformity with the requirement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartly comply with the requirement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoes not comply with the requirement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conformity with the requirement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe gradation results demonstrate that only the hematite aggregate is not in compliance with the ASTM standard due to its narrow particle size distribution, which results in poor grading (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, river sand, barite, and magnetite aggregates demonstrate a well-graded distribution with no single fraction exceeding 45%, thereby complying with this ASTM standard. This shows the limitation of the hematite fine aggregate in terms of grading, which may consequently affect the workability, strength, and long-term durability of the hardened concrete material if not corrected during the batching process with other materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.4 Water Absorption\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater absorption is an important physical property of the aggregates that is used to reveal information about the quality of aggregates. Since aggregates are porous materials, it is widely known that they will either swell or shrink when water is released or absorbed. As a result, they have a significant impact on the strength, cracking resistance, and other properties of composite materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. When designing a concrete or mortar mix, the moisture content of an aggregate, which is determined by the porosity of the aggregate, has an impact on the ratio of water to cementitious materials. Because concrete aggregates are often dry, some of the water used in mixing tends to be absorbed by the aggregate. In order to maintain a constant water/cement ratio and ensure that the desired final strength of the hardened composite material is unaffected, the mix design must be adjusted in line with the capacity of the aggregate to absorb water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe test for moisture content was conducted to get necessary information regarding the overall moisture conditions of the stockpile aggregates, which significantly impact the strength, water-to-cement ratio, watertightness, and long-term durability of the concrete [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The water absorption test was conducted in compliance with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] to determine the capacity of the aggregates to conserve water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. The strength and workability of concrete are influenced by its water-to-cement ratio. The concrete's strength decreases, and its workability improves as the water-to-cement ratio increases. Determining the aggregate's moisture content and absorption capability is therefore very crucial [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]). According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], the water absorption of high-quality aggregates should be less than 1.5%. However, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] states that depending on the type of aggregate under examination, the water absorption of aggregates typically varies between 0.5% and 2%. However, the afore-mentioned low water absorption values are not always the case. For instance, Hawaiian basaltic coarse aggregate has been reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e] to absorb up to 8.8% of water. Additionally, carbonate and diabasic/basaltic aggregates quarried in Cyprus have been reported to have high water absorption values [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The natural moisture content and the water absorption capacity of the aggregates are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The result revealed that hematite and magnetite aggregates have the highest water absorption capacity, each with a value of 2.2% followed closely by river sand aggregate with a value of 2.1%. The water absorption capacity for the barite aggregate was determined to be 1.26%, which is the least, while on the other hand, the water absorption capacity for granite was determined to be 1.71%. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] reported water absorption for granite aggregate at 0.50% and 0.84% for sand. These values are below the results obtained for granite and sand in this study. On the other hand, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] reported water absorption of 2.19% and 3.13% for granite and sand, respectively; these values are greater than the water absorption obtained in this study. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], the water absorptions for fine and coarse hematite are 2.04% and 1.12%. The value for the fine hematite aggregate is more than the value obtained in this study. Furthermore, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] reported water absorptions for fine and coarse hematite aggregates at 2.35% and 1.17% respectively. The value reported for fine hematite is higher than the result of this study. Moreover, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] reported water absorption capacity values of 1.30%, 1.80% and 1.40% for granite, sand, and magnetite, respectively. The values reported by these researchers are below the values obtained for granite, sand, and magnetite in this study. On another note, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] reported water absorption and moisture content for magnetite to be 0.2% and 0.1% respectively; this result is significantly below the result of this study. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e] reported water absorption values of 0.5% and 0.25% for barite and magnetite, which are significantly below the water absorption results for the aggregates we investigated. The discrepancy in the results of moisture contents and water absorptions may be due to weather conditions and location for the storage of aggregates, including whether they are exposed to rain or shine before laboratory tests are conducted [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFrom the experimental investigations conducted on cement and the aggregates, the following conclusions were reached.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the physical properties of cement were within the acceptable limits; therefore, the cement used in this study conforms with the requirements of Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] and American Society for Testing and Materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] standard specification, and therefore can be used to produce radiation shielding concrete of high quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bulk density and the specific gravity of the aggregates comply with the requirements of American Society for Testing and Materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, they can be employed to produce radiation shielding concrete of high quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe coarse aggregates of both granite and barite are poorly graded; none of the aggregates comply with the 45% sieve retention requirement of aggregate grading per [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The gradation results also demonstrate that the hematite aggregate is not in compliance with the [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] due to its narrow particle size distribution, which results in poor grading. The limitations of these aggregates in terms of grading may consequently affect the workability, strength, and long-term durability of the hardened concrete material if not corrected during the batching process with other materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe moisture contents and the water absorptions of the aggregate, although not significantly higher, can alter the water-to-cement ratio, consequently affecting the workability, strength, and long-term durability of the radiation shielding concrete if not corrected during the mixing process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the building materials investigated in this study have significantly demonstrated good physical properties. Materials with good physical properties, such as higher density and specific gravity, are known to enhance attenuation of ionizing radiation. Therefore, the properties are promising and can contribute effectively to the production of concrete with strong radiation shielding capability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 Recommendation","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe authors recommend that further study should be conducted on concrete mix design, mechanical properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength, and tensile strength, as well as experiments on radiation shielding using the materials to strengthen the understanding and the behaviour of these locally sourced materials in shielding applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN. Garba:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFunding acquisition, Writing – review \u0026amp; editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. \u003cstrong\u003eM. Bello:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWriting – review \u0026amp; editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Data Curation, Conceptualization. \u003cstrong\u003eR. Nasir:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eVisualization, Supervision, Conceptualization. \u003cstrong\u003eU.M. Kankara:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing – review \u0026amp; editing, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. \u003cstrong\u003eJ. Usman:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMethodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. \u003cstrong\u003eU. Amadu:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMethodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. \u003cstrong\u003eA. Getso:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMethodology, Investigation. \u003cstrong\u003eA.M. Vatsa:\u003c/strong\u003e Methodology, Investigation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research is funded by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), Nigeria, under the National Research Fund (NRF) with number TETF/ES/DR\u0026amp;D-CE/NRF2023/SETI/NRT/00159/VOL.1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this work, the author(s) used [GRAMMARLY] to [improve the English language grammar]. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkonkwo VO, Omaliko IK (2022) Evaluation of the Effects of Nigerian Portland-Limestone Cement Grades on the Strength of Concrete. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Engineering and Technology Research ISSN: 2736-576X. DOI\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejeng.2022.7.2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejeng.2022.7.2\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cem\u003e2729\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOloyede SA (2010) Tackling causes of frequent building collapse in Nigeria. 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International Conference on Engineering and Natural Science. 24\u0026ndash;28 May 2016/Sarajevo\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Tertiary Education Trust Fund of Nigeria","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Radiation shielding, cement, concrete, magnetite, specific gravity, aggregate, bulk density","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8472836/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8472836/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluates the physical properties of locally sourced cement and aggregates for the production of radiation shielding concrete in Northern Nigeria. Tests conducted on Dangote Portland-limestone cement showed a specific gravity of 3.04, a 3 mm soundness, a fineness of 6%, initial and final setting times of 60 min and 164 min, and a normal consistency of 30%, all within ASTM and SON standards. Aggregate tests revealed bulk density values ranging from 1557.70 kg/m\u0026sup3; (granite) to 3006.42 kg/m\u0026sup3; (magnetite), and specific gravities ranging from 2.50 (river sand) to 4.79 (hematite). Gradation analysis showed that river sand and magnetite were well-graded, whereas coarse granite, coarse barite, and hematite failed to comply with ASTM C33 requirements, indicating poor grading. Moisture content and water absorption values varied between 0.5\u0026ndash;1.01% and 1.17\u0026ndash;2.02%, respectively. Overall, the tested materials exhibited favorable physical properties for use in radiation-shielding concrete.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluation of Physical Properties of Locally Available Materials Used for the Production of Radiation Shielding Concrete in Northern Nigeria.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-07 10:42:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8472836/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c629cd1e-0bdd-4d50-ab5e-c331321b9a5b","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":60506132,"name":"Civil Engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-07T10:42:19+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-07 10:42:19","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8472836","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8472836","identity":"rs-8472836","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}