Risk and Protective Factors in Cognitive Aging: Advances in Assessment, Prevention, and Promotion of Alternative Pathways

The chapter presents recent evidence for factors that contribute to aging-related cognitive declines, including both normal and pathological changes. The focus is on non-modifiable and modifiable risk and protective factors and their independent, multi-modal, and interactive effects on trajectories of cognitive change. Findings from long-term longitudinal studies and broad-based epidemiological investigations, as well as short-term experimental and intervention studies are considered. Moderating factors are reviewed in the context of alternative processes and outcomes, such as cognitive reserve, resilience and exceptionality. The chapter concludes with a discussion of goals to reduce or delay neurodegenerative risk and associated cognitive declines and ultimately to prevent the onset of cognitive impairment and dementia.