Normal Speed versus Time-Compressed Speech in Long-term Memory Retention: A Randomized, Within Subjects Experimental Design

Normal Speed versus Time-Compressed Speech in Long-term Memory Retention: A Randomized, Within Subjects Experimental Design | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Normal Speed versus Time-Compressed Speech in Long-term Memory Retention: A Randomized, Within Subjects Experimental Design Chadi Massoud, Myriam El Khoury-Malhame This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7299262/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 31 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Psychology → Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: The COVID-19 has accelerated the educational shift towards different modalities and media types including online resources and video recordings. Students have sometimes used this opportunity to watch lecture recordings and posted material at faster playback speed. This function was also integrated in the daily use of social media like WhatsApp. The few existing studies show conflicting results when assessing its potential learning improvements. As such, this study investigates the impact of time-compressed speech on long-term memory retention, one of the proxies for stable learning. Methods A total of forty university students were recruited. They were assessed using the Memory Assessment Scale and were counterbalanced on exposure to a 2 min in times-compressed and a 2 min normal speed speech. In addition to demographics, the study also tracked the frequency of the subjects’ use of time-compressed speech in a learning environment as well as their attitude towards the benefits/downsides of using time-compressed speech. Results Our results show students had a higher-than-average tendency to use time-compressed speed and mostly noted its negative impact. Participants remembered around 50% of information accurately with a statistically significant difference between modalities: using normal speech led to an improvement of 27% for cued recall questions as compared to time-compressed speed. Conclusions This data adds to the literature pointing to a gain in time offset by a loss in learning efficiency when students use time compressed material. Knowing these results can vary among individuals and learning materials, further studies could shed more lights on additional factors moderating the impact of time-compressed speech on cognitive performances. Time-compressed speech memory learning university students Background With the rise of online education and many platforms offering recorded lectures for students to learn from, students have started increasing playback speeds to watch lectures faster. This form of educational delivery can affect the way students learn. Therefore, it is crucial to understand long-term memory retention in the context of time-compressed speech. Time-compressed speech is an audio recording that has been compressed to playback at a faster rate than the original audio. It is used in many instances to save time when studying, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to the spread of hybrid learning, online education, and the “flipped classroom” methods [ 1 ] . Since the learning material is presented in the form of audio-visual recordings, many students opt to save time studying by watching the recordings at a faster rate. This method is being used and implemented with unknown impacts on the learning experience. Time-compressed speech has been studied in terms of language comprehension and for understanding its benefits for individuals with learning deficits, but it has yet to be studied in the context of long-term memory retention. The study hypothesis is that time-compressed speech through watching recordings at two times playback speed will reduce the amount of information retained. Studies have investigated how the brain adapts proprioception to accommodate time-compressed speech. A particular study by Dias et al. suggested that although time-compressed speech may initially present challenges for comprehension, listeners can adapt over time, potentially modifying any opposing effects on language comprehension [ 2 ] . According to Rönnberg et al. (2013) [ 3 ] , who proposed the Ease of Language Understanding (ELU) model, listeners modify their processing tactics in response to contextual signals. This interaction between cognitive mechanisms and auditory processing helps in speech understanding. Understanding time-compressed speech is challenging since listeners have to use more cognitive resources to meet the more complex demands of faster speech, particularly when the brain has not yet adapted and thus needs to fill in more gaps. This idea was also supported by further studies experimenting on students, which also indicated significant differences in performance based on the playback rate of the time-compressed speech [ 4 ] . Previous research by Song et. al (2018) [ 5 ] argues that subjective performance when listening to time-compressed speech is improved as indicated by participants’ perception on surveys, yet the objective performance was overall worse. One study claims that memory retention is unaffected by time-compressed speech as long as the playback speed does not exceed two times, though these studies allowed students to watch the recordings multiple times and directly prior to being tested [ 6 ] . Some studies also claim that watching at two times playback speed twice improves performance relative to listening to it at normal playback speed and then at two times playback speed [ 7 ] . Methods Aim The primary objective is to assess whether time-compression of speech affects the listener’s ability to retain and recall information. The study will help fill the gaps in the literature and add more insight into teaching methods and educational media. The study will also increase our understanding of human cognition and adjust methods of communication in educational settings. Sample Ethical approval was granted for the study by the Lebanese American University Institutional Review Board (LAU.SAS.MM12.26/Apr/2024). Informed consent was provided to the applicants at the beginning of the survey and before the experiment in written form. The recruitment of participants was done through posts on social media and convenience sampling. University graduates and undergraduates aged 18–25 were targeted. Procedure A total of 40 Lebanese university students were included. Students were comfortable seated in front of a computer screen in a sound-proof room within the premises of the Lebanese American University. Participants were asked to listen to a story narrated by one of the experimenters and uploaded to YouTube to use for playback. They were then asked to play a basic Minesweeper game for 10 minutes. Participants were then probed the story using Free and Cued Recall. They then filled out the demographics data before listening to the second story, in the other format, and the same process was repeated for long-term memory probing. The demographic form included questions about age, gender, and the university and department they study in. Students were also asked to assess the frequency of the subjects’ use of time-compressed speech in a learning environment on a scale from 1 to 5 (1 being very rarely to 5 being very frequently) as well as their attitude towards the potential benefits/downsides of using time-compressed speech (with 1 being a positive attitude to 5 being a negative attitude). Before the story at double playback speed, participants were habituated to the speed by listening to random words prior at 2 times playback speed to ensure proper adaptation and understanding of speech [ 8 ] . The experiment was counterbalanced for order of speech speed presentation and participants were randomized to either setting. A random number generator was used to pick out of the two available stories to start with and to determine whether the first story would be listened to at normal playback speed or time compressed speed. Memory assessment scale instrument The assessment of long-term memory was done using a validated exercise from the Memory Assessment Scale [ 9 ] . The scale includes a short story, adapted to the Lebanese population by simply replacing locations and names with typical Lebanese-sounding locations and names. Long-term memory was then assessed through a) free recall and b) cued recall questions related to the short story. The nine cued recall questions targeted key details within the stories concerning the sequence, as well as minor details with no significance to the story. Based on the Memory Assessment Scale Manual, the formal scoring is done based on the cued recall open-ended questions. The score indicates whether the questions were answered correctly, and the details were correctly remembered. Statistical Analysis Mean and standard deviations were calculated using SPSS (version 29). Data between time compressed and regular speed was analysed using paired t-test at a p-values < 0.05. Results Participants demographics The study included forty participants included with 47.5% males. They were all Lebanese University students. All students belonged to the age range 18–25. Gender was split near the middle with 52.5% identifying as females and 47.5% as males. 75% of the students attended the Lebanese American University, with the minority spread across other universities in Lebanon. 50% of the students belonged the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, 25% to the School of Engineering, 15% in Business School and the rest spread across Architecture, Nursing, and Humanities. Students averaged 3.275 ± 1.45 on their self-reported frequency of use of time-compressed speech when using videos or audio as a learning tool. Their subjective attitude towards the effect of time-compressed speech was 3.175 ± 0.98, with a slight tendance for negative impact on learning. Memory recall task Participants answered an average of 4.7 ± 1.951 out of 9 (52.2%) correctly in their first story and an average of 5.13 ± 2.162 out of 9 (56.9%) in their second story. To control whether the order of stories mattered, we compared memory recall on the first versus the second story. We found no significant difference in the order in which the stories were presented. Lastly, there were no statistical correlations between frequency of watching time-compressed videos and score on memory assessment. Similar results were found for attitude about the effects of time-compressed speech and memory performance as well as when comparing genders. Comparison of Memory performance on different speed Out of 9 questions, the average of correct answers for the questions at normal speed was 6.125 ± 1.471 out of 9 (68.1%) correct answers, whereas the average score for the questions for the time-compressed speech was 3.7 ± 1.843 out of 9 (41.1%) correct answers. Memory recall in time-compressed versus normal speed was found to be statistically different (p < 0.01). The mean difference in items recalled is 2.425 ± 2.074. Across both conditions, the data shows an average improvement of 27% when listening to information at a normal rate relative to time compressed. Discussion This study aimed to assess the impact of time compressed speech versus normal speech on long term memory recall in a sample of Lebanese university student. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study investigating such variables in the Arab culture post-COVID-19 pandemic, and as such it provides important lessons in academic settings related to the fact that that time-compressed speech was found to reduce long-term memory retention. In our study, participants made more errors in recall using the time-compressed story telling versus normal speech. This poorer performance of long-term memory retention of episodic recall indicates that listening to the speech faster, albeit saves time, comes at a cognitive cost as it made it more difficult for students to properly remember the information they are exposed to. It adds to previous studies by implementing a validated tool, the Memory Assessment Scale, for a more objective measurement of long-term memory rather than a perceived measurement or self-reported measure, thus reducing subjectivity bias. According to the cognitive load theory, human information processing is known to be limited to 5–9 “chunks” at any given time, restraining the working memory to a finite number of words or information [ 10 ] . This might help explain the poor performance in the higher playback rates due to higher cognitive load within a short period of time, making it increasingly difficult to process the same information presented rapidly [ 4 ] . This would be true even after prior habituation and understanding as our experimental design did indeed control for understanding of the higher speeds by habituation prior to listening at twice the speed. Additionally, distractibility could play a role in tentatively explaining the poorer performance on rapid tracks, as missing a second in a 1x playback rate could be corrected for as per the sentence completion capacity of our minds [ 11 ] ; but in time-compressed speech 1 second would cause a greater loss of information, making it more difficult to compensate for especially when couple with the increased cognitive load of continuous processing at faster rates [ 12 ] . As such, moving forward it would be interesting to account for those cognitive models, especially that the perception of time-compressed speech has been documented to be more significant if the language is the participant’s second language instead of their native ones [ 13 ] . Individual differences are also documented to play a role in speech understanding, as previous studies indicate that differences in speech perception plays a role in understanding and learning in adverse conditions such as time-compressed speech [ 14 ][ 15 ] . Authors show that prior familiarity with accelerated speech could improve recall performance, though our study did not show this link in the self-reported familiarity when assessing and accounting for the regular use of time-compressed speech in the past. We show that time-compressed speech appears to hinder one’s ability to retain episodic information. This difference adds to previous studies investigating difficulty in language processing at higher speeds and an increased cognitive load [ 4 ] . The findings imply that pushing to speed-efficient learning on digital platforms may compromise retention, notably for episodic recall. If time-compressed speech is a time-saving need in academia, it could be interesting to sharpen students’ capacities by training individuals to master this cognitive skill as prior multi-day exercise has been linked to improvement in memory and perception of time-compressed speech relative to untrained individuals [ 16 ] . Limitations Although we found no influence of the order of presentation and presentation modalities were randomly counterbalances, other covariation factors may have influenced the results. In fact, some participants reported at debriefing that they tried to retain the information in their working memory and reinforced it through repetition while playing Minesweeper. Memory performance could also be influenced by mood and stress levels of participants which could be assessed in future studies to control for decreased ability to focus, burnout, and lower retention induced by mental distress [ 17 ] . Additional factors moderating cognitive abilities could also relate to time of day, amount of energy, and location not being one’s regular learning environment. Lastly, the story format capitalizes on previously validated and standardized tasks to assess long term memory in a laboratory setting, it would be beneficial to additionally probe for learning-like material that better mimic academic learning content. Including a larger sample size and varying levels of education might provide more rigorous generalizability of results. A wider scope of time-compressed speech rates could be investigated, in an attempt to optimize learning speed. Implications for practice The results of our study are indicative that time-compressed speech should be carefully approached by users in educational learning platforms. Media players previewing lectures could restrict the playback rate to the normal speed or, upon further studies, to less time-compressed rates. they could additionally feature warning of using time compressed speed. The study helps add to the overall understanding of cognitive abilities, notably long-term memory, adding to the literature about time-compressed speech and episodic memory. Conclusion Our results focus on long term memory recall as it mostly relates to students needs when studying and being tested on studied material in academia. It would be interesting to further investigates the impact of time compression on working memory. These findings could also be applied to fields such as psycholinguistics and its complex interactions with cognitive psychology and neuropsychology as the field remains to date in its infancy. Future studies could attempt to include other languages in studies mirroring real-life applications. This can include the visual stimuli that accompany recorded educational sessions, different devices used for listening, different topics that are being listened to, and whether the type of information is made for memorization or understanding, and a distinction between episodic and semantic memory in this aspect. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval was granted for the study by the Lebanese American University Institutional Review Board (LAU.SAS.MM12.26/Apr/2024). Informed consent was provided to the applicants at the beginning of the survey and before the experiment in written form. Consent for publication It was provided by participants upon approving the IRB informed consent. Data Availability The dataset supporting the conclusions of this article is provided in the supplementary materials as an SPSS file, with an accompanying data dictionary to facilitate interpretation of the variables included in the analysis. Competing Interests No competing interests. Funding No funding was used for this study. Acknowledgements Thank you to Mr Morris Ayoub for assistance in data collection References Baig, M. I., & Yadegaridehkordi, E. (2023, November 30). Flipped classroom in higher education: A systematic literature review and research challenges - international journal of educational technology in higher education . SpringerOpen. https://educationaltechnologyjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41239-023-00430-5 Dias, J. W., McClaskey, C. M., & Harris, K. C. (2018). Time-Compressed Speech Identification Is Predicted by Auditory Neural Processing, Perceptuomotor Speed, and Executive Functioning in Younger and Older Listeners. Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology, 20(1), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10162-018-00703-1 Rönnberg, J., Lunner, T., Zekveld, A., Sörqvist, P., Danielsson, H., Lyxell, B., Dahlström, Ö., Signoret, C., Stenfelt, S., Pichora-Fuller, M. K., & Rudner, M. (2013). The Ease of Language Understanding (ELU) model: theoretical, empirical, and clinical advances. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2013.00031 Mo, C.-Y., Wang, C., Dai, J., & Jin, P. (2022, May 12). Video playback speed influence on learning effect from the perspective of personalized adaptive learning: A study based on cognitive load theory. Frontiers in psychology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9134180/ Song K, Chakraborty A, Dawson M, Dugan A, Adkins B, Doty C. Does the podcast video playback speed affect comprehension for novel curriculum delivery? A randomized trial. Western J Emerg Med. 2018;19(1):101–5. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2017.10.36027. Young, E. (2024, February 16). Watching a lecture twice at double speed can benefit learning. BPS. https://digest.bps.org.uk/2021/12/21/watching-a-lecture-twice-at-double-speed-can-benefit-learning-better-than-watching-it-once-at-normal-speed/ Wolpert, S. (2022, January 11). How much do students learn when they double the speed of their class videos?. UCLA. https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/learning-while-speed-watching-class-videos Gabay, Y., Karni, A., & Banai, K. (2017). The perceptual learning of time-compressed speech: A comparison of training protocols with different levels of difficulty. PLOS ONE, 12(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176488 Sweller, J. (2011). CHAPTER TWO - Cognitive Load Theory. In J. P. Mestre & B. H. Ross (Eds.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 55, pp. 37–76). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8 Williams, M. J. (2013, July). Memory Assessment Scales Manual. Researchgate. Federmeier, K. D. (2007). Thinking ahead: The role and roots of prediction in language comprehension. Psychophysiology, 44(4), 491-505. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00531.x Lau, E. F., Holcomb, P. J., & Kuperberg, G. R. (2013). Dissociating N400 effects of prediction from association in single-word contexts. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 25(3), 484-502. DOI:10.1162/jocn_a_00328 Maruyama, T., Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Motoki, K., Jeong, H., Kotozaki, Y., Nakagawa, S., Nouchi, R., Iizuka, K., Yokoyama, R., Yamamoto, Y., Hanawa, S., Araki, T., Sakaki, K., Sasaki, Y., Magistro, D., & Kawashima, R. (2018). Effects of Time-Compressed Speech Training on Multiple Functional and Structural Neural Mechanisms Involving the Left Superior Temporal Gyrus. Neural Plasticity , 2018 (1), 6574178. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6574178 Rotman, T., Lavie, L., & Banai, K. (2020). Rapid Perceptual Learning: A Potential Source of Individual Differences in Speech Perception Under Adverse Conditions? Trends in Hearing , 24 , 2331216520930541. https://doi.org/10.1177/2331216520930541 Tinnemore, A. R., Montero, L., Gordon-Salant, S., & Goupell, M. J. (2022). The recognition of time-compressed speech as a function of age in listeners with cochlear implants or normal hearing. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience , 14 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.887581 Banai, K., & Lavner, Y. (2012). Perceptual Learning of Time-Compressed Speech: More than Rapid Adaptation. PLOS ONE, 7(10), e47099. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047099 Rossman, M. (n.d.). The Effects of Stress on Short-Term and Long-Term Memory . Knoxville; Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files S Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 31 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Psychology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 09 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 22 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 10 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 07 Oct, 2025 Editor invited by journal 18 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 13 Aug, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 13 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 05 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7299262","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":530412861,"identity":"307855b5-1769-4fa7-81a7-db505576bb9c","order_by":0,"name":"Chadi Massoud","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lebanese American University Byblos","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chadi","middleName":"","lastName":"Massoud","suffix":""},{"id":530412862,"identity":"e5755ce1-07b9-40b2-bc68-89abfe9c3d25","order_by":1,"name":"Myriam El Khoury-Malhame","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABB0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCA2CSnQdE2siAOUC2jAFBLcxgLWk8MC08+LQwIGk5TFiL7ozchwd+5jBE8zfzHvx0o+I8D/+MBMYHb9sYeMxxaDG7kW5wsHcbQ+6Mw3zJ0jlnbvNI3EhgNpwL1GLZgEtLGsMBXqCWhsM8BtK5bbd5GG4ksEnzArUYHMCt5eBfoJb5h3mMf+f+O8cjfyOB/TchLYdBtmw4zGMmndtwgMcAaAszXi1nnjEclt0mkbsRqMU651gyj+GZh82Sc85J4PbL8TTmj2+32eTOO95jfDunxk5O7njywQ9vymzkcIUYg0ACiJRAFmJsQBdBBfw4XDwKRsEoGAWjAA4AC+RZT3hQKk0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Lebanese American University Byblos","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Myriam","middleName":"El","lastName":"Khoury-Malhame","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-05 10:08:23","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7299262/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7299262/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04398-5","type":"published","date":"2026-03-31T15:58:28+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":93801276,"identity":"e50a5eba-a7aa-49e8-ba3c-440c4c691fd4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 16:56:06","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":39809,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ManuscriptTimeSpeed120825.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/f852ea3bc939755a7ba26e4e.docx"},{"id":93801277,"identity":"ac28e6d0-9062-49fa-8dd1-ef66dd8f891c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 16:56:06","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4719,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"6a237aa6eee948a3a32d1b05b0fdaa77.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/e3794ccc7b3c142144b9a2ae.json"},{"id":93801718,"identity":"ca93c665-fe31-433d-8117-6dcb886a1855","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 17:04:06","extension":"","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1213,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"S","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/d44138d7c593a0bfbfa93aad"},{"id":93801279,"identity":"6f3f3799-94e6-405d-af20-86a2a193ebcd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 16:56:06","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":51746,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"6a237aa6eee948a3a32d1b05b0fdaa771enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/0b411911eb5e21d976156ba7.xml"},{"id":93801278,"identity":"69fb91ab-e964-43c4-85c3-6bbdaf895e69","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 16:56:06","extension":"xml","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":49579,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"6a237aa6eee948a3a32d1b05b0fdaa771structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/cd09c7ab47b7d7c2b05301d9.xml"},{"id":93801281,"identity":"0e7ba745-bf5a-46a8-83e6-331dbcff0383","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 16:56:06","extension":"html","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":56410,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/d66d6d66ee2a87b0cc53a6e8.html"},{"id":106343374,"identity":"87b33d4b-10ff-41bc-ab74-83baa37580a5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:03:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":424864,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/3d4e016e-d6dc-4e7a-9913-5a2d7efb226b.pdf"},{"id":93801274,"identity":"b5b0c6bd-98fb-450d-8f6c-1efc374a08a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 16:56:05","extension":"","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1213,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"S","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7299262/v1/f812cdf65600c9fd24a0bf2f"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Normal Speed versus Time-Compressed Speech in Long-term Memory Retention: A Randomized, Within Subjects Experimental Design","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eWith the rise of online education and many platforms offering recorded lectures for students to learn from, students have started increasing playback speeds to watch lectures faster. This form of educational delivery can affect the way students learn. Therefore, it is crucial to understand long-term memory retention in the context of time-compressed speech. Time-compressed speech is an audio recording that has been compressed to playback at a faster rate than the original audio. It is used in many instances to save time when studying, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to the spread of hybrid learning, online education, and the \u0026ldquo;flipped classroom\u0026rdquo; methods \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Since the learning material is presented in the form of audio-visual recordings, many students opt to save time studying by watching the recordings at a faster rate. This method is being used and implemented with unknown impacts on the learning experience. Time-compressed speech has been studied in terms of language comprehension and for understanding its benefits for individuals with learning deficits, but it has yet to be studied in the context of long-term memory retention. The study hypothesis is that time-compressed speech through watching recordings at two times playback speed will reduce the amount of information retained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies have investigated how the brain adapts proprioception to accommodate time-compressed speech. A particular study by Dias et al. suggested that although time-compressed speech may initially present challenges for comprehension, listeners can adapt over time, potentially modifying any opposing effects on language comprehension\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to R\u0026ouml;nnberg et al. (2013)\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, who proposed the Ease of Language Understanding (ELU) model, listeners modify their processing tactics in response to contextual signals. This interaction between cognitive mechanisms and auditory processing helps in speech understanding. Understanding time-compressed speech is challenging since listeners have to use more cognitive resources to meet the more complex demands of faster speech, particularly when the brain has not yet adapted and thus needs to fill in more gaps.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis idea was also supported by further studies experimenting on students, which also indicated significant differences in performance based on the playback rate of the time-compressed speech\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious research by Song et. al (2018)\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e argues that subjective performance when listening to time-compressed speech is improved as indicated by participants\u0026rsquo; perception on surveys, yet the objective performance was overall worse.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne study claims that memory retention is unaffected by time-compressed speech as long as the playback speed does not exceed two times, though these studies allowed students to watch the recordings multiple times and directly prior to being tested\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSome studies also claim that watching at two times playback speed twice improves performance relative to listening to it at normal playback speed and then at two times playback speed\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAim\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe primary objective is to assess whether time-compression of speech affects the listener\u0026rsquo;s ability to retain and recall information. The study will help fill the gaps in the literature and add more insight into teaching methods and educational media. The study will also increase our understanding of human cognition and adjust methods of communication in educational settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was granted for the study by the Lebanese American University Institutional Review Board (LAU.SAS.MM12.26/Apr/2024). Informed consent was provided to the applicants at the beginning of the survey and before the experiment in written form. The recruitment of participants was done through posts on social media and convenience sampling. University graduates and undergraduates aged 18\u0026ndash;25 were targeted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 40 Lebanese university students were included. Students were comfortable seated in front of a computer screen in a sound-proof room within the premises of the Lebanese American University. Participants were asked to listen to a story narrated by one of the experimenters and uploaded to YouTube to use for playback. They were then asked to play a basic Minesweeper game for 10 minutes. Participants were then probed the story using Free and Cued Recall. They then filled out the demographics data before listening to the second story, in the other format, and the same process was repeated for long-term memory probing. The demographic form included questions about age, gender, and the university and department they study in. Students were also asked to assess the frequency of the subjects\u0026rsquo; use of time-compressed speech in a learning environment on a scale from 1 to 5 (1 being very rarely to 5 being very frequently) as well as their attitude towards the potential benefits/downsides of using time-compressed speech (with 1 being a positive attitude to 5 being a negative attitude).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore the story at double playback speed, participants were habituated to the speed by listening to random words prior at 2 times playback speed to ensure proper adaptation and understanding of speech\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The experiment was counterbalanced for order of speech speed presentation and participants were randomized to either setting. A random number generator was used to pick out of the two available stories to start with and to determine whether the first story would be listened to at normal playback speed or time compressed speed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMemory assessment scale instrument\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe assessment of long-term memory was done using a validated exercise from the Memory Assessment Scale\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The scale includes a short story, adapted to the Lebanese population by simply replacing locations and names with typical Lebanese-sounding locations and names. Long-term memory was then assessed through a) free recall and b) cued recall questions related to the short story. The nine cued recall questions targeted key details within the stories concerning the sequence, as well as minor details with no significance to the story. Based on the Memory Assessment Scale Manual, the formal scoring is done based on the cued recall open-ended questions. The score indicates whether the questions were answered correctly, and the details were correctly remembered.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean and standard deviations were calculated using SPSS (version 29). Data between time compressed and regular speed was analysed using paired t-test at a p-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants demographics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study included forty participants included with 47.5% males. They were all Lebanese University students. All students belonged to the age range 18\u0026ndash;25. Gender was split near the middle with 52.5% identifying as females and 47.5% as males. 75% of the students attended the Lebanese American University, with the minority spread across other universities in Lebanon. 50% of the students belonged the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, 25% to the School of Engineering, 15% in Business School and the rest spread across Architecture, Nursing, and Humanities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudents averaged 3.275\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;1.45 on their self-reported frequency of use of time-compressed speech when using videos or audio as a learning tool.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTheir subjective attitude towards the effect of time-compressed speech was 3.175\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.98, with a slight tendance for negative impact on learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMemory recall task\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants answered an average of 4.7\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;1.951 out of 9 (52.2%) correctly in their first story and an average of 5.13\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;2.162 out of 9 (56.9%) in their second story.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo control whether the order of stories mattered, we compared memory recall on the first versus the second story. We found no significant difference in the order in which the stories were presented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLastly, there were no statistical correlations between frequency of watching time-compressed videos and score on memory assessment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar results were found for attitude about the effects of time-compressed speech and memory performance as well as when comparing genders.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eComparison of Memory performance on different speed\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOut of 9 questions, the average of correct answers for the questions at normal speed was 6.125\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;1.471 out of 9 (68.1%) correct answers, whereas the average score for the questions for the time-compressed speech was 3.7\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;1.843 out of 9 (41.1%) correct answers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMemory recall in time-compressed versus normal speed was found to be statistically different (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). The mean difference in items recalled is 2.425\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.074.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcross both conditions, the data shows an average improvement of 27% when listening to information at a normal rate relative to time compressed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to assess the impact of time compressed speech versus normal speech on long term memory recall in a sample of Lebanese university student. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study investigating such variables in the Arab culture post-COVID-19 pandemic, and as such it provides important lessons in academic settings related to the fact that that time-compressed speech was found to reduce long-term memory retention.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn our study, participants made more errors in recall using the time-compressed story telling versus normal speech. This poorer performance of long-term memory retention of episodic recall indicates that listening to the speech faster, albeit saves time, comes at a cognitive cost as it made it more difficult for students to properly remember the information they are exposed to. It adds to previous studies by implementing a validated tool, the Memory Assessment Scale, for a more objective measurement of long-term memory rather than a perceived measurement or self-reported measure, thus reducing subjectivity bias. According to the cognitive load theory, human information processing is known to be limited to 5\u0026ndash;9 \u0026ldquo;chunks\u0026rdquo; at any given time, restraining the working memory to a finite number of words or information\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This might help explain the poor performance in the higher playback rates due to higher cognitive load within a short period of time, making it increasingly difficult to process the same information presented rapidly\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This would be true even after prior habituation and understanding as our experimental design did indeed control for understanding of the higher speeds by habituation prior to listening at twice the speed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, distractibility could play a role in tentatively explaining the poorer performance on rapid tracks, as missing a second in a 1x playback rate could be corrected for as per the sentence completion capacity of our minds \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e; but in time-compressed speech 1 second would cause a greater loss of information, making it more difficult to compensate for especially when couple with the increased cognitive load of continuous processing at faster rates\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. As such, moving forward it would be interesting to account for those cognitive models, especially that the perception of time-compressed speech has been documented to be more significant if the language is the participant\u0026rsquo;s second language instead of their native ones\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndividual differences are also documented to play a role in speech understanding, as previous studies indicate that differences in speech perception plays a role in understanding and learning in adverse conditions such as time-compressed speech\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Authors show that prior familiarity with accelerated speech could improve recall performance, though our study did not show this link in the self-reported familiarity when assessing and accounting for the regular use of time-compressed speech in the past. We show that time-compressed speech appears to hinder one\u0026rsquo;s ability to retain episodic information. This difference adds to previous studies investigating difficulty in language processing at higher speeds and an increased cognitive load\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The findings imply that pushing to speed-efficient learning on digital platforms may compromise retention, notably for episodic recall. If time-compressed speech is a time-saving need in academia, it could be interesting to sharpen students\u0026rsquo; capacities by training individuals to master this cognitive skill as prior multi-day exercise has been linked to improvement in memory and perception of time-compressed speech relative to untrained individuals\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough we found no influence of the order of presentation and presentation modalities were randomly counterbalances, other covariation factors may have influenced the results. In fact, some participants reported at debriefing that they tried to retain the information in their working memory and reinforced it through repetition while playing Minesweeper. Memory performance could also be influenced by mood and stress levels of participants which could be assessed in future studies to control for decreased ability to focus, burnout, and lower retention induced by mental distress\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Additional factors moderating cognitive abilities could also relate to time of day, amount of energy, and location not being one\u0026rsquo;s regular learning environment. Lastly, the story format capitalizes on previously validated and standardized tasks to assess long term memory in a laboratory setting, it would be beneficial to additionally probe for learning-like material that better mimic academic learning content. Including a larger sample size and varying levels of education might provide more rigorous generalizability of results. A wider scope of time-compressed speech rates could be investigated, in an attempt to optimize learning speed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eImplications for practice\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of our study are indicative that time-compressed speech should be carefully approached by users in educational learning platforms. Media players previewing lectures could restrict the playback rate to the normal speed or, upon further studies, to less time-compressed rates. they could additionally feature warning of using time compressed speed. The study helps add to the overall understanding of cognitive abilities, notably long-term memory, adding to the literature about time-compressed speech and episodic memory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur results focus on long term memory recall as it mostly relates to students needs when studying and being tested on studied material in academia. It would be interesting to further investigates the impact of time compression on working memory. These findings could also be applied to fields such as psycholinguistics and its complex interactions with cognitive psychology and neuropsychology as the field remains to date in its infancy. Future studies could attempt to include other languages in studies mirroring real-life applications. This can include the visual stimuli that accompany recorded educational sessions, different devices used for listening, different topics that are being listened to, and whether the type of information is made for memorization or understanding, and a distinction between episodic and semantic memory in this aspect.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was granted for the study by the Lebanese American University Institutional Review Board (LAU.SAS.MM12.26/Apr/2024). Informed consent was provided to the applicants at the beginning of the survey and before the experiment in written form.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was provided by participants upon approving the IRB informed consent.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData Availability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dataset supporting the conclusions of this article is provided in the supplementary materials as an SPSS file, with an accompanying data dictionary to facilitate interpretation of the variables included in the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was used for this study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThank you to Mr Morris Ayoub for assistance in data collection \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaig, M. I., \u0026amp; Yadegaridehkordi, E. (2023, November 30). \u003cem\u003eFlipped classroom in higher education: A systematic literature review and research challenges - international journal of educational technology in higher education\u003c/em\u003e. SpringerOpen. https://educationaltechnologyjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41239-023-00430-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDias, J. W., McClaskey, C. M., \u0026amp; Harris, K. C. (2018). Time-Compressed Speech Identification Is Predicted by Auditory Neural Processing, Perceptuomotor Speed, and Executive Functioning in Younger and Older Listeners. Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology, 20(1), 73\u0026ndash;88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10162-018-00703-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR\u0026ouml;nnberg, J., Lunner, T., Zekveld, A., S\u0026ouml;rqvist, P., Danielsson, H., Lyxell, B., Dahlstr\u0026ouml;m, \u0026Ouml;., Signoret, C., Stenfelt, S., Pichora-Fuller, M. K., \u0026amp; Rudner, M. (2013). The Ease of Language Understanding (ELU) model: theoretical, empirical, and clinical advances. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2013.00031\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMo, C.-Y., Wang, C., Dai, J., \u0026amp; Jin, P. (2022, May 12). Video playback speed influence on learning effect from the perspective of personalized adaptive learning: A study based on cognitive load theory. Frontiers in psychology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9134180/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSong K, Chakraborty A, Dawson M, Dugan A, Adkins B, Doty C. Does the podcast video playback speed affect comprehension for novel curriculum delivery? A randomized trial. Western J Emerg Med. 2018;19(1):101\u0026ndash;5. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2017.10.36027.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYoung, E. (2024, February 16). Watching a lecture twice at double speed can benefit learning. BPS. https://digest.bps.org.uk/2021/12/21/watching-a-lecture-twice-at-double-speed-can-benefit-learning-better-than-watching-it-once-at-normal-speed/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWolpert, S. (2022, January 11). How much do students learn when they double the speed of their class videos?. UCLA. https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/learning-while-speed-watching-class-videos\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGabay, Y., Karni, A., \u0026amp; Banai, K. (2017). The perceptual learning of time-compressed speech: A comparison of training protocols with different levels of difficulty. PLOS ONE, 12(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176488\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSweller, J. (2011). CHAPTER TWO - Cognitive Load Theory. In J. P. Mestre \u0026amp; B. H. Ross (Eds.), \u003cem\u003ePsychology of Learning and Motivation\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 55, pp. 37\u0026ndash;76). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilliams, M. J. (2013, July). Memory Assessment Scales Manual. Researchgate. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFedermeier, K. D. (2007). \u003cem\u003eThinking ahead: The role and roots of prediction in language comprehension.\u003c/em\u003e Psychophysiology, 44(4), 491-505. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00531.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLau, E. F., Holcomb, P. J., \u0026amp; Kuperberg, G. R. (2013). Dissociating N400 effects of prediction from association in single-word contexts. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 25(3), 484-502. DOI:10.1162/jocn_a_00328\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaruyama, T., Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Motoki, K., Jeong, H., Kotozaki, Y., Nakagawa, S., Nouchi, R., Iizuka, K., Yokoyama, R., Yamamoto, Y., Hanawa, S., Araki, T., Sakaki, K., Sasaki, Y., Magistro, D., \u0026amp; Kawashima, R. (2018). Effects of Time-Compressed Speech Training on Multiple Functional and Structural Neural Mechanisms Involving the Left Superior Temporal Gyrus. \u003cem\u003eNeural Plasticity\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2018\u003c/em\u003e(1), 6574178. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6574178\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRotman, T., Lavie, L., \u0026amp; Banai, K. (2020). Rapid Perceptual Learning: A Potential Source of Individual Differences in Speech Perception Under Adverse Conditions? \u003cem\u003eTrends in Hearing\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e24\u003c/em\u003e, 2331216520930541. https://doi.org/10.1177/2331216520930541\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTinnemore, A. R., Montero, L., Gordon-Salant, S., \u0026amp; Goupell, M. J. (2022). The recognition of time-compressed speech as a function of age in listeners with cochlear implants or normal hearing. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Aging Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.887581\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBanai, K., \u0026amp; Lavner, Y. (2012). Perceptual Learning of Time-Compressed Speech: More than Rapid Adaptation. PLOS ONE, 7(10), e47099. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047099\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRossman, M. (n.d.). The Effects of Stress on Short-Term and Long-Term Memory . Knoxville; Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Time-compressed speech, memory, learning, university students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7299262/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7299262/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe COVID-19 has accelerated the educational shift towards different modalities and media types including online resources and video recordings. Students have sometimes used this opportunity to watch lecture recordings and posted material at faster playback speed. This function was also integrated in the daily use of social media like WhatsApp. The few existing studies show conflicting results when assessing its potential learning improvements. As such, this study investigates the impact of time-compressed speech on long-term memory retention, one of the proxies for stable learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of forty university students were recruited. They were assessed using the Memory Assessment Scale and were counterbalanced on exposure to a 2 min in times-compressed and a 2 min normal speed speech. In addition to demographics, the study also tracked the frequency of the subjects\u0026rsquo; use of time-compressed speech in a learning environment as well as their attitude towards the benefits/downsides of using time-compressed speech.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur results show students had a higher-than-average tendency to use time-compressed speed and mostly noted its negative impact. Participants remembered around 50% of information accurately with a statistically significant difference between modalities: using normal speech led to an improvement of 27% for cued recall questions as compared to time-compressed speed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis data adds to the literature pointing to a gain in time offset by a loss in learning efficiency when students use time compressed material. Knowing these results can vary among individuals and learning materials, further studies could shed more lights on additional factors moderating the impact of time-compressed speech on cognitive performances.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Normal Speed versus Time-Compressed Speech in Long-term Memory Retention: A Randomized, Within Subjects Experimental Design","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-17 16:56:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7299262/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-09T05:31:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-22T06:35:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T05:47:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"286203979458672236144819056924969121789","date":"2025-10-14T08:07:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"234174817944508455882895888287405448910","date":"2025-10-11T01:11:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"262540226048182208924777137834570495090","date":"2025-10-09T09:21:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-07T08:07:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-18T08:55:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-13T19:06:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-13T19:05:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-08-05T09:56:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ea1816ae-6c9d-4412-b858-7a07437f676d","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:01:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7299262","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04398-5","journal":{"identity":"bmc-psychology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Psychology"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-31 15:58:28","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 31st, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-17 16:56:01","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40359-026-04398-5","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04398-5","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7299262","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7299262","identity":"rs-7299262","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}