Enhancing aquaculture sustainability and profitability: Effects of black soldier fly larval meal on the performance of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Cameroon

Enhancing aquaculture sustainability and profitability: Effects of black soldier fly larval meal on the performance of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Cameroon | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Enhancing aquaculture sustainability and profitability: Effects of black soldier fly larval meal on the performance of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Cameroon Hervé Mube K., Calice Mekeu D., Daniel Dzepe, Rousseau Djouaka F., and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5164712/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 15 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract High cost and scarcity of feed ingredients have continued to challenge the aquaculture. This present study assessed the potential of black soldier fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal (BSFLM) as a sustainable alternative source of animal protein in the diet of African catfish ( Clarias gariepinus ), a species widely farmed in Cameroon for its breeding potential and economic. Five diet formulations: a control diet with 100% fishmeal (FM, BSFLM0), and diets where FM was substituted at 50% (BSFLM50), 75% (BSFLM75), and 100% (BSFLM100) levels, were compared. Larvae of BSF were processed using three different methods: toasting, sand toasting, and boiling. Parameters assessed included the chemical and microbial properties of BSF larvae, catfish growth performance, health, consumer acceptance and economic viability of substituting FM with BSFLM. Our results demonstrate that boiling larvae significantly increased the dry and organic matter contents but reduced crude protein (CP) and fat levels, whereas toasting increased CP. Mineral content varied across processing methods: sand toasting had the highest calcium, boiling the highest iron, and toasting the highest potassium, sodium, and phosphorus levels. Sand-toasted larvae had the highest Escherichia coli levels, Lactobacillus was present only in boiled larvae, and there were no Enterobacteria or Salmonella in toasted or sand-toasted samples. At higher levels (75-100%), BSFLM improved catfish growth rates, feed conversion ratio, and survival compared to the control. Replacing FM with BSFLM also reduced production costs, increased profitability, and enhanced sustainability, as indicated by a lower fish-in-fish-out ratio. Inclusion of BSFLM significantly enhances the sustainability potential of aquaculture practices by reducing reliance on wild-caught fish for feed. Overall, BSFLM is a suitable alternative protein source that can support economic viability and environmental sustainability of aquaculture, promoting resilient fish farming practices. Aquaculture sustainability Black soldier fly larvae meal Alternative protein sources Fishmeal replacement African catfish Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Over 8 billion people are present in the world today and it is expected that the population will reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100 ( 1 ). To tackle the food needs of the expanding global population, food production must increase by 70% ( 2 ). Aquaculture, already a critical contributor to global food and nutrition security, must expand its production capacity to meet this target ( 3 ). Aquaculture is a key agricultural sector to meet the rising demand for animal products, with an average annual growth rate of 5.5% ( 4 ). However, to realize its full potential and ensure a sustainable and equitable aquatic food supply in the future, the sector must innovate and address future challenges (5; 6). In Cameroon, the annual demand for fish is approximately 500,000 tons, but aquaculture supplies only 10,000 tons per year ( 7 ). Cameroon has a large hydrographic network with over 542 fish species across more than 40,000 km² of freshwater ( 8 ), yet the country’s current fish production is still significantly below its potential capacity of 200,000 tons per year ( 7 ). This deficit in fish production translates to an estimated annual economic loss of 114.3 billion CFA (189.5 million USD) ( 8 ). One of the primary challenges facing Cameroon’s aquaculture sector is the cost and availability of feed and feed ingredients ( 9 ). The selection of ingredients and formulation of fish diets critically affect both the environmental sustainability and profitability of the industry ( 10 ). For several years, fishmeal has been the preferred protein source in aquaculture feed due to its high protein and fatty acid content, balanced amino acid profile, digestibility, and palatability ( 11 ). However, the pressure on capture fisheries for fishmeal production poses a considerable environmental problem to the sustainability of aquaculture. The rising cost of fishmeal also reduces profitability in aquaculture operations and creates competition for resources between aquaculture and human consumption ( 6 ). This has intensified the search for nutritionally suitable and socially, ecologically, and economically sustainable alternatives to fishmeal ( 12 , 13 ). Among the most promising alternatives are edible insects, animal byproducts, terrestrial plants, micro- and macro-algae ( 4 , 14 , 15 ). Interest in insects as feed ingredients for aquatic animals has grown steadily due to their nutritional value, rapid growth, low ecological impact, and consumer acceptance (16; 17). Among these insect species, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have attracted the most attention from researchers (6; 18; 19). The BSFL are rich in protein, lipids, and minerals, comparable to those of fishmeal ( 19 ). Moreover, they contain bioactive compounds with well-documented antimicrobial properties (20; 21; 22). Studies have demonstrated that BSFL can maintain fish health, such as tilapia, without negative effects on health or organ indices ( 23 ). Furthermore, BSFL has the potential to improve livestock profitability and reduce environmental impacts by lowering feed costs, which account for 60–70% of production costs ( 24 ). Despite the numerous benefits of the BSF larvae, there are still limitations to their full application in aquafeed. Issues related to palatability, digestibility, chitin content, bioaccumulation of toxic substances, and deficiencies in essential amino acids or long-chain fatty acids ( 25 ), as well as the method of processing the larvae to ensure a better quality BSFL meal, remain barriers. In addition, increased susceptibility to oxidation, excessive energy, and decreased stability of pellets has been reported following the use of BSFL in fish diets ( 26 ). To increase the utilization of this alternative protein source, it is necessary to identify feeding and processing methods that optimize its nutritional value and ensure safety while promoting insect welfare (27; 28). Previous research identified heat treatment, freezing, asphyxiation and mechanical disruption as general procedures for euthanizing BSFL (28; 29). However, some of these processes, such as freezing and asphyxiation are impractical in tropical due to high energy costs and limited accessibility. Therefore, optimizing the processing of BSFL is crucial for their effective use in aquaculture production in the tropics. BSFL-based diets have been identified as a promising strategy to enhance the sustainability and economic efficiency of food production, thereby helping to address food security challenges ( 30 ). This study aimed to investigate the effects of different processing (killing) methods on the microbial and chemical compositions of BSF larvae. Additionally, we aimed to assess the effects of partially or completely replacing fishmeal with BSF larval meal (BSFLM) in the diet of African catfish ( Clarias gariepinus) reared in plastic tanks. This species was chosen because it is one of the most reared fish species in Cameroon and has high economic value and breeding potential ( 8 ). The goal of this research is to increase farmer income and promote the sustainability of the fish farming system. Materials and methods The study was conducted at the aquaculture facility of the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, Annex of Bafia, University of Dschang (4°37' and 4°46' N, 11°6 and 11°18' E), Cameroon, for a 120-day feeding period. Bafia has a savannah climate with dry winters according to the Köppen-Geiger classification; throughout the year, the average temperature and rainfall are 23.5 °C and 831.7 mm, respectively (31). Black soldier fly larvae The larvae used in this study were obtained from a preestablished BSF colony at the Bafia campus. The larvae were fed a substrate consisting of a 40:60 ratio mixture of fruit waste (mango and watermelon) and cow dung. To this mixture, water was added to achieve a substrate moisture content of 75%, as recommended by Dzepe et al . (19). This substrate was provided to 4-day-old BSF larvae following a continuous feeding system in which the substrate was added every 3 days until the end of the treatment. The feeding period lasted for 19 days, after which the larvae were harvested for subsequent processing. Black soldier fly larvae processing methods After being harvested, the larvae were processed using three different killing methods (boiling, toasting, and sand toasting). Each treatment was repeated three times (0.5 kg per replicate). For boiling, BSF larvae were immersed in boiling water for 5 min, after which they were removed and sun-dried. For the toasting method, fresh larvae on a clean, dry steel pan were placed on a hot plate at approximately 100 °C for 5 minutes. The larval sample was turned regularly via a wooden spatula to prevent it from sticking or burning. The toasted larvae were subsequently spread out (outdoors) in open air and then stored in airtight plastic bags. Finally, in the sand toasting process, 300 g of sand was heated with firewood until it reached 200 °C (approximately 15 minutes). The hot sand serves as a heat transfer milieu thereby increasing the heat temperature and reducing the toasting time. Then, 500 g of fresh larvae was stirred with the sand for 2 minutes. After cooling, the mixture was separated via a metallic sieve (2 mm diameter). The drying process in the sun took approximately 8 h. The operating temperature was measured using the DT310LAB Digital Thermometer. Analysis of the chemical composition of black soldier fly larvae After processing, 5 g of larvae were randomly collected from each treatment replicate, oven-dried for 48 h at 65 °C, and analysed for their chemical compositions in the laboratory of the Animal Nutrition of the University of Dschang following the AOAC (32) procedure. The analysis of the mineral composition was carried out according to the protocol described by Pauwels et al . (33) and focused on the concentrations of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sodium (Na), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). For this purpose, 1 g of each sample of dried larvae was calcined in a muffle furnace (Carbolite Eurothermcr®) at 450 °C for 2 hours. Following sample calcination, the ash was digested with 10 ml of nitric acid at a 1 N concentration for 30 min and then cooled and filtered through the Wattman filter paper (No. 4) into 50 ml flasks, and the volume was adjusted with distilled water up to the mark. Finally, the larval sample was read directly on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (650 nm). The sample absorbances obtained were projected onto the respective linear regression equations to determine the levels of Mg, Ca, P, Na, K, Fe and Zn in BSFL samples. Microbial analysis of black soldier fly larvae For the different processing methods, 100 g of BSFL (91% dry matter) was used to determine the microbial composition via tenfold serial dilutions as described by Gorrens et al . (34). The samples were immediately transported to the Laboratory of Animal Health and Physiology of the University of Dschang for bacterial culture and analysis in triplicate. Using the jar that had the lowest number of spots, and then MULTIPLYING THE number the power indicated by the number on the jar The number of colonies was determined (10², 10⁴, or 10⁶). Black soldier fly larvae meal in catfish diet, and then, 1 ml of the mixture was diluted 6 times consecutively in test tubes containing 9 ml of distilled water to reduce the percentage of bacteria and to facilitate counting. One ml of the mixture from tubes 2, 4, and 6 was brought into contact with culture media previously heated to 60 °C in a tidal bath or an autoclave and cooled to 50 °C. Upon solidifying, the mixture in each jar was stored anaerobically or aerobically (Salmonella, enterobacteria, and E. coli ) in an incubator at 37 °C. Colony counts were performed in duplicate. The first count was performed 24 hours after incubation, and the second count was performed 48 hours after incubation. The number of colonies was determined using the jar that had the lowest number of spots, and then this number was multiplied by the power indicated by the number on the jar (10², 10⁴, or 10⁶). Black soldier fly larvae meal in catfish diet Full-fat BSF larvae was obtained from the best processing method in the first experiment. In fact, nutritional and microbial analyses were performed on the larvae as indicated previously, and the processing method that resulted in the best nutrient content and the lowest microbial load was used to produce BSF larval meal (BSFLM) for fish feed. For this purpose, the processed larvae were sun-dried and milled with a hammer mill from a local manufacturer. Feed formulation The diets were formulated by using BSFLM and other ingredients purchased from the local market (Table 1). Four diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous (40 g/kg crude protein) and isocaloric (3000 kcal kg −1 metabolizable energy) based on the nutrient requirements of C. gariepinus (33; 34). The control diet had fishmeal (FM) as the principal protein source and was progressively substituted with BSFLM at 50%, 75%, and 100% on an equivalent protein basis, corresponding to dietary inclusion levels of 13, 19, and 26 kg of BSFLM for 100 kg of feed, respectively (Table 1). The maximum inclusion level of BSFLM (BSFLM 100) was 26% insect meal instead of 28% in the fish meal-based diet because of the difference in the crude protein content of these two ingredients. The ingredients were proportionally measured, thoroughly mixed, and combined with water (200 ml/kg). The resulting dough was pelletized via a compressed pelletizer with a diameter of 2 mm. The pellets were air-dried, packed into labelled airtight containers, and stored for later use. The formulated diets were compared with a standard commercial diet (CD) commonly used for catfish feeding in the study area. Unfortunately, the feed composition of this diet is not available for industrial protection purposes The energy and crude protein contents of the experimental diets were determined following the AOAC (32) procedure. Table 1 : Feed ingredients and nutritional composition of the experimental diets fed to Clarias gariepinus (%, dry matter basis). Ingredients (%) Experimental diets CD (3- 4 mm ) BSFLM0 BSFLM50 BSFLM75 BSFLM100 Maize 7 12 10 10 Cassava flour 8 2 3 3 Soybean cake 49 18 22 21 22 Groundnut cake 16 10 12 11 Palm cake 1 10 10 12.5 Blood meal 10 10 10 10 Fish meal 60 28 13 7.5 0 BSFLM 0 13 19.5 26 Premix 5% 2 5 5 5 Palm oil 2 4 2 0.5 Total 100 100 100 100 Metabolizable energy (kcal) 3100 3091.16 3089.16 30076.87 3088.36 Crude protein (%) 41.4 40.56 40.1 40.7 40.67 CDs: industrial feed for catfish purchased from Coppens Company; BSFLM0: local feed with 100% fishmeal; BSFLM50: 50% fishmeal replaced with 50% BSFLM; BSFLM75: 75% fishmeal replaced with BSFLM; BSFLM100: feed with 100% BSFLM to replace fishmeal. 2.2.2. Experimental design Fingerlings of C. gariepinus used in this study were purchased from a local fish hatchery. At reception, the fingerlings were acclimated to the experimental rearing system for two weeks before the start of the feeding trial, during which they were fed local feed (BSFLM0). After this period, fifteen flow-through plastic tanks (35 l each, measuring 33.4 cm in length, 14.0 cm in width, and 17.4 cm in height were used, each containing a water volume of 25 l. Each treatment was repeated three times. A 35-l recipient containing maize straw charcoal was used to filter the water prior to passage into different experimental tanks. In this study, one hundred and twenty juvenile fish (9.49 ± 0.089 g) were randomly allocated to the experimental tanks (8 fish per tank). Water temperature and pH were monitored daily using water quality meters. The photoperiod followed natural conditions (12 h of light and 12 h of dark). Dead fish were removed daily, and the bottoms of the tanks were siphon-cleaned daily. The fish were hand-fed twice (07:00 h and 17:00 h) a day at 5% of the fish biomass. The quantity of feed was readjusted every two weeks for 25% of the total fish in each treatment. Potential contamination was avoided by changing the water every 3 days throughout the study period. The experiment lasted for one hundred and twenty days. Measurement of fish growth performance To calculate the percent survival and weight gain, all experimental fish in each treatment group were counted and weighed weekly. In addition, the feed conversion ratio (FCR) and the condition factor were determined. The feed intake was evaluated by siphoning the bottom of the tanks daily, and the remaining feed was then dried to obtain the initial dry matter (93%) and weighed. The following formula was used: Specific growth rate (SGR, %/day) = [ln final body weight (g) − ln initial weight (g)/days of feeding trial] × 100, FCR = weight gain of fish/feed intake Condition factor (CF, g/cm 3 ) = fish weight (g) × 100/total length (cm) 3 . Somatic indices At the end of the trial, all the fish in each group were fasted for 24 h. Thereafter, 9 fish per treatment were randomly selected and killed for evaluation of the viscerosomatic index (VSI), hepatosomatic index (HSI), and carcass quality. Somatic indices play important roles in fish metabolism and are related to digestion and absorption, synthesis and secretion of digestive enzymes and carbohydrate metabolism. The following formulae were used: Viscerosomatic index (VSI, %) = viscera weight × 100/fish weight, Hepatosomatic index (HSI, %) = liver weight × 100/fish weight. Sensory evaluation of fish carcass The organoleptic characteristics evaluated were odour, taste, and acceptability of the flesh. They were measured via sensory methods in a group of 30 panelists previously selected according to their food preferences (non-alcoholics, non-smokers). The panelists were then trained to differentiate between the different organoleptic parameters. Preparation of broth for the selection of the tasters Fish broth without salt or spices was prepared by cooking 500 g of fish in 1 l of drinking water for 20 minutes at low heat. Thereafter, 25 ml of this broth was diluted with 1 l of mineral water. Before dilution, the broth was cooled to room temperature, filtered, and diluted with 1 l of water to obtain a solution with no difference in appearance or colour from the water. This liquid was used to select tasters via the triangular test method (35) (appendix 1a). Those selected were given explanations of the procedures and expectations of the evaluation. Preparation of fish samples and selection of evaluators The different fish samples (1 kg/rat) without water or seasoning were bagged in aluminum foil, placed on a stainless-steel dish, and placed with ¼ l of water in a pot so that the fish were not in contact with this water. The samples were then cooked for 20 minutes at low heat. Tasters were chosen based on their ability to distinguish between three subtly different samples via the triangle test (35). The test involved presenting three coded cups or samples simultaneously, two of which were identical (containing only mineral water), and the third contained diluted fish broth (2.5% dilution). Panelists were tasked with identifying the distinct sample. Those who identified the cup containing diluted fish broth were retained for organoleptic quality evaluation. For the present study, 8 tasters were selected, and the procedures and expectations of the evaluation were explained. Tasting and evaluation of the organoleptic quality of the fish Tastings took place in one session in a room. Tasters were familiarized with technical terms (odour, taste, acceptability) and then tasted cooked fish from various rations. To avoid bias, they ate bread and drank water between tastings. Scores from 1 to 8 were given based on hedonic scale criteria for assessing preference (appendix 1b). Economic analysis The economic and sustainability variables were calculated based on weight gain and feed utilization. Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was used as a fish growth index of each feed, providing reversed feed conversion ratio (FCR) information about the amount of fish gain obtained with one kg of feed. These parameters were calculated by adapting the protocol of Rawski et al . (36) for the Siberian sturgeon. The relative usage values of the marine-derived feed ingredients fish meal (FMU) were calculated according to the following formulae: FMU (g/1 kg of fish gain)=[fishmeal share in the diet (g/kg) × (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g))]. Fish-in fish-out ratio (FIFO) was calculated as the quantity of live fish from captured fisheries required for each unit of fish produced (36). The following formula was used: FIFO = ((level of fish meal in the diet (g/kg) (g/kg)/ (yield of fish meal from wild fish (g/kg)) × (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g)). To determine the economic relative efficiency and benefits of the tested diet, we calculated the cost of feed per unit of fish gain, the economic conversion ratio (ECR) and the economic profit index (EPI) using the following formulae by Stejskal et al . (37): ECR (FCFA/kg of fish gain) = (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g)) × cost of feed (FCFA/kg) EPI (FCFA/fish) = (body weight gain (kg) × sale price of live fish (FCFA/kg)) − (body weight gain (kg) × (cost of feed (FCFA/kg × (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g)). The profitability (PRO) was calculated according to the balance of the fish selling price and feed costs per kg of fish gain (ECR). Other costs of fish production were not introduced into the calculation, which was performed according to the following formula: PROs (FCFA/kg of fish gain) = sale price of live fish (FCFA/kg) − economic conversion ratio (FCFA/kg of fish gain). 1 FCFA= 650 EURO. Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were implemented using SPSS 21.0 software, with the significance level set at α = 0.05. For data with a normal distribution and homogeneity of variance, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, considering processing methods and BSFLM in the diet as fixed factors. Post hoc tests were performed out using Fisher’s LSD tests. The sensory properties of the fish flesh were analysed using descriptive statistics, and the results are presented as relative frequencies. Research ethics In this study, ethical aspects in the study were addressed following the guidelines of the University of Dschang. For human-related experiments, experiments, we obtained informed consent from all participants before they participated in the data collection. Participation in this study was voluntary and the participants were assured that their information would be kept confidential. The animals were treated in strict adherence to the animal welfare regulations. The local ethics committee provided an ethics letter for human use only, as it was not applicable to our use of insects and fish. Moreover, all the procedures performed were part of the routine care for commercial farms. Results Effects of killing methods on the chemical and microbial properties of black soldier fly larvae The nutrient content of BSF larvae was significantly affected (p<0.05) by the killing method (Table 2). Boiling the larvae resulted in significantly higher dry matter and organic matter contents but the lowest crude protein and fat levels (p<0.05). In contrast, the protein content was highest in the larvae that were toasted (p<0.05) compared to all other methods. The killing method significantly affected the mineral content of BSFLM (Table 2). Larvae heated in a steel pan at 100 °C for 5 minutes showed higher K, Na, and P levels (p<0.05) than larvae exposed to sand at 200 °C for 2 minutes, which had the lowest values for these minerals. The highest Ca value (p<0.05) was obtained in sand-toasted larvae. The microbial composition of BSF larvae also varied with the killing process (Table 2). Enterobacteria and Salmonella were not detected in the toasted or sand–toasted. However, E. coli was present in all samples and was most abundant in the sand-toasted larvae. Additionally, Lactobacilli were detected only in the boiled larvae. Table 2: Chemical and microbial characteristics of black soldier fly larvae processed using three different processing methods. Parameters Toasting Sand toasting Boiling SEM P Proximate composition Dry matter (%) 91.23b 91.61b 93.19a 0.30 0.022 Organic matter (%DM) 90.09a 82.00b 91.55a 0.50 0.008 Ash (%DM) 9.92b 18.00a 8.46b 0.86 0.000 Crude protein (%DM) 42.74a 38.17c 41.26b 0.15 0.000 Fat (%DM) 14.80b 16.67a 8.69c 0.05 0.008 Mineral composition (mg/kg) Ca 1082.33c 3842.66a 1406.33b 0.41 0.022 K 1306.77a 1117.34b 1164.46a 0.34 0.008 Na 647.90a 465.89c 449.04b 0.26 0.000 Fe 26.28b 32.29a 50.54c 0.05 0.000 P 407.53b 341.76a 403.50b 1.21 0.008 Microbial load (CFU) Enterobacteria 0.00x10 2 0.00x10 2 30x10 4 E. coli 05x10 6 b 10x10 6 a 02x10 6 c Lactobacillus 0.00x10 2 0.00x10 2 02x10 4 Salmonella 0.00x10 2 0.00x10 2 5x10 4 Total flora 20x10 6 a 04x10 6 b 07x10 6 b Mean values within a row followed by different letters are significantly different (p<0.05) according to Duncan’s multiple range test for post hoc analysis. DM: dry matter; SEM: Standard error of the mean; p: Probability Effects of full-fat black soldier fly larval meal on catfish growth Table 3 presents the impact of different dietary levels of black soldier fly larval meal (BSFLM) on the growth performance of catfish over 120 days. No mortality was recorded during the trial in the groups fed the standard commercial diet (CD), BSFLM75, or BSFLM100. In contrast, the local diet (BSFLM0) had the lowest survival rate (94.44) compared to the other treatments, except BSFLM50. Although the commercial diet resulted in the greatest body weight gain, specific growth rate, total and standard lengths, and lowest FCR, these parameters were significantly improved at higher levels of inclusion levels of BSFLM (BSFLM75 and BSFLM100) compared to the local control diet (BSFLM0). The BSFLM0 diet, which contained conventional protein resources, had the lowest feed intake (p<0.05) among all diets. The highest FCR was recorded in the BSFLM50 group, where 50% of the fish meal was replaced with BSFLM. The specific growth rate increased with higher levels of BSFLM in the diet, peaking at 75%, before declining at 100% inclusion. Table 3: Growth performance of African catfish fed experimental diets containing full-fat black soldier larvae meal. Characteristics Diets SEM p CD BSFLM0 BSFLM50 BSFLM75 BSFLM100 Survival (%) 100 a 94.44 b 97.22 ab 100 a 100 a 3.28 0.010 Feed intake (g) 145.1 b 29.9 a 152.3 b 157.0 b 170.0 b 135.5 0.000 Initial weight (g) 7.04 a 8.22 a 9.50 a 9.00 a 9.21 a 2.55 0.107 Final live weight (g) 92,38 a 20,25 d 58,79 c 79,29 b 74,67 b 22.21 0.000 Weight gain (g) 85.34 a 12,03 d 49,29 b 70,29 c 65,460 c 25.36 0.000 Feed conversion ratio 1.7 a 2.5 a 3.0 b 2.2 ab 2.5 ab 2.5 0.000 Specific growth rate (%/day) 2.00 a 0.99 c 1.56 b 1.79 ab 1.72 ab 0.35 0.000 Total length (cm) 25.21 a 16.17 d 20.43 c 22.17 b 21.71 b 2.87 0.000 Standard length (cm) 22.92 a 14.56 d 17.34 c 19.54 b 19.67 b 2.95 0.000 Condition K 0.52 b 0.50 b 0.73 a 0.80 a 0.79 a 0.20 0.042 a, b, c: Mean values within a row followed by different letters are significantly different (p<0.05) according to Duncan’s multiple range test for post hoc analysis. CD: Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local food without BSF meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal. SEM: standard error of the mean The weekly changes in the live body weight of C. gariepinus exhibited a similar pattern across all groups throughout the trial (Figure 1). However, from the third week onward, the body weight of fish fed higher levels of BSFLM diets consistently remained higher than those in the BSFLM0 group (Figure 1). Figure 1: Mean weight changes of C. gariepinus as affected by BSFLM on a biweekly basis. CD: commercial diet; BSFLM0: local feed without BSFLM; BSFLM 50: diet containing 50% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal; BSFLM 75: ration containing 75% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal; BSFLM100: ration containing 100% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal. Effect of black soldier fly larvae meal on the viscerosomatic and hepatosomatic indices The viscerosomatic index (VSI) increased with higher levels of BSFLM in the diet (Table 4). The lowest VSI was recorded in the group fed the standard commercial (CD) diet, although it was still significantly higher than that in the group fed the BSFLM50 diet. Contrarily, the hepatosomatic index (HSI) decreased with the inclusion of BSFLM, with the highest HSI value recorded in the group fed the standard diet. Table 4: Effects of BSFLM inclusion in African catfish diets on viscerosomatic and hepatosomatic indices Somatic index Diet SEM p CD BSFLM0 BSFLM50 BSFLM75 BSFLM100 Viscerosomatic index 20.70 a 43.29 ab 65.53 b 41.8 ab 35.75 ab 17,63 0.023 Hepatosomatic index 0.21 c 0.041 a 0.11 b 0.11 b 0.14 bc 0.06 0.008 a and b: a, b, c: Mean values within a row followed by different letters are significantly different (p<0.05) according to Duncan’s multiple range test as post hoc analysis CD; Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local feed without BSFLM meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal. SEM: standard error of the mean. Taste and acceptance of catfish meat among consumers Most consumers found the taste of the fish to be pleasant across all diets (Table 5), except for the BSFLM75 diet, where only 49% of panelists reported a pleasant taste. Additionally, 12.5% of tasters rated fish fed the standard commercial diet as bad, a perception not reported for any other diet in the study. The smell of the fish was generally rated as good by most consumers, regardless of the diet. Overall, panelists consumed more than 70% of the fish for all diets. The fish fed the BSFLM75 diet received unanimous appreciation from all panelists for its overall quality. Table 5: Taste and acceptance of catfish meat among consumers Characteristics Modality Diets CD BSFLM0 BSFLM 50 BSFLM 75 BSFLM 100 Juiciness High 62 25 75 75 87.5 Low 12.5 30 25 12.5 12.5 No 25 45 8.33 Flavour Good 62.5 55 54.33 75 62.5 Bad 37.5 9.5 25.7 37.5 Pleasant 35.5 8.33 25 Colour White 70 85 83.67 75 87.4 Yellowish 30 10 16.33 Pink 5 12,5 Acceptability Yes 90 75 85 100 91 No 10 25 15 0 9 CD: Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local feed without BSFLM meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal. Economic viability The dietary inclusion of BSFLM reduced the cost of catfish production and increased profitability. The BSFLM75 and BSFLM100 diets had lower feed costs and feed intake and resulted in lower feed cost, feed intake, and the highest profitability value (Table 6). Similarly, the cost of producing 1 kg of insect-based catfish feed and the overall feed intake cost were lower for BSFLM diets than for the Coppens diet. However, feed conversion efficiency was significantly higher (p<0.05) with the Coppens diet compared to the BSFLM0 (0% BSFLM) and BSFLM100 (100% BSFLM) diets. Table 6: Effects of BSFLM incorporation in African catfish diets on profitability and sustainability Characteristics Diets SEM p CD BSFLM0 BSFLM50 BSFLM75 BSFLM100 Profitability Feed efficiency 0.6 a 0.5 ab 0.4 b 0.5 ab 0.4 b 0.4 0.000 Profitability (FCFA) 17.7 a 1 211.1 c 730.5 b 1 545.3 c 1 397.1 c 1 311.1 0.000 Feed cost (FCFA/kg) 1 500.0 316.0 598.0 431.0 437.5 656.5 0.000 Cost of feed intake (FCFA) 217.7 99.4 91.0 67.7 74.4 92.0 0.000 Sustainability Fish meal utilization 671.4 c 699.1 c 384.7 b 166.1 b 0 419.0 0.000 FIFO 3.0 b 3.1 a 1.7 a 0.7 a 0 0.9 0.000 a, b and c: Means in a row with the same superscript are not significantly different (p<0.05). CD: Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local feed without MSN meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; FIFO: fish-in-fish-out ratio; SEM: standard error of the mean. Sustainability of the catfish rearing system The inclusion of BSFLM as a substitute for fishmeal improved the sustainability of the catfish-rearing system (Table 6). As the level of BSFLM in the diet increased, there was a linear decrease in the fish-in-fish-out (FIFO) ratio (Figure 2). This relationship was highly significant, with a coefficient of determination of 98%. Figure 2: Relationship between the inclusion level of BSFLM and the Fish-in-Fish-Out (FIFO) ratio, depicting the unsustainability of the catfish breeding system. Discussion In this study, we investigated the potential of black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM) as a sustainable alternative to the traditional protein ingredient such as fishmeal (FM) in the diet of African catfish ( Clarias gariepinus ). Our findings show that substituting FM with BSFLM, particularly at higher substitution levels (75–100%), significantly enhanced catfish growth rates, feed conversion ratios, and survival rates. Additionally, different larval processing methods influenced the chemical composition and microbial quality of BSF larvae, with boiling and toasting methods optimizing nutritional content while maintaining safety levels. Economic analysis demonstrated that replacing FM with BSFLM reduced feed costs and increased profitability, while sustainability metrics, such as the fish-in-fish-out ratio, were notably improved, underscoring the viability of BSFLM as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly protein source for aquaculture. To fully harness the value of BSFLM as a sustainable alternative to FM, it is crucial to standardize its production processes, particularly the methods used for killing the larvae. The processing method significantly influences the nutritional quality and safety of the larvae meal. In this study, we found that the nutritional composition of BSF larvae was affected by the different processing methods applied, consistent with previous research indicating that larval pretreatment methods can affect their nutrient profile ( 37 , 38 ). For instance, the dry matter content in all treatments was below 95%, which aligns with the 98% reported by Makkar et al. ( 37 ) for BSF larvae subjected to similar conditions. However, this value was higher than the 85% observed in BSF larvae dried for 3 hours at 70°C, suggesting that differences in killing and drying methods, as well as variations in larval feeding regimes, may account for these discrepancies. Indeed, the moisture content of the larvae is known to vary according to the feeding substrate ( 38 ) and the pretreatment method ( 37 ), highlighting the need for standardized processing to optimize the nutritive value of BSF larvae. Among the processing methods tested, toasting resulted in the highest protein levels in the larvae, likely due to the rapid cooking time that minimizes protein degradation ( 39 , 40 ). In contrast, the lower protein levels observed in sand-toasted larvae can be attributed to protein denaturation caused by the intense heat generated by this method. Boiling also resulted in reduced protein content compared to toasting, which could be due to the prolonged exposure to heat and the extended drying time required, as noted by Mohd-Noor et al. ( 41 ). These findings underscore the impact of killing methods on the nutritional quality of BSF larvae, further emphasizing the need for process standardization to maximize its nutritional benefits in aquaculture feed formulations. The fat contents of the larvae ranged from 8.7 to 16.7%. The fat content of pretreated larvae is lower than that reported by Zulkifli et al . ( 17 ). This could be due to the age at harvest of the larvae ( 42 ) and the rearing substrate ( 43 ). The BSFLM is an excellent source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals. These minerals can be altered depending on different pretreatments ( 17 ). The highest ash content was observed in sand-toasted larvae, likely due to the uptake of minerals from the sand during the toasting process. In contrast, boiled larvae had the lowest ash, calcium, and phosphorus levels, which can be attributed to mineral loss through leaching into the boiling water, as reported by Zhen et al. ( 26 ) and supported by similar findings ( 44 ). The elevated calcium levels in sand-toasted larvae may also result from the absorption of minerals from the sand used during pretreatment. In the current study, the microbial load of the larvae was affected by the killing method. The presence of a wide range of microorganisms in the insect digestive tract could contribute to the level of contamination in the larvae since they are processed whole without evisceration due to their small size ( 45 ). Compared with the boiling method, simple toasting and sand toasting reduced Enterobacterial and Salmonella loads. This might have been due to the activity of the water ( 46 ) and the boiling temperature. According to Klunder et al . ( 45 ), boiling time can impact microbial quality; e. g., larvae boiled for 2 min presented a logarithmic reduction in Pseudomonas spp . The second segment of this study involved of determining the optimal level of BSFLM in the catfish diet. Inadequate rearing conditions, such as feed composition, can rapidly affect the C. gariepinus survival rate. The survival of C. gariepinus recorded during this experiment was greater than 90%. Therefore, the basic requirements were fulfilled (quality of feed ingredients, permanent renewal of water, and losses of nitrogen, temperature, and pH), as reported by Kara et al . ( 47 ). The replacement of fish meal with 75% BSFLM was found to be as good as the Coppens diet (100% FM) for the survival and growth of C. gariepinus . This could be explained by the availability of nutrients and palatability of the BSFLM-based diet (48). The lowest survival was recorded with the local diet BSFLM0. This low survival can be attributed to the poor quality of this ingredient on the market. The growth parameters, including live weight, weight gain, specific growth rate, feed conversion ratio, and feed intake of the fish, were significantly influenced by the level of substitution of FM with BSFLM in the diet of C. gariepinus . Our findings are consistent with those reported by Fawole et al. (5). In this study, diets in which 50% or 75% of FM was replaced with BSFLM showed significant improvements in weight gain, specific growth rate and survival rate compared to the FM-based diet, highlighting the positive impact of BSFLM on the growth of C. gariepinus . The poor performance of the BSFLM0 diet can be attributed to the low quality of the FM available in the local market, which is often poorly preserved, leading to the degradation of essential nutrients such as amino acids and vitamins ( 7 ). The observed improvement in growth performance in the catfish fed BSFLM in this study may be explained by the relatively high levels of lauric acid in the BSFLM, as reported by de Jessica de Souza et al. ( 49 ). Fortuoso et al. ( 50 ) found that the inclusion of 300 mg of lauric acid per kg in broiler feed resulted in an increase of more than 11% in weight gain and a 6% reduction in the feed conversion ratio. Lauric acid has a strong antimicrobial effect and growth-promoting ability with no toxicity. The present result confirms the observations of Henry et al . ( 51 ) that BSFLM is an excellent ingredient for fish farming. However, the full substitution of fish meal with BSFLM (BSFLM100) led to a decrease in the growth performance of the fish. This could be due to excessive chitin and fat contents. Kroeckel et al . ( 52 ) reported a reduction in nutrient availability and growth performance of turbot ( Psetta maxima ) fed a high inclusion level of BSFLM in the presence of chitin. In fact, chitin is a glucosamine polymer that is insoluble in almost all solvents and is a factor causing decreased growth performance and protein utilization in African catfish ( 53 ). Halver and Hardy ( 54 ) and Barroso et al . ( 55 ) reported that chitin can have negative effects on nutrient digestibility. Indeed, chitosan, a chitin derivative, is commonly used as a supplement to the weight loss program in humans ( 56 ). Insect chitin impacts nutrient digestibility and reduces the apparent digestibility of dietary protein ( 57 ). High chitin contents at increased inclusion levels of BSF larvae were postulated to affect the digestibility of diets and the growth of fish ( 58 ). Furthermore, replacing total fish meal with insect meal is usually unsuccessful, probably because of dietary imbalance or deficiencies ( 51 ). The assessment of nutritional utilization and biochemical composition of feeds can be accomplished from fish morphometric characterization as described by Vatandoust et al. ( 59 ) through organ and tissue indices of a particular fish species. Commonly used organ indices are the hepato-somatic index (HSI) and the viscerosomatic index (VSI), as reported by Sudaporn et al. ( 60 ). The HSI and VSI of C. gariepinus fed the experimental diets increased with the increasing dietary level of BSFLM, which indicates that the fish were able to utilize BSFLM in the diet by converting it into muscle, as reported by Marroh and Ekelemu ( 61 ) and Sogbesan et al. ( 62 ) on the nutrient utilization of housefly meal. However, our results disagree with those of Keri et al. ( 63 ), who recorded a reduction in VSI with BSFLM in the diet. The discrepancy could be due to differences in the biochemical composition of the treatments and the feeding habits of the fish. The different HISs and VSIs indicate that C. gariepinus responds positively to changes in nutritional status, as reported by Ahmad ( 64 ), who studied Litopenaeus vannamei via the use of grub meal at different levels of incorporation. The consumer considers it a determinant criterion of the freshness of the product ( 65 ). In our study, more than 70% of the participants reported that the fish had white flesh. BSFLM does not alter flesh colour and can therefore maintain the market quality of fish, as colour is the first qualitative criterion determining the quality and acceptability of commercial fish ( 66 ). The highest degree of yellow colouration was recorded with the commercial diet, in which 30% of the panellists reported yellowish flesh. This observation may be related to the oxidation of fish fed this diet. Singh et al . ( 66 ) reported that lipid oxidation during storage induces yellowish discolouration of the fillet. The juiciness represents the dryness of the meat. We distinguished the initial juiciness, which is perceived at the first bite, and the sustained juiciness. The former is related mainly to the amount of water released during chewing, whereas the latter is related more to the stimulation of salivation due to the presence of lipids in the meat ( 67 ). The main factor influencing juiciness is the water retention capacity of the muscle ( 68 ). In the present study, fish fed a standard local diet (BSFLM) presented the lowest juiciness, whereas those fed the BSFLM100 diet, in which the fish meal was fully replaced, presented the highest value. This could mean that the BSFLM confers a spatial structure to the proteins of the muscle fibres that allow water retention in fish. Our findings are consistent with the results of Zhu et al. ( 69 ), who used BSFLM to feed pigs and reported that BSFLM improved the meat quality of pig meat. Moreover, these authors reported that BSFLM increases intramuscular fat and reduces drip loss, which increases meat sensory indices such as juiciness. The perception of flavour involves taste and smell through a complex set of sensations formed by the taste buds of the tongue and aromas perceived retronasally when the product is in the mouth. Flavour is essentially linked to the lipids present in a piece of fish flesh, which provide aromatic compounds during the cooking process ( 70 ). The inclusion of BSFLM in the diet tends to increase flesh flavour up to 75%, where it decreases. This finding can be explained by the amount of intramuscular fat, as explained by Gandemer ( 70 ). Thus, BSFLM contains a high lipid content that can increase a good smell and give muscle meat an ideal taste. In this study, most of the respondents (70%) accepted fish fed BSFLM The high acceptance of an insect meal-based diet was reported by Szendro et al . ( 71 ), who reported that 50% of participants in a survey said that they could accept the meat of animals that had consumed insect meal. The high value recorded in our study (75–100%) compared with those of these authors may be related to the fact that our panellists were all university students who are more aware of the use of insects as feed or food. As reported by Laureati et al . ( 72 ), the willingness to accept meat and fish fed with insect meal is greater among students and university staff than outside the university. The efficiency of production is affected by two key factors including, cost and profitability. The production cost is strongly related to the cost of the feed. There are current constraints to include BSFLM in animal feed on a large scale because the cost of BSFLM may not be competitive with that of conventional protein meals in many countries. In contrast, BSFLM is an attractive feed ingredient for nutrition in Cameroon because it is a readily available and low-cost substrate for insect rearing. In our study, the introduction of BSFLM considerably reduced the cost of feed intake from 437–598 CFA francs, which is the price per kg of feed; despite this production cost, we realize that the inclusion of BSFLM reduced the production cost by more than 62.08% for the BSFLM75 treatment compared with the standard feed. This finding is in line with those of Fashina-Bombata and Balogun ( 73 ), who reported that the cost of producing 1 kg of fly meal is 20% lower than the cost of producing 1 kg of fish meal, leading to a reduction in the cost of animal production. The application of BSFLM offers a good opportunity to develop low-cost fish feeds, especially in developing countries such as Cameroon, where fishmeal is usually imported at a very expensive price ( 74 ). The FIFO ratio has been used to evaluate the ecological efficiency of feed ingredients in aquaculture ( 75 ). The FIFO ratio is the primary measure used to ensure that aquaculture practices do not negatively impact wild fish stocks. In this study, the use of BSFLM induced a reduction in FIFO. Thus, the most sustainable system was recorded with the BSFLM75 and BSFLM100 ratios, which resulted in FIFO values less than 1. Conclusion This study demonstrates that BSFLM is a viable and sustainable alternative to the traditional feed ingredients such as FM in the diet of African catfish ( C. gariepinus ). Replacing FM with BSFLM at levels of 75–100% boosted catfish growth, feed conversion ratios, and survival rates, and reduced feed costs and increased profitability. The different larval processing methods applied in this study influenced the nutritional composition and microbial quality of BSF larvae, highlighting the need for standardized production processes to optimize their benefits. The sensory qualities of the fish, such as flavour and juiciness, were largely maintained or enhanced with BSFLM, supporting its acceptability among consumers. Moreover, the use of BSFLM reduced the FIFO ratio, indicating improved ecological efficiency and sustainability. Our findings indicate that adopting BSFLM into catfish feed production can help reduce the reliance on the expensive, less sustainable FM, promote more sustainable aquaculture production, and offer economic benefits in Cameroon, where high feed costs and availability significant barriers to large-scale fish farming. Abbreviations AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists BSFLM black soldier fly larvae meal BSF black soldier fly BSFL black soldier fly larvae DM dry matter FM fish meal FIFO fish-in-fish-out ratio SEM Standard error of the mean p Probability HSI hepatosomatic index VSI viscerosomatic index Ca Calcium K Potassium Na Sodium Fe Iron P Phosphorus Declarations Author Contributions: H.K.M. conceived the research idea, designed the study, led data collection, visualization and analysis, interpreted the results, and drafted the manuscript. M.D.C. contributed to the study design, assisted with data collection and analysis, and reviewed the manuscript. D.D. contributed to the study design and revised the manuscript. S.Y.C. contributed to the study design, and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript. D.F.R. and E.T. were involved in the overall study design process. S.A.N. contributed to the writing and revision of the manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate consideration Experimental protocols used in this study were approved by the Ethical committee of the Department of Animal Science of the University of Dschang (ECDAS-UDs 23/03/2023/UDs/FASA/DSAES) and was in conformity with the internationally accepted standard ethical guidelines for laboratory animal use and care as described in the European Community guidelines. The university granted us an ethical waiver for human participation in this study, as previously outlined by the ethics committee. This decision was based on the fact that the feed used in this study was part of routine animal feed. Availability of data and materials The datasets used during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Consent for publication All the authors read and approved the final manuscript. 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Glycerol monolaurate in the diet of broiler chickens replacing conventional antimicrobials: impact on health, performance and meat quality. Microbial Pathogenesis, 129, pp. 161–167 Henry, M., Gasco, L., Piccolo, G., Fountoulaki, E., 2015. Review on the use of insects in the diet of farmed fish: Past and future. Anim. Feed Science Technology. 203, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.03.001 Kroeckel S., Harjes A.-G.E., Roth I., Katz H., Wuertz S., Susenbeth A. and Schulz C. 2012. When a turbot catches a fly: Evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the Black Soldier Fly ( Hermetia illucens ) as fish meal substitute - Growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot ( Psetta maxima ). Aquaculture 364–365, 345– 352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.08.041 Piekarska, Klaudia, Monika Sikora, Monika Owczarek, Jagoda Jóźwik-Pruska, and Maria Wiśniewska-Wrona. 2023. "Chitin and Chitosan as Polymers of the Future—Obtaining, Modification, Life Cycle Assessment and Main Directions of Application" Polymers 15, no. 4: 793. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15040793 Halver J.E. and Hardy R.W. 2002. Fish Nutrition. In: Sargent, J.R., Tocher, D.R. and Bell, G., Eds., The Lipids, 3rd Edition, Academic Press, California, 182–246. Barroso, F.G.; de Haro, C.; Sanchez-Muros, M.-J.; Venegas, E.; Martinez-Sanchez, A.; Perez-Bañon, C. 2014. The potential of various insect species for use as food for fish. Aquaculture, 422, 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.12.024 Mhurchu, C.N., Dunshea-Mooij, C., Bennett, D. and Rodgers, A. (2005), Effect of chitosan on weight loss in overweight and obese individuals: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Obesity Reviews, 6: 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2005.00158.x Belforti M., Francesco Gai, Carola Lussiana, Manuela Renna, Vanda Malfatto, Luca Rotolo, Michele De Marco, Sihem Dabbou, Achille Schiavone, Ivo Zoccarato and Laura Gasco. 2015. Tenebrio Molitor Meal in Rainbow Trout ( Oncorhynchus Mykiss ) Diets: Effects on Animal Performance, Nutrient Digestibility and Chemical Composition of Fillets, Italian Journal of Animal Science, 14:4, https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2015.4170 Zhou J., Liu S., Ji H. and Yu H. 2018. Effect of replacing dietary fish meal with black soldier fly larvae meal on growth and fatty acid composition of Jian carp ( Cyprinus carpio var. Jian). Aquaculture Nutrition, 24, 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12574 Vatandoust S., Anvarifar H. and Mousavi-Sabet H. 2014. Morphometric and Meristic Characteristics and Morphological Differentiation of Brown Trout Salmo trutta fario (Pisces: Salmonidae) along the Southern Caspian Sea Basin. European Journal of Zoological Research. 3. 56–65 Sudaporn, T., Kringsak, M., and Yuwadee, P (2010). Effect of replacing fish meal with Spirulina on growth, carcass composition and pigments of Mekong Giant cat fish. Journal of Agricultural Science , 2(3): 106–110. ISSN: 2041–3890. Marroh E. and Ekelemu J.K. 2016. Effect on Growth of Clarias gariepinus Post Fingerlings, Fed Graded Levels of Ocimum gratissimum as Feed Additive. International Journal of Research Studies in Biosciences. 4, (3), PP 20–24 Sogbesan A.O., Ajuonu, N., Musa, B.O. and Adewole A.M. 2006. Harvesting techniques and evaluation of maggot meal as animal dietary protein source for“ Heteroclarias ” in outdoor concrete tanks. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 2006, 2(4): 394–402. (11) Keri A.I., Aziz B.A. and Abol-Munafi A.B. 2014. The selection of viscerosomatic and hepatosomatic indices for the measurement and analysis of Oreochromis niloticus condition fed with varying dietary maltose levels. International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 1 (3): 18–20 Ahmad, M.H. 2008. Evaluation of gambusia, Gambusia affinis , fishmeal in practical diets for fry Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus . Journal of World Aquaculture Society ., 2008,39: 243–250. Coibion L., 2008, Acquisition des qualités organoleptiques de la viande bovine: adaptation à la demande du consommateur. (Mémoire pour l’obtention du grade de Docteur vétérinaire). Ecole nationale vétérinaire de Toulouse, p. 97. Singh P., Danish M. and Saxena A. 2021. Spoilage of fish-process and its prevention. Retrieved July 28,2023, from http://aquafind.com/articles/spolage.php Bout J. and Girard J. 1988. Lipides et qualités des tissus adipeux et musculaires du porc. 2ème partie: lipides et qualités du tissu musculaire – facteurs de variation. Journees Recherche Porcine. Fr ., 20 (1988), pp. 271–278 Monin G., 1988. Evolution post-mortem du tissu musculaire et conséquences sur les qualités de la viande de porc. Journée de Recherche Porcine, 20, 201–214. Zhu, Mingqiang, Mingming Liu, Boyu Yuan, Xinxin Jin, Xue Zhang, Gaijie Xie, Zifan Wang, Yantao Lv, Wei Wang, and Yanhua Huang. 2022. "Growth Performance and Meat Quality of Growing Pigs Fed with Black Soldier Fly ( Hermetia illucens ) Larvae as Alternative Protein Source" Processes 10, no. 8: 1498. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10081498 Gandemer G. 1999. Lipids and meat quality: lipolysis, oxidation, Maillard reaction and flavour. Science des Aliments, 19, 439–458 Szendrő, Katalin, Mónika Zita Nagy, and Katalin Tóth. 2020. "Consumer Acceptance of Meat from Animals Reared on Insect Meal as Feed" Animals 10, no. 8: 1312. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081312 Laureati, M.; Proserpio, C.; Jucker, C.; Savoldelli, S. 2016. New sustainable protein sources: Consumers’ willingness to adopt insects as feed and food. Italian Journal of Food Sciences. 28, 652–668. Fashina-Bombata H.A. and O. Balogun 1997. The effect of partial or total replacement of fish meal with maggot meal in the diet of tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ) fry. Journal of Prospects in Science 1:178–181 Malcorps, Wesley, Björn Kok, Mike van‘t Land, Maarten Fritz, Davy van Doren, Kurt Servin, Paul van der Heijden, Roy Palmer, Neil A. Auchterlonie, Max Rietkerk, and et al. 2019. "The Sustainability Conundrum of Fishmeal Substitution by Plant Ingredients in Shrimp Feeds" Sustainability 11, no. 4: 1212. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041212 Björn Kok, Wesley Malcorps, Michael F. Tlusty, Mahmoud M. Eltholth, Neil A. Auchterlonie, David C. Little, Robert Harmsen, Richard W. Newton, Simon J. Davies. 2020. Fish as feed: Using economic allocation to quantify the Fish In: Fish Out ratio of major fed aquaculture species. Aquaculture , Volume 528,2020, 735474, ISSN 0044-8486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735474 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Chia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shaphan","middleName":"Y.","lastName":"Chia","suffix":""},{"id":378400932,"identity":"ec5dab08-6e25-42f7-9b55-8898ae00d807","order_by":5,"name":"Thomas Efole","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dschang","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thomas","middleName":"","lastName":"Efole","suffix":""},{"id":378400933,"identity":"d135c7ae-508a-4472-8da2-feaf3e901c44","order_by":6,"name":"Sali A. Ndindeng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"AfricaRice","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sali","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Ndindeng","suffix":""},{"id":378400934,"identity":"1a52b74e-8839-48f5-ae37-ffdc30addb86","order_by":7,"name":"Fernand Tendonkeng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dschang","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fernand","middleName":"","lastName":"Tendonkeng","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-27 11:54:25","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5164712/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5164712/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":71484337,"identity":"7024c97b-373c-4a6a-8624-befca72cc75d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 06:25:31","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39886,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean weight changes of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e as affected by BSFLM on a biweekly basis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCD: commercial diet; BSFLM0: local feed without BSFLM; BSFLM 50: diet containing 50% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal; BSFLM 75: ration containing 75% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal; BSFLM100: ration containing 100% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5164712/v1/2eb2399a18b2a67cec2c3121.png"},{"id":71484335,"identity":"adc3bbcf-735f-4231-aeea-02d59d56f1f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 06:25:30","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6944,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRelationship between the inclusion level of BSFLM and the Fish-in-Fish-Out (FIFO) ratio, depicting the unsustainability of the catfish breeding system.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinedrawingimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5164712/v1/f7206439a7fdf36587056f55.png"},{"id":71484528,"identity":"6ef6ddb1-8efc-4af5-9025-4d92ede75cf6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 06:33:31","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1305852,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5164712/v1/4599d14e-4bb4-4afb-a2a7-1063cb15bba0.pdf"},{"id":71484336,"identity":"0168e753-d282-4244-8032-6dbeb37840c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 06:25:30","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19138,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendices.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5164712/v1/bb3a7fe920cb1105f686512f.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Enhancing aquaculture sustainability and profitability: Effects of black soldier fly larval meal on the performance of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Cameroon","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOver 8\u0026nbsp;billion people are present in the world today and it is expected that the population will reach 8.6\u0026nbsp;billion in 2030, 9.8\u0026nbsp;billion in 2050 and 11.2\u0026nbsp;billion in 2100 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). To tackle the food needs of the expanding global population, food production must increase by 70% (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Aquaculture, already a critical contributor to global food and nutrition security, must expand its production capacity to meet this target (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Aquaculture is a key agricultural sector to meet the rising demand for animal products, with an average annual growth rate of 5.5% (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). However, to realize its full potential and ensure a sustainable and equitable aquatic food supply in the future, the sector must innovate and address future challenges (5; 6).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Cameroon, the annual demand for fish is approximately 500,000 tons, but aquaculture supplies only 10,000 tons per year (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Cameroon has a large hydrographic network with over 542 fish species across more than 40,000 km\u0026sup2; of freshwater (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), yet the country\u0026rsquo;s current fish production is still significantly below its potential capacity of 200,000 tons per year (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). This deficit in fish production translates to an estimated annual economic loss of 114.3\u0026nbsp;billion CFA (189.5\u0026nbsp;million USD) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). One of the primary challenges facing Cameroon\u0026rsquo;s aquaculture sector is the cost and availability of feed and feed ingredients (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). The selection of ingredients and formulation of fish diets critically affect both the environmental sustainability and profitability of the industry (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). For several years, fishmeal has been the preferred protein source in aquaculture feed due to its high protein and fatty acid content, balanced amino acid profile, digestibility, and palatability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). However, the pressure on capture fisheries for fishmeal production poses a considerable environmental problem to the sustainability of aquaculture. The rising cost of fishmeal also reduces profitability in aquaculture operations and creates competition for resources between aquaculture and human consumption (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). This has intensified the search for nutritionally suitable and socially, ecologically, and economically sustainable alternatives to fishmeal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). Among the most promising alternatives are edible insects, animal byproducts, terrestrial plants, micro- and macro-algae (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterest in insects as feed ingredients for aquatic animals has grown steadily due to their nutritional value, rapid growth, low ecological impact, and consumer acceptance (16; 17). Among these insect species, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have attracted the most attention from researchers (6; 18; 19). The BSFL are rich in protein, lipids, and minerals, comparable to those of fishmeal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, they contain bioactive compounds with well-documented antimicrobial properties (20; 21; 22). Studies have demonstrated that BSFL can maintain fish health, such as tilapia, without negative effects on health or organ indices (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, BSFL has the potential to improve livestock profitability and reduce environmental impacts by lowering feed costs, which account for 60\u0026ndash;70% of production costs (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the numerous benefits of the BSF larvae, there are still limitations to their full application in aquafeed. Issues related to palatability, digestibility, chitin content, bioaccumulation of toxic substances, and deficiencies in essential amino acids or long-chain fatty acids (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e), as well as the method of processing the larvae to ensure a better quality BSFL meal, remain barriers. In addition, increased susceptibility to oxidation, excessive energy, and decreased stability of pellets has been reported following the use of BSFL in fish diets (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). To increase the utilization of this alternative protein source, it is necessary to identify feeding and processing methods that optimize its nutritional value and ensure safety while promoting insect welfare (27; 28). Previous research identified heat treatment, freezing, asphyxiation and mechanical disruption as general procedures for euthanizing BSFL (28; 29). However, some of these processes, such as freezing and asphyxiation are impractical in tropical due to high energy costs and limited accessibility. Therefore, optimizing the processing of BSFL is crucial for their effective use in aquaculture production in the tropics. BSFL-based diets have been identified as a promising strategy to enhance the sustainability and economic efficiency of food production, thereby helping to address food security challenges (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to investigate the effects of different processing (killing) methods on the microbial and chemical compositions of BSF larvae. Additionally, we aimed to assess the effects of partially or completely replacing fishmeal with BSF larval meal (BSFLM) in the diet of African catfish (\u003cem\u003eClarias gariepinus)\u003c/em\u003e reared in plastic tanks. This species was chosen because it is one of the most reared fish species in Cameroon and has high economic value and breeding potential (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The goal of this research is to increase farmer income and promote the sustainability of the fish farming system.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted at the aquaculture facility of the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, Annex of Bafia, University of Dschang (4\u0026deg;37\u0026apos; and 4\u0026deg;46\u0026apos; N, 11\u0026deg;6 and 11\u0026deg;18\u0026apos; E), Cameroon, for a 120-day feeding period. Bafia has a savannah climate with dry winters according to the K\u0026ouml;ppen-Geiger classification; throughout the year, the average temperature and rainfall are 23.5 \u0026deg;C and 831.7 mm, respectively (31).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlack soldier fly larvae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe larvae used in this study were obtained from a preestablished BSF colony at the Bafia campus. The larvae were fed a substrate consisting of a 40:60 ratio mixture of fruit waste (mango and watermelon) and cow dung. To this mixture, water was added to achieve a substrate moisture content of 75%, as recommended by Dzepe \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (19). This substrate was provided to 4-day-old BSF larvae following a continuous feeding system in which the substrate was added every 3 days until the end of the treatment. The feeding period lasted for 19 days, after which the larvae were harvested for subsequent processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlack soldier fly larvae processing methods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter being harvested, the larvae were processed using three different killing methods (boiling, toasting, and sand toasting). Each treatment was repeated three times (0.5 kg per replicate). For boiling, BSF larvae were immersed in boiling water for 5 min, after which they were removed and sun-dried. For the toasting method, fresh larvae on a clean, dry steel pan were placed on a hot plate at approximately 100 \u0026deg;C for 5 minutes. The larval sample was turned regularly via a wooden spatula to prevent it from sticking or burning. The toasted larvae were subsequently spread out (outdoors) in open air and then stored in airtight plastic bags. Finally, in the sand toasting process, 300 g of sand was heated with firewood until it reached 200 \u0026deg;C (approximately 15 minutes). The hot sand serves as a heat transfer milieu thereby increasing the heat temperature and reducing the toasting time. Then, 500 g of fresh larvae was stirred with the sand for 2 minutes. After cooling, the mixture was separated via a metallic sieve (2 mm diameter). The drying process in the sun took approximately 8 h. The operating temperature was measured using the DT310LAB Digital Thermometer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalysis of the\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003echemical composition of black soldier fly larvae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter processing, 5 g of larvae were randomly collected from each treatment replicate, oven-dried for 48 h at 65 \u0026deg;C, and analysed for their chemical compositions in the laboratory of the Animal Nutrition of the University of Dschang following the AOAC (32) procedure. The analysis of the mineral composition was carried out according to the protocol described by Pauwels \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (33) and focused on the concentrations of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sodium (Na), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). For this purpose, 1 g of each sample of dried larvae was calcined in a muffle furnace (Carbolite Eurothermcr\u0026reg;) at 450 \u0026deg;C for 2 hours. Following sample calcination, the ash was digested with 10 ml of nitric acid at a 1 N concentration for 30 min and then cooled and filtered through the Wattman filter paper (No. 4) into 50 ml flasks, and the volume was adjusted with distilled water up to the mark. Finally, the larval sample was read directly on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (650 nm). The sample absorbances obtained were projected onto the respective linear regression equations to determine the levels of Mg, Ca, P, Na, K, Fe and Zn in BSFL samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicrobial analysis of black soldier fly larvae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the different processing methods, 100 g of BSFL (91% dry matter) was used to determine the microbial composition via tenfold serial dilutions as described by Gorrens \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (34). The samples were immediately transported to the Laboratory of Animal Health and Physiology of the University of Dschang for bacterial culture and analysis in triplicate. Using the jar that had the lowest number of spots, and then MULTIPLYING THE number the power indicated by the number on the jar The number of colonies was determined (10\u0026sup2;, 10⁴, or 10⁶). Black soldier fly larvae meal in catfish diet, \u0026nbsp;and then, 1 ml of the mixture was diluted 6 times consecutively in test tubes containing 9 ml of distilled water to reduce the percentage of bacteria and to facilitate counting. One ml of the mixture from tubes 2, 4, and 6 was brought into contact with culture media previously heated to 60 \u0026deg;C in a tidal bath or an autoclave and cooled to 50 \u0026deg;C. Upon solidifying, the mixture in each jar was stored anaerobically or aerobically (Salmonella, enterobacteria, and \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e) in an incubator at 37 \u0026deg;C. Colony counts were performed in duplicate. The first count was performed 24 hours after incubation, and the second count was performed 48 hours after incubation. The number of colonies was determined using the jar that had the lowest number of spots, and then this number was multiplied by the power indicated by the number on the jar (10\u0026sup2;, 10⁴, or 10⁶).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlack soldier fly larvae meal in catfish diet\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFull-fat BSF larvae was obtained from the best processing method in the first experiment. In fact, nutritional and microbial analyses were performed on the larvae as indicated previously, and the processing method that resulted in the best nutrient content and the lowest microbial load was used to produce BSF larval meal (BSFLM) for fish feed. For this purpose, the processed larvae were sun-dried and milled with a hammer mill from a local manufacturer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFeed formulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe diets were formulated by using BSFLM and other ingredients purchased from the local market (Table 1). Four diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous (40 g/kg crude protein) and isocaloric (3000 kcal kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026minus;1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003emetabolizable energy) based on the nutrient requirements of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e (33; 34). The control diet had fishmeal (FM) as the principal protein source and was progressively substituted with BSFLM at 50%, 75%, and 100% on an equivalent protein basis, corresponding to dietary inclusion levels of 13, 19, and 26 kg of BSFLM for 100 kg of feed, respectively (Table 1). The maximum inclusion level of BSFLM (BSFLM 100) was 26% insect meal instead of 28% in the fish meal-based diet because of the difference in the crude protein content of these two ingredients. The ingredients were proportionally measured, thoroughly mixed, and combined with water (200 ml/kg). The resulting dough was pelletized via a compressed pelletizer with a diameter of 2 mm. The pellets were air-dried, packed into labelled airtight containers, and stored for later use. The formulated diets were compared with a standard commercial diet (CD) commonly used for catfish feeding in the study area. Unfortunately, the feed composition of this diet is not available for industrial protection purposes The energy and crude protein contents of the experimental diets were determined following the AOAC (32) procedure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e: Feed ingredients and nutritional composition of the experimental diets fed to \u003cem\u003eClarias gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e (%, dry matter basis).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"699\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIngredients (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExperimental diets\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD (3-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4 mm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM75\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaize\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCassava flour\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSoybean cake 49\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e22\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroundnut cake\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePalm cake\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlood meal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFish meal 60\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePremix\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e5%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePalm oil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMetabolizable energy (kcal)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3091.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3089.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30076.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3088.36\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrude protein (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e40.67\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 3px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCDs: industrial feed for catfish purchased from Coppens Company; BSFLM0: local feed with 100% fishmeal; BSFLM50: 50% fishmeal replaced with 50% BSFLM; BSFLM75: 75% fishmeal replaced with BSFLM; BSFLM100: feed with 100% BSFLM to replace fishmeal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.2. Experimental design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFingerlings of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e used in this study were purchased from a local fish hatchery. At reception, the fingerlings were acclimated to the experimental rearing system for two weeks before the start of the feeding trial, during which they were fed local feed (BSFLM0). After this period, fifteen flow-through plastic tanks (35 l each, measuring 33.4 cm in length, 14.0 cm in width, and 17.4 cm in height were used, each containing a water volume of 25 l. Each treatment was repeated three times. A 35-l recipient containing maize straw charcoal was used to filter the water prior to passage into different experimental tanks. In this study, one hundred and twenty juvenile fish (9.49 \u0026plusmn; 0.089 g) were randomly allocated to the experimental tanks (8 fish per tank). Water temperature and pH were monitored daily using water quality meters. The photoperiod followed natural conditions (12 h of light and 12 h of dark). Dead fish were removed daily, and the bottoms of the tanks were siphon-cleaned daily. The fish were hand-fed twice (07:00 h and 17:00 h) a day at 5% of the fish biomass. The quantity of feed was readjusted every two weeks for 25% of the total fish in each treatment. Potential contamination was avoided by changing the water every 3 days throughout the study period. The experiment lasted for one hundred and twenty days.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasurement of fish growth performance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo calculate the percent survival and weight gain, all experimental fish in each treatment group were counted and weighed weekly. In addition, the feed conversion ratio (FCR) and the condition factor were determined. The feed intake was evaluated by siphoning the bottom of the tanks daily, and the remaining feed was then dried to obtain the initial dry matter (93%) and weighed. The following formula was used:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSpecific growth rate (SGR, %/day) = [ln final body weight (g) \u0026minus; ln initial weight (g)/days of feeding trial] \u0026times; 100,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFCR = weight gain of fish/feed intake\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCondition factor (CF, g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) = fish weight (g) \u0026times; 100/total length (cm)\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSomatic indices\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the end of the trial, all the fish in each group were fasted for 24 h. Thereafter, 9 fish per treatment were randomly selected and killed for evaluation of the viscerosomatic index (VSI), hepatosomatic index (HSI), and carcass quality. Somatic indices play important roles in fish metabolism and are related to digestion and absorption, synthesis and secretion of digestive enzymes and carbohydrate metabolism. The following formulae were used:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eViscerosomatic index (VSI, %) = viscera weight \u0026times; 100/fish weight,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHepatosomatic index (HSI, %) = liver weight \u0026times; 100/fish weight.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSensory evaluation of fish carcass\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe organoleptic characteristics evaluated were odour, taste, and acceptability of the flesh. They were measured via sensory methods in a group of 30 panelists previously selected according to their food preferences (non-alcoholics, non-smokers). The panelists were then trained to differentiate between the different organoleptic parameters.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreparation of broth for the selection of the tasters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFish broth without salt or spices was prepared by cooking 500 g of fish in 1 l of drinking water for 20 minutes at low heat. Thereafter, 25 ml of this broth was diluted with 1 l of mineral water. Before dilution, the broth was cooled to room temperature, filtered, and diluted with 1 l of water to obtain a solution with no difference in appearance or colour from the water. This liquid was used to select tasters via the triangular test method (35) (appendix 1a). Those selected were given explanations of the procedures and expectations of the evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreparation of fish samples and selection of evaluators\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe different fish samples (1 kg/rat) without water or seasoning were bagged in aluminum foil, placed on a stainless-steel dish, and placed with \u0026frac14; l of water in a pot so that the fish were not in contact with this water. The samples were then cooked for 20 minutes at low heat. Tasters were chosen based on their ability to distinguish between three subtly different samples via the triangle test (35). The test involved presenting three coded cups or samples simultaneously, two of which were identical (containing only mineral water), and the third contained diluted fish broth (2.5% dilution). Panelists were tasked with identifying the distinct sample. Those who identified the cup containing diluted fish broth were retained for organoleptic quality evaluation. For the present study, 8 tasters were selected, and the procedures and expectations of the evaluation were explained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTasting and evaluation of the organoleptic quality of the fish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTastings took place in one session in a room. Tasters were familiarized with technical terms (odour, taste, acceptability) and then tasted cooked fish from various rations. To avoid bias, they ate bread and drank water between tastings. Scores from 1 to 8 were given based on hedonic scale criteria for assessing preference (appendix 1b).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEconomic analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe economic and sustainability variables were calculated based on weight gain and feed utilization. Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was used as a fish growth index of each feed, providing reversed feed conversion ratio (FCR) information about the amount of fish gain obtained with one kg of feed. These parameters were calculated by adapting the protocol of Rawski \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (36) for the Siberian sturgeon. The relative usage values of the marine-derived feed ingredients fish meal (FMU) were calculated according to the following formulae:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFMU\u003c/strong\u003e (g/1 kg of fish gain)=[fishmeal share in the diet (g/kg) \u0026times; (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g))].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFish-in fish-out ratio (FIFO) was calculated as the quantity of live fish from captured fisheries required for each unit of fish produced (36). The following formula was used:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFIFO =\u003c/strong\u003e ((level of fish meal in the diet (g/kg) (g/kg)/ (yield of fish meal from wild fish (g/kg)) \u0026times; (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g)).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine the economic relative efficiency and benefits of the tested diet, we calculated the cost of feed per unit of fish gain, the economic conversion ratio (ECR) and the economic profit index (EPI) using the following formulae by Stejskal \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (37):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eECR\u003c/strong\u003e (FCFA/kg of fish gain) = (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g)) \u0026times; cost of feed (FCFA/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEPI\u003c/strong\u003e (FCFA/fish) = (body weight gain (kg) \u0026times; sale price of live fish (FCFA/kg)) \u0026minus; (body weight gain (kg) \u0026times; (cost of feed (FCFA/kg \u0026times; (feed intake (g)/body weight gain (g)).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe profitability (PRO) was calculated according to the balance of the fish selling price and feed costs per kg of fish gain (ECR). Other costs of fish production were not introduced into the calculation, which was performed according to the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePROs\u003c/strong\u003e (FCFA/kg of fish gain) = sale price of live fish (FCFA/kg) \u0026minus; economic conversion ratio (FCFA/kg of fish gain). 1 FCFA= 650 EURO.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were implemented using SPSS 21.0 software, with the significance level set at \u0026alpha; = 0.05. For data with a normal distribution and homogeneity of variance, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, considering processing methods and BSFLM in the diet as fixed factors. Post hoc tests were performed out using Fisher\u0026rsquo;s LSD tests. The sensory properties of the fish flesh were analysed using descriptive statistics, and the results are presented as relative frequencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch ethics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, ethical aspects in the study were addressed following the guidelines of the University of Dschang. For human-related experiments, experiments, we obtained informed consent from all participants before they participated in the data collection. Participation in this study was voluntary\u0026nbsp;and the\u0026nbsp;participants were assured that their information would be kept confidential.\u0026nbsp;The animals\u0026nbsp;were treated\u0026nbsp;in strict adherence to\u0026nbsp;the animal welfare regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe local ethics committee provided an ethics letter for human use only, as it was not applicable to our use of insects and fish. Moreover, all the procedures performed were part of the routine care for commercial farms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of killing methods on\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ethe\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003echemical and microbial properties of black soldier fly larvae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe nutrient content of BSF larvae was significantly affected (p\u0026lt;0.05) by the killing method (Table 2). Boiling the larvae resulted in significantly higher dry matter and organic matter contents but the lowest crude protein and fat levels (p\u0026lt;0.05). In contrast, the protein content was highest in the larvae that were toasted (p\u0026lt;0.05) compared to all other methods. The killing method significantly affected the mineral content of BSFLM (Table 2). Larvae heated in a steel pan at 100 \u0026deg;C for 5 minutes showed higher K, Na, and P levels (p\u0026lt;0.05) than larvae exposed to sand at 200 \u0026deg;C for 2 minutes, which had the lowest values for these minerals. The highest Ca value (p\u0026lt;0.05) was obtained in sand-toasted larvae.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe microbial composition of BSF larvae also varied with the killing process (Table 2). Enterobacteria and Salmonella were not detected in the toasted or sand\u0026ndash;toasted. However, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e was present in all samples and was most abundant in the sand-toasted larvae. Additionally, Lactobacilli were detected only in the boiled larvae.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2:\u003c/strong\u003e Chemical and microbial characteristics of black soldier fly larvae processed using three different processing methods.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"612\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eToasting\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSand toasting\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBoiling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 378px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProximate composition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDry matter (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.23b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.61b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.19a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrganic matter (%DM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.09a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.00b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.55a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ash (%DM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.92b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.00a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.46b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCrude protein (%DM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.74a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.17c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.26b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFat (%DM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.80b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.67a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.69c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 378px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMineral composition (mg/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1082.33c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3842.66a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1406.33b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1306.77a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1117.34b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1164.46a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e647.90a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e465.89c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e449.04b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.28b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.29a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.54c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e407.53b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e341.76a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e403.50b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 267px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMicrobial load (CFU)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnterobacteria\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e05x10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10x10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e02x10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003ec\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLactobacillus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e02x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSalmonella\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal flora\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20x10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e04x10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e07x10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean values within a row followed by different letters are significantly different (p\u0026lt;0.05) according to Duncan\u0026rsquo;s multiple range test for post hoc analysis. DM: dry matter; SEM: Standard error of the mean; p: Probability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;of full-fat black soldier fly larval meal on catfish growth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 presents the impact of different dietary levels of black soldier fly larval meal (BSFLM) on the growth performance of catfish over 120 days. No mortality was recorded during the trial in the groups fed the standard commercial diet (CD), BSFLM75, or BSFLM100. In contrast, the local diet (BSFLM0) had the lowest survival rate (94.44) compared to the other treatments, except BSFLM50. Although the commercial diet resulted in the greatest body weight gain, specific growth rate, total and standard lengths, and lowest FCR, these parameters were significantly improved at higher levels of inclusion levels of BSFLM (BSFLM75 and BSFLM100) compared to the local control diet (BSFLM0).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe BSFLM0 diet, which contained conventional protein resources, had the lowest feed intake (p\u0026lt;0.05) among all diets. The highest FCR was recorded in the BSFLM50 group, where 50% of the fish meal was replaced with BSFLM. The specific growth rate increased with higher levels of BSFLM in the diet, peaking at 75%, before declining at 100% inclusion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3:\u003c/strong\u003e Growth performance of African catfish fed experimental diets containing full-fat black soldier larvae meal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"739\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 417px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiets\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM75\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSurvival (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.44\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.22\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeed intake (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e145.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e152.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e157.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e135.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial weight (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.04\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.22\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.21\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.107\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinal live weight (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92,38\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20,25\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58,79\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79,29\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74,67\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeight gain (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.34\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12,03\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49,29\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70,29\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65,460\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeed conversion ratio\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecific growth rate (%/day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal length (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.21\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.17\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.43\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.17\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.71\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandard length (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.92\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.56\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.34\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.54\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.67\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 188px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCondition K\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea, b, c: Mean values within a row followed by different letters are significantly different (p\u0026lt;0.05) according to Duncan\u0026rsquo;s multiple range test for post hoc analysis. CD: Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local food without BSF meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal. SEM: standard error of the mean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe weekly changes in the live body weight of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e exhibited a similar pattern across all groups throughout the trial (Figure 1). However, from the third week onward, the body weight of fish fed higher levels of BSFLM diets consistently remained higher than those in the BSFLM0 group (Figure 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 1:\u003c/strong\u003e Mean weight changes of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e as affected by BSFLM on a biweekly basis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCD: commercial diet; BSFLM0: local feed without BSFLM; BSFLM 50: diet containing 50% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal; BSFLM 75: ration containing 75% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal; BSFLM100: ration containing 100% BSFLM as a substitute for fish meal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffect of black soldier fly larvae meal on\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;the\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;viscerosomatic and hepatosomatic indices\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe viscerosomatic index (VSI) increased with higher levels of BSFLM in the diet (Table 4). The lowest VSI was recorded in the group fed the standard commercial (CD) diet, although it was still significantly higher than that in the group fed the BSFLM50 diet. Contrarily, the hepatosomatic index (HSI) decreased with the inclusion of BSFLM, with the highest HSI value recorded in the group fed the standard diet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4:\u003c/strong\u003e Effects of BSFLM inclusion in African catfish diets on viscerosomatic and hepatosomatic indices\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"747\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSomatic index\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 475px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiet\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM75\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eViscerosomatic index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.70\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.29\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.53\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.8\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.75\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17,63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHepatosomatic index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea and b: a, b, c: Mean values within a row followed by different letters are significantly different (p\u0026lt;0.05) according to Duncan\u0026rsquo;s multiple range test as post hoc analysis CD; Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local feed without BSFLM meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal. SEM: standard error of the mean.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTaste and acceptance of catfish meat among consumers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMost consumers found the taste of the fish to be pleasant across all diets (Table 5), except for the BSFLM75 diet, where only 49% of panelists reported a pleasant taste. Additionally, 12.5% of tasters rated fish fed the standard commercial diet as bad, a perception not reported for any other diet in the study. The smell of the fish was generally rated as good by most consumers, regardless of the diet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, panelists consumed more than 70% of the fish for all diets. The fish fed the BSFLM75 diet received unanimous appreciation from all panelists for its overall quality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eTaste and acceptance of catfish meat among consumers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"659\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModality\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 435px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiets\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM 50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM 75\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM 100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJuiciness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlavour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGood\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBad\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePleasant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eColour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYellowish\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePink\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12,5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcceptability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCD: Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local feed without BSFLM meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEconomic\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eviability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dietary inclusion of BSFLM reduced the cost of catfish production and increased profitability. The BSFLM75 and BSFLM100 diets had lower feed costs and feed intake and resulted in lower feed cost, feed intake, and the highest profitability value (Table 6). Similarly, the cost of producing 1 kg of insect-based catfish feed and the overall feed intake cost were lower for BSFLM diets than for the Coppens diet. However, feed conversion efficiency was significantly higher (p\u0026lt;0.05) with the Coppens diet compared to the BSFLM0 (0% BSFLM) and BSFLM100 (100% BSFLM) diets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6:\u003c/strong\u003e Effects of BSFLM incorporation in African catfish diets on profitability and sustainability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"731\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 392px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiets\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM75\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBSFLM100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 731px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProfitability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeed efficiency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProfitability (FCFA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 211.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e730.5\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 545.3\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 397.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 311.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeed cost (FCFA/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 500.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e316.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e598.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e431.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e437.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e656.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCost of feed intake (FCFA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e217.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 731px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSustainability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFish meal utilization\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e671.4\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e699.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e384.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e166.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e419.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 217px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFIFO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea, b and c: Means in a row with the same superscript are not significantly different (p\u0026lt;0.05). CD: Commercial diet; BSFLM0: Local feed without MSN meal; BSFLM 50: Ration containing 50% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM 75: Ration containing 75% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; BSFLM100: Ration containing 100% BSFLM in the substitution of fish meal; FIFO: fish-in-fish-out ratio; SEM: standard error of the mean.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSustainability of the catfish rearing system\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe inclusion of BSFLM as a substitute for fishmeal improved the sustainability of the catfish-rearing system (Table 6). As the level of BSFLM in the diet increased, there was a linear decrease in the fish-in-fish-out (FIFO) ratio (Figure 2). This relationship was highly significant, with a coefficient of determination of 98%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2:\u003c/strong\u003e Relationship between the inclusion level of BSFLM and the Fish-in-Fish-Out (FIFO) ratio, depicting the unsustainability of the catfish breeding system.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we investigated the potential of black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM) as a sustainable alternative to the traditional protein ingredient such as fishmeal (FM) in the diet of African catfish (\u003cem\u003eClarias gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e). Our findings show that substituting FM with BSFLM, particularly at higher substitution levels (75\u0026ndash;100%), significantly enhanced catfish growth rates, feed conversion ratios, and survival rates. Additionally, different larval processing methods influenced the chemical composition and microbial quality of BSF larvae, with boiling and toasting methods optimizing nutritional content while maintaining safety levels. Economic analysis demonstrated that replacing FM with BSFLM reduced feed costs and increased profitability, while sustainability metrics, such as the fish-in-fish-out ratio, were notably improved, underscoring the viability of BSFLM as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly protein source for aquaculture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo fully harness the value of BSFLM as a sustainable alternative to FM, it is crucial to standardize its production processes, particularly the methods used for killing the larvae. The processing method significantly influences the nutritional quality and safety of the larvae meal. In this study, we found that the nutritional composition of BSF larvae was affected by the different processing methods applied, consistent with previous research indicating that larval pretreatment methods can affect their nutrient profile (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, the dry matter content in all treatments was below 95%, which aligns with the 98% reported by Makkar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e) for BSF larvae subjected to similar conditions. However, this value was higher than the 85% observed in BSF larvae dried for 3 hours at 70\u0026deg;C, suggesting that differences in killing and drying methods, as well as variations in larval feeding regimes, may account for these discrepancies. Indeed, the moisture content of the larvae is known to vary according to the feeding substrate (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e) and the pretreatment method (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting the need for standardized processing to optimize the nutritive value of BSF larvae.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the processing methods tested, toasting resulted in the highest protein levels in the larvae, likely due to the rapid cooking time that minimizes protein degradation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the lower protein levels observed in sand-toasted larvae can be attributed to protein denaturation caused by the intense heat generated by this method. Boiling also resulted in reduced protein content compared to toasting, which could be due to the prolonged exposure to heat and the extended drying time required, as noted by Mohd-Noor et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). These findings underscore the impact of killing methods on the nutritional quality of BSF larvae, further emphasizing the need for process standardization to maximize its nutritional benefits in aquaculture feed formulations. The fat contents of the larvae ranged from 8.7 to 16.7%. The fat content of pretreated larvae is lower than that reported by Zulkifli \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). This could be due to the age at harvest of the larvae (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e) and the rearing substrate (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). The BSFLM is an excellent source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals. These minerals can be altered depending on different pretreatments (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). The highest ash content was observed in sand-toasted larvae, likely due to the uptake of minerals from the sand during the toasting process. In contrast, boiled larvae had the lowest ash, calcium, and phosphorus levels, which can be attributed to mineral loss through leaching into the boiling water, as reported by Zhen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e) and supported by similar findings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e). The elevated calcium levels in sand-toasted larvae may also result from the absorption of minerals from the sand used during pretreatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the current study, the microbial load of the larvae was affected by the killing method. The presence of a wide range of microorganisms in the insect digestive tract could contribute to the level of contamination in the larvae since they are processed whole without evisceration due to their small size (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). Compared with the boiling method, simple toasting and sand toasting reduced \u003cem\u003eEnterobacterial\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e loads. This might have been due to the activity of the water (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e) and the boiling temperature. According to Klunder \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e), boiling time can impact microbial quality; e. g., larvae boiled for 2 min presented a logarithmic reduction in \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas spp\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second segment of this study involved of determining the optimal level of BSFLM in the catfish diet. Inadequate rearing conditions, such as feed composition, can rapidly affect the \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e survival rate. The survival of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e recorded during this experiment was greater than 90%. Therefore, the basic requirements were fulfilled (quality of feed ingredients, permanent renewal of water, and losses of nitrogen, temperature, and pH), as reported by Kara \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e). The replacement of fish meal with 75% BSFLM was found to be as good as the Coppens diet (100% FM) for the survival and growth of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e. This could be explained by the availability of nutrients and palatability of the BSFLM-based diet (48). The lowest survival was recorded with the local diet BSFLM0. This low survival can be attributed to the poor quality of this ingredient on the market.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe growth parameters, including live weight, weight gain, specific growth rate, feed conversion ratio, and feed intake of the fish, were significantly influenced by the level of substitution of FM with BSFLM in the diet of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e. Our findings are consistent with those reported by Fawole et al. (5). In this study, diets in which 50% or 75% of FM was replaced with BSFLM showed significant improvements in weight gain, specific growth rate and survival rate compared to the FM-based diet, highlighting the positive impact of BSFLM on the growth of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e. The poor performance of the BSFLM0 diet can be attributed to the low quality of the FM available in the local market, which is often poorly preserved, leading to the degradation of essential nutrients such as amino acids and vitamins (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). The observed improvement in growth performance in the catfish fed BSFLM in this study may be explained by the relatively high levels of lauric acid in the BSFLM, as reported by de Jessica de Souza et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e). Fortuoso et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e) found that the inclusion of 300 mg of lauric acid per kg in broiler feed resulted in an increase of more than 11% in weight gain and a 6% reduction in the feed conversion ratio. Lauric acid has a strong antimicrobial effect and growth-promoting ability with no toxicity. The present result confirms the observations of Henry \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e) that BSFLM is an excellent ingredient for fish farming. However, the full substitution of fish meal with BSFLM (BSFLM100) led to a decrease in the growth performance of the fish. This could be due to excessive chitin and fat contents. Kroeckel \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e) reported a reduction in nutrient availability and growth performance of turbot (\u003cem\u003ePsetta maxima\u003c/em\u003e) fed a high inclusion level of BSFLM in the presence of chitin. In fact, chitin is a glucosamine polymer that is insoluble in almost all solvents and is a factor causing decreased growth performance and protein utilization in African catfish (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e). Halver and Hardy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e) and Barroso \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e) reported that chitin can have negative effects on nutrient digestibility. Indeed, chitosan, a chitin derivative, is commonly used as a supplement to the weight loss program in humans (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e). Insect chitin impacts nutrient digestibility and reduces the apparent digestibility of dietary protein (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e). High chitin contents at increased inclusion levels of BSF larvae were postulated to affect the digestibility of diets and the growth of fish (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, replacing total fish meal with insect meal is usually unsuccessful, probably because of dietary imbalance or deficiencies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe assessment of nutritional utilization and biochemical composition of feeds can be accomplished from fish morphometric characterization as described by Vatandoust et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e) through organ and tissue indices of a particular fish species. Commonly used organ indices are the hepato-somatic index (HSI) and the viscerosomatic index (VSI), as reported by Sudaporn et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e). The HSI and VSI of \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e fed the experimental diets increased with the increasing dietary level of BSFLM, which indicates that the fish were able to utilize BSFLM in the diet by converting it into muscle, as reported by Marroh and Ekelemu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e) and Sogbesan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e) on the nutrient utilization of housefly meal. However, our results disagree with those of Keri et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e), who recorded a reduction in VSI with BSFLM in the diet. The discrepancy could be due to differences in the biochemical composition of the treatments and the feeding habits of the fish. The different HISs and VSIs indicate that \u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e responds positively to changes in nutritional status, as reported by Ahmad (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e), who studied \u003cem\u003eLitopenaeus vannamei\u003c/em\u003e via the use of grub meal at different levels of incorporation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe consumer considers it a determinant criterion of the freshness of the product (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, more than 70% of the participants reported that the fish had white flesh. BSFLM does not alter flesh colour and can therefore maintain the market quality of fish, as colour is the first qualitative criterion determining the quality and acceptability of commercial fish (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e). The highest degree of yellow colouration was recorded with the commercial diet, in which 30% of the panellists reported yellowish flesh. This observation may be related to the oxidation of fish fed this diet. Singh \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e) reported that lipid oxidation during storage induces yellowish discolouration of the fillet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe juiciness represents the dryness of the meat. We distinguished the initial juiciness, which is perceived at the first bite, and the sustained juiciness. The former is related mainly to the amount of water released during chewing, whereas the latter is related more to the stimulation of salivation due to the presence of lipids in the meat (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e). The main factor influencing juiciness is the water retention capacity of the muscle (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, fish fed a standard local diet (BSFLM) presented the lowest juiciness, whereas those fed the BSFLM100 diet, in which the fish meal was fully replaced, presented the highest value. This could mean that the BSFLM confers a spatial structure to the proteins of the muscle fibres that allow water retention in fish. Our findings are consistent with the results of Zhu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e), who used BSFLM to feed pigs and reported that BSFLM improved the meat quality of pig meat. Moreover, these authors reported that BSFLM increases intramuscular fat and reduces drip loss, which increases meat sensory indices such as juiciness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe perception of flavour involves taste and smell through a complex set of sensations formed by the taste buds of the tongue and aromas perceived retronasally when the product is in the mouth. Flavour is essentially linked to the lipids present in a piece of fish flesh, which provide aromatic compounds during the cooking process (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e). The inclusion of BSFLM in the diet tends to increase flesh flavour up to 75%, where it decreases. This finding can be explained by the amount of intramuscular fat, as explained by Gandemer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, BSFLM contains a high lipid content that can increase a good smell and give muscle meat an ideal taste.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, most of the respondents (70%) accepted fish fed BSFLM The high acceptance of an insect meal-based diet was reported by Szendro \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that 50% of participants in a survey said that they could accept the meat of animals that had consumed insect meal. The high value recorded in our study (75\u0026ndash;100%) compared with those of these authors may be related to the fact that our panellists were all university students who are more aware of the use of insects as feed or food. As reported by Laureati \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e), the willingness to accept meat and fish fed with insect meal is greater among students and university staff than outside the university.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe efficiency of production is affected by two key factors including, cost and profitability. The production cost is strongly related to the cost of the feed. There are current constraints to include BSFLM in animal feed on a large scale because the cost of BSFLM may not be competitive with that of conventional protein meals in many countries. In contrast, BSFLM is an attractive feed ingredient for nutrition in Cameroon because it is a readily available and low-cost substrate for insect rearing. In our study, the introduction of BSFLM considerably reduced the cost of feed intake from 437\u0026ndash;598 CFA francs, which is the price per kg of feed; despite this production cost, we realize that the inclusion of BSFLM reduced the production cost by more than 62.08% for the BSFLM75 treatment compared with the standard feed. This finding is in line with those of Fashina-Bombata and Balogun (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that the cost of producing 1 kg of fly meal is 20% lower than the cost of producing 1 kg of fish meal, leading to a reduction in the cost of animal production. The application of BSFLM offers a good opportunity to develop low-cost fish feeds, especially in developing countries such as Cameroon, where fishmeal is usually imported at a very expensive price (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FIFO ratio has been used to evaluate the ecological efficiency of feed ingredients in aquaculture (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e). The FIFO ratio is the primary measure used to ensure that aquaculture practices do not negatively impact wild fish stocks. In this study, the use of BSFLM induced a reduction in FIFO. Thus, the most sustainable system was recorded with the BSFLM75 and BSFLM100 ratios, which resulted in FIFO values less than 1.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that BSFLM is a viable and sustainable alternative to the traditional feed ingredients such as FM in the diet of African catfish (\u003cem\u003eC. gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e). Replacing FM with BSFLM at levels of 75\u0026ndash;100% boosted catfish growth, feed conversion ratios, and survival rates, and reduced feed costs and increased profitability. The different larval processing methods applied in this study influenced the nutritional composition and microbial quality of BSF larvae, highlighting the need for standardized production processes to optimize their benefits. The sensory qualities of the fish, such as flavour and juiciness, were largely maintained or enhanced with BSFLM, supporting its acceptability among consumers. Moreover, the use of BSFLM reduced the FIFO ratio, indicating improved ecological efficiency and sustainability. Our findings indicate that adopting BSFLM into catfish feed production can help reduce the reliance on the expensive, less sustainable FM, promote more sustainable aquaculture production, and offer economic benefits in Cameroon, where high feed costs and availability significant barriers to large-scale fish farming.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eAOAC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociation of Official Analytical Chemists\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBSFLM\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eblack soldier fly larvae meal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBSF\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eblack soldier fly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eBSFL\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eblack soldier fly larvae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDM\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edry matter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFM\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efish meal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFIFO\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efish-in-fish-out ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSEM\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard error of the mean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ep\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProbability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHSI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehepatosomatic index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eVSI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eviscerosomatic index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCa\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eK\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotassium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNa\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSodium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFe\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhosphorus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;H.K.M. conceived the research idea, designed the study, led data collection, visualization and analysis, interpreted the results, and drafted the manuscript. M.D.C. contributed to the study design, assisted with data collection and analysis, and reviewed the manuscript. D.D. contributed to the study design and revised the manuscript. S.Y.C. contributed to the study design, and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript. D.F.R. and E.T. were involved in the overall study design process. S.A.N. contributed to the writing and revision of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003econsideration Experimental protocols used in this study were approved by the Ethical committee of the Department of Animal Science of the University of Dschang (ECDAS-UDs 23/03/2023/UDs/FASA/DSAES) and was in conformity with the internationally accepted standard ethical guidelines for laboratory animal use and care as described in the European Community guidelines.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe university granted us an ethical waiver for human participation in this study, as previously outlined by the ethics committee. This decision was based on the fact that the feed used in this study was part of routine animal feed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003einterest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that for this article, they have no actual, potential, or perceived conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis project received funding from the Healthy Diet for Africa under the European Commission Horizon Europe Research and Innovation Action programme under grant agreement No. 101083388.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUnited Nation (UN), 2021. \u003cem\u003eThe\u003c/em\u003e World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, \u003cem\u003epublished by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.un.org/en/desa/world-population-projected-reach-98-billion-2050-and-112-billion-2100\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.un.org/en/desa/world-population-projected-reach-98-billion-2050-and-112-billion-2100\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Dijk M., Morley T., Rau M.L. and Yashar S. 2021. A meta-analysis of projected global food demand and population at risk of hunger for the period 2010\u0026ndash;2050. \u003cem\u003eNature Food\u003c/em\u003e 2, 494\u0026ndash;501 (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00322-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s43016-021-00322-9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e FAO, 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome: FAO. doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4060/ca9229en\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4060/ca9229en\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e FAO 2024. 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Fish as feed: Using economic allocation to quantify the Fish In: Fish Out ratio of major fed aquaculture species. \u003cem\u003eAquaculture\u003c/em\u003e, Volume 528,2020, 735474, ISSN 0044-8486.\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735474\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735474\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-animals","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Animals](https://link.springer.com/journal/44338)","snPcode":"44338","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44338/3","title":"Discover Animals","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Aquaculture sustainability, Black soldier fly larvae meal, Alternative protein sources, Fishmeal replacement, African catfish","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5164712/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5164712/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHigh cost and scarcity of feed ingredients have continued to challenge the aquaculture. This present study assessed the potential of black soldier fly (BSF, \u003cem\u003eHermetia illucens\u003c/em\u003e L.) larvae meal (BSFLM) as a sustainable alternative source of animal protein in the diet of African catfish (\u003cem\u003eClarias gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e), a species widely farmed in Cameroon for its breeding potential and economic. Five diet formulations: a control diet with 100% fishmeal (FM, BSFLM0), and diets where FM was substituted at 50% (BSFLM50), 75% (BSFLM75), and 100% (BSFLM100) levels, were compared. Larvae of BSF were processed using three different methods: toasting, sand toasting, and boiling. Parameters assessed included the chemical and microbial properties of BSF larvae, catfish growth performance, health, consumer acceptance and economic viability of substituting FM with BSFLM. Our results demonstrate that boiling larvae significantly increased the dry and organic matter contents but reduced crude protein (CP) and fat levels, whereas toasting increased CP. Mineral content varied across processing methods: sand toasting had the highest calcium, boiling the highest iron, and toasting the highest potassium, sodium, and phosphorus levels. Sand-toasted larvae had the highest \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e levels, \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus\u003c/em\u003e was present only in boiled larvae, and there were no \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteria\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003ein toasted or sand-toasted samples. At higher levels (75-100%), BSFLM improved catfish growth rates, feed conversion ratio, and survival compared to the control. Replacing FM with BSFLM also reduced production costs, increased profitability, and enhanced sustainability, as indicated by a lower fish-in-fish-out ratio. Inclusion of BSFLM significantly enhances the sustainability potential of aquaculture practices by reducing reliance on wild-caught fish for feed. Overall, BSFLM is a suitable alternative protein source that can support economic viability and environmental sustainability of aquaculture, promoting resilient fish farming practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Enhancing aquaculture sustainability and profitability: Effects of black soldier fly larval meal on the performance of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Cameroon","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-16 06:25:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5164712/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-11-15T04:55:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-11-14T21:53:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-11-12T16:20:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"52039847067598896809721579965265624960","date":"2024-11-07T18:00:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"38191574744841895976697588137852635185","date":"2024-11-07T14:09:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-11-06T17:30:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"225417789143100386992216019452918257252","date":"2024-10-29T17:38:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"252653993481783970029898011685638886791","date":"2024-10-26T23:16:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-10-24T21:16:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"65257477340249720966727489949003006208","date":"2024-10-24T18:55:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"213140245442082023988775452019894306561","date":"2024-10-24T14:00:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-10-24T09:46:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-10-22T04:08:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-10-21T07:23:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Animals","date":"2024-09-27T11:14:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-animals","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Animals](https://link.springer.com/journal/44338)","snPcode":"44338","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44338/3","title":"Discover Animals","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c4485d89-ad4d-4868-b260-18041982207f","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 16th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-24T05:54:26+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-16 06:25:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5164712","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5164712","identity":"rs-5164712","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}