Web-Based Single-Session Intervention for Parenting: Efficacy and Predictors

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Segal, Angelika A. Suyanto, Janet W.T. Mah This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9013335/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background : Multi-week web-based interventions and in-person single-session interventions (SSIs) have been found to be effective approaches to improving parenting practices in families of children with behavioral and mental health challenges. However, less is known about how well single-session webinars can impact parenting. Additionally, data regarding potential predictors that affect the effectiveness of parenting interventions have been largely inconclusive and conflicting. Objective : This study aims to examine the effectiveness of a 1-hour web-based SSI for parenting child behavior problems and explore possible predictors. Method : 100 parents of children aged 3 to 12 years were recruited from the community. They completed self-report measures on parenting, child behavior problems, and demographics before, and 4 weeks after, watching the webinar. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to evaluate pre-post differences, while correlations and linear and multiple regressions were used to evaluate predictors. Results : There were significant improvements in parenting confidence in managing daily child behaviors, parenting skills, and child problem behaviors after parents watched the web-based SSI. Parents who had greater improvements post-treatment were those who spent less years in Canada, those in single-parent households, those with younger children, and those whose children had less severe behavioral problems pre-treatment. Conclusions : The results of this study have implications for developing, enhancing, and targeting mental health resources to maximize access and benefit for families. Future studies should aim to utilize more objective measures of outcomes and include a control group to better assess the causal impact of the treatment. parenting webinar single-session intervention child behavior problems externalizing behaviors Highlights • A 1-hour web-based parenting SSI improved confidence and reduced over-reactivity at 4-week follow-up. • Child conduct problems significantly decreased after the single-session webinar. • Parents newer to Canada showed greater gains in parenting satisfaction. • Single parents and parents of younger children demonstrated greater treatment benefit. • Findings support scalable, low-cost SSI models to expand access to parenting supports. Introduction Externalizing behavior problems, such as oppositionality, aggression, and hyperactivity, are among the most common challenges in childhood, and they have a detrimental effect on both the child and those around them, such as increased risk for academic struggles, violence, and substance abuse in adolescence and adulthood (Liu, 2004 ; Petersen, 2024 ; Kretschmer et al., 2022 ). Parents can play a critical role in helping to address these behaviors, as parenting practices have been directly linked to the development and maintenance of children’s externalizing behaviors (Elam & DiLalla, 2022 ; Eilertsen et al., 2022 ). Previous research shows that parental training interventions produce positive outcomes for both the children exhibiting externalizing behaviors and their parents (Tully & Hunt, 2015; Baumel, Mathur, & Muench, 2021; Patterson, Forgatch, & DeGarmo, 2010 ); however, accessing these mental health services if often fraught with challenges. Along with geographical, financial, and social barriers, many treatment programs run for multiple sessions and require a lengthy time commitment from families that is often not feasible (Cardamone-Breen et al., 2018 ). In response to these barriers, the use of single-session interventions (SSIs) has become more popular in addressing a variety of mental health concerns in children and adolescents (McDanal et al., 2022 ; Thompson et al., 2024 ; Schleider et al., 2023 ; Shroff et al., 2023 ). Single Session Parenting Interventions In 2016, Tully and Hunt conducted a meta-analysis of nine brief parenting interventions targeting various child externalizing behaviors, eight of which found significant improvements in child behavior and/or parenting measures. Of those eight, three studies used single-session models which produced significant results. These studies each consisted of a single 2-hour in-person session, and results were evaluated immediately following the intervention and 6 months later. Compared to waitlist controls, the intervention groups demonstrated lower child problem intensity scores, lower dysfunctional parenting scores, better performance on self-efficacy, confidence, and strategic parenting measures, most of which were maintained at 6-month follow-up (Dittman et al., 2016 ; Joachim et al., 2010 ; Morawska et al., 2014 ). Another study examined the effectiveness of an in-person SSI for parent management training by comparing three groups: a 7-hour training group facilitated by two trained group leaders followed by 11 weeks of self-administration, an 11-week program also facilitated by two trained group leaders, and a waitlist control group (Kling, Forster, Sundell, & Melin, 2010 ). Although significant improvements in parenting and child behavior outcomes were observed in both intervention groups compared to the control group, the 11-week intervention group demonstrated the greatest treatment effects at post-treatment and 6-month follow-up. These findings are consistent with previous research showing that SSIs are generally less effective compared to longer treatments or those providing greater support (Calam et al., 2008 ; Sanders et al., 2008 ; Sourander et al., 2018 ; Day & Sanders, 2018 ). However, SSIs offer an effective, shorter-term, and more accessible treatment option for families that may not have access to more intensive programs. It is clear from previous research that a single-session intervention aimed at improving parenting practices can be an effective treatment for children with externalizing behaviors. However, the problem of accessibility still exists for families who live in rural communities, lack the time and resources to travel for services, or who face stigma related to accessing in-person services. Given the ever-expanding reach of technology and online resources, SSIs delivered through an online format could represent a promising and accessible option for families. Web-based Parenting Interventions There are many examples of interventions that have used technology to address mental health, behavioral, and parenting challenges, although most have consisted of multiple sessions over several weeks. Studies that have implemented web-based parenting interventions typically run across 5 to 12 weekly sessions via webinars or video episodes (Calam et al., 2008 ; Sourander et al., 2018 ; Day & Sanders, 2018 ; Russell & Lincoln, 2017 , Wetterborg et al., 2019 ). These studies reported significant improvements in child behavior, dysfunctional parenting, parental anger and depression, family warmth and conflict, and parenting self-efficacy measures. Participants who received more materials and greater support (e.g., telephone reminders to complete modules, coaches available for feedback and questions, additional resources such as workbooks) demonstrated greater improvements that were better maintained at 6-month follow-up compared to participants who completed the intervention with less guidance; nevertheless, positive improvements were observed in both groups. In fact, Russell and Lincoln ( 2017 ) found that parents who completed even a single session showed significant decreases in hostile parenting. Web-based SSI Unfortunately, there is limited research published on web-based SSI for parenting interventions for child externalizing problems. Research by Jans, Sotomayor, and Schleider ( 2024 ) revealed that out of 24 web-based SSIs, only two catered to parents. First, in 2018, Cardamone-Breen and colleagues conducted a web-based SSI aimed at improving parenting practices to prevent adolescent depression and anxiety disorders. Participants completed a one-time online assessment of their current parenting practices and were given evidence-based feedback on their specific practices and tailored information on how to reduce their child’s risk of anxiety and depression. They found that parenting risk factors significantly decreased compared to waitlist controls, with results maintained at 3-month follow-up. In the second study, Bailin and Bearman ( 2022 ) developed a self-directed web-based SSI (Parenting A to Z; PAZ) aimed at promoting positive parenting among caregivers of 1- to 8-year-olds. Although PAZ did not lead to significant improvements in children’s disruptive behaviors, parental stress, self-efficacy or parenting knowledge of effective practices, the effect size for parental stress was comparable to that seen in longer, more intensive interventions. Clearly, there is a need to further examine web-based SSIs targeting parents of children up to age 12 years with behavioral difficulties. Demographic Predictors Beyond exploring whether SSIs are effective, it is also important to understand which families benefit most from this type of resource. Examining predictors of treatment response helps clarify for whom and under what conditions treatments work (Kraemer, Frank, & Kupfer, 2006 ). Although several potential variables have been observed in past studies of parent training interventions for child externalizing behaviors, much of the evidence remains inconclusive and conflicting, prompting the need for further investigation. Age Kling et al. ( 2010 ) found that younger mothers showed significantly greater improvements in parenting practices following a multi-session intervention. Further, parenting interventions often show greater benefit for younger children, as their behavior tends to be more directly impacted by their parents compared to older children (Deković & Stoltz, 2015 ; Seabra-Santos et al., 2016 ; Grusec, 2011 ; Comer et al., 2013 ; Gardner, Hutchings, Bywater, & Whitaker, 2010 ; Kling et al., 2010 ). However, some studies have failed to find age-related effects. For example, Lundahl, Risser, and Lovejoy ( 2006 ) reported that age did not moderate treatment outcomes in their meta-analysis, though effect sizes were greater for younger children, and suggested that parent training may be robust to age-related differences. Similarly, Beauchaine, Webster-Stratton, and Reid ( 2005 ) found no effect of age but noted that their upper age limit of 8 years old may not have captured the developmental period, namely adolescence, during which age-related effects are more reliably observed. Severity of initial child problem behavior Children with greater initial severity of behaviors have been shown to benefit more from treatment in multiple studies (Lundahl, Risser, & Lovejoy, 2006 ; Reyno & McGrath, 2006 ; Menting, de Castro, & Matthys, 2013 ; Leijten, Raaijmakers, de Castro, & Matthys, 2013 ; Deković and Stoltz., 2015, Wetterborg et al., 2019 ). However, one study found that lower baseline levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity were associated with greater likelihood of treatment response in a behavioral intervention trial for ADHD (Owens et al., 2018 ). Gender Boys tend to show greater behavior changes following parenting intervention compared to girls (Fossum et al., 2009 ; Gardner et al., 2010 ; Stoltz et al., 2013 ), which may be conflated with greater severity of symptoms (Deković & Stoltz, 2015 ). However, other studies have found no treatment differences between genders (Beauchaine et al., 2005 ), and one found that girls exhibited greater reductions in negative behaviors and overall family conflict compared to boys (Wetterborg et al., 2019 ). Ethnic/Cultural background Prior reviews have found no significant effect of cultural background as a predictor or moderator of parenting intervention outcomes (Dedousis-Wallace et al., 2020 ; Deković & Stoltz, 2015 ). Although the static factor of culture alone does not play a predictive role, the more dynamic factor of acculturation and the family’s process of adapting to a new cultural context may play a more direct role in predicting parenting intervention outcomes. Cultural standards dictate many social norms, including having a strong influence on child-rearing practices (Grusec, 2011 ). Consequently, factors such as the length of time a family has lived in a new country can influence the extent to which parents adhere to their heritage culture versus the dominant culture. Challenges in reconciling differing cultural norms may, in turn, also influence a child’s responsiveness to treatment (Yasui & Dishion, 2007 ). For instance, more acculturated Spanish-speaking Latinx families benefited less from a parenting intervention than their English-speaking counterparts (Ramos et al., 2023 ), while families with low acculturation benefited less from parent-involved cognitive-behavioral treatment for Latino youth (Vaclavik et al., 2017 ). Sociodemographic Factors Research indicates that lower-income, less-educated, and single parents often benefit less from parent training sessions compared to those of higher-income, higher-education, and two-parent households (Lundahl, Risser, & Lovejoy, 2006 ; Reyno & McGrath, 2006 ; Leijten et al., 2013 ), although Menting, de Castro, & Matthys ( 2013 ) did not find the same pattern for single parents. Study Objectives Web-based SSIs offer a valuable alternative to more traditional, in-person, multi-session treatment interventions, and are accessible to a wide range of populations. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of a webinar SSI targeting parenting practices to manage externalizing problem behaviors in children. In addition, we explored the demographic characteristics of participants (i.e., child and parent age, child and parent gender, acculturation, socioeconomic status, and severity of initial child symptoms) as possible predictors to better understand which groups benefited most from this SSI. We hypothesize that parenting skills and confidence levels, as well as child behaviors, will improve after SSI. In addition, we hypothesize that parents of younger children, parents that are younger in age themselves, parents of children with greater initial severity of symptoms, parents of boys, and families of higher socioeconomic status and two-parent households will show greater improvements. Finally, we predict that parents’ acculturation level will affect their response to treatment, although it is unclear from previous data if it will hinder or enhance the effects of treatment. Methods Participants Participants were a community-based sample of parents of children ages 3–12 years. This age range was selected to capture the developmental period during which externalizing behaviors typically emerge and to enable comparison of intervention effectiveness across early and middle childhood. Recruitment occurred through flyers, e-newsletters, and social media channels through child and family community centres and mental health networks across the province of British Columbia, Canada. We also recruited via a provincial organization that connects researchers with interested potential participants. Interested parents initiated contact with the research assistant who confirmed their eligibility and obtained informed consent to participate in the study. Inclusion criteria were: 1) Parents/primary caregivers of children aged 3–12 years old and whose children struggle with disruptive behavior problems. The child did not have to be diagnosed or have met a specific cut-off score, but were required to display either oppositional behavior and/or angry or aggressive outbursts according to parent report; 2) The parent/primary caregiver required sufficient ability to understand English to complete the study measures; 3) The parent/primary caregiver required internet access to complete the SSI and online surveys. Out of 244 individuals recruited, 21 did not complete the baseline surveys and 123 participants did not complete the 4-week follow-up surveys. The final sample consisted of 100 parents, the majority of whom were Caucasian mothers in dual-parenting households. See Table 1 for demographic details. A power analysis conducted in G*Power revealed that this final sample (N = 100) was sufficiently powered to detect medium-sized effects (Cohen’s d = 0.5) at α = 0.05 for changes in parenting variables and child behavior outcomes. Independent samples t-tests revealed that there were no differences between study dropouts and completers on demographic variables such as child age, t (242) = − .84, p = .402; parent age, t (242) = 0.49, p = .624; conduct problems, t (210) = -1.33, p = .187, years in Canada, t (242) = − .60, p = .551 and there was no association between completion status and child gender, χ² (1, N = 244) = 0.15, p = .702, or parent gender, χ² (2, N = 244) = 2.26, p = .324. Table 1 Participant Characteristics Variables N M SD Range Child age 6.52 2.53 3–12 Parent age 39.25 5.23 24–52 Child gender Male 69 Female 31 Parent gender Male 5 Female 95 Parent ethnicity Caucasian 67 East Asian 12 Other 20 Missing 1 Marital status Dual parenting 89 Single parenting 11 Parent education High school/Trade school/Some post-secondary 34 Post-secondary 38 Graduate school 28 Parent annual income Less than $ 50,000 8 $ 50,000 - $ 100,000 34 $ 100,000 - $ 200,000 38 More than $ 200,000 16 Missing 4 Child conduct problems at baseline 4.10 1.94 0–9 Mainstream cultural identification 79.44 24.53 0-100 Missing 9 Years in Canada 34.71 10.10 3–52 Measures We used four quantitative validated survey instruments for pre- and post- SSI parenting and child outcomes. The Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC; (Johnston & Mash, 1989 ) is a 17-item scale used to assess parenting satisfaction and efficacy (i.e., the level of confidence a parent has in their own parenting capabilities). It is intended for use by parents of children aged 0–17 and uses a 6-point Likert Scale (“Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree”). Internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha. In the current sample, internal consistency was acceptable to good across subscales: Satisfaction (9 items, α = 0.77), Efficacy (7 items, α = 0.84), and Total Average (17 items, α = 0.86). The Parenting Tasks Checklist (Sanders & Woolley, 2005 ) is a 28-item checklist that measures parental confidence in dealing with child problem behaviors (Behavior Self-Efficacy subscale) and their confidence in dealing with these behaviors in various settings (Setting Self-Efficacy subscale). Participants are asked to fill this checklist out using a confidence rating of 0-100 (0 meaning “Certain I can’t do it” and 100 meaning “Certain I can do it”). In the current sample, internal consistency was excellent for both subscales: Behavior (14 items, α = 0.89) and Setting (14 items, α = 0.95). The Parenting Scale (Arnold, O’Leary, Wolff, & Acker, 1993 ) is a 30-item questionnaire that primarily aims to measure dysfunctional parenting styles based on laxness, overreactivity, and verbosity. Each question asks about specific scenarios and how the parent would typically react in the past 2-month period, using a 7-point Likert Scale. In the current sample, internal consistency was good for the Total scale (30 items, α = 0.83). Given alpha is influenced by scale length, the Spearman-Brown correction was computed for subscales with 5 or less items to estimate the expected reliability if factors comprised 10 items (e.g., Rhoades &O’Leary, 2010). Corrected alpha values for the subscales were as follows: Laxness = .86, Over-reactivity = .86, and Hostility = .64. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 2001 ) is a 33-item questionnaire that measures total difficulties, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer problems, and pro-social behavior of the child. Questions are answered on a 3-point Likert Scale (ie. “Not True”, “Somewhat True”, or “Certainly True”). The Spearman-Brown correction was similarly computed for all SDQ subscales, which all had 5 or less items. Corrected alpha values were as follows: Hyperactivity = .88, Emotional Symptoms = .84, Prosocial Behavior = .84, Impact = .80, Peer Problems = .78, Conduct Problems = .73, and Total Difficulties = .64. In addition, participants were asked at baseline to complete a survey collecting demographic details such as age, marital status, ethnic background, gender, socioeconomic status. At post-webinar, parents’ expectations of effectiveness and acceptability of the SSI was evaluated using the 9-item Treatment Evaluation Inventory Short Form (TEI-SF; Kelley et al., 1989 ). Items were rated on a 5-point Likert type scale, with higher scores indicating greater treatment acceptability. Acceptability scores on the TEI-SF range from 9–45, with moderate acceptability considered as a score of 27. Procedure This study was reviewed and approved by the institution research ethics board (redacted for anonymity). Participants completed measures online via Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap), a secure platform for administering surveys and managing databases (Harris et al., 2009 ). The study design is a nonexperimental, single‑group pre–post observational design. Outcome measures of parenting and child behavior were completed at two timepoints: i) at baseline before SSI, and ii) at 4 weeks after completing the webinar SSI. The web-based SSI used in this study was a recorded 1-hour webinar, delivered by a clinical child psychologist, presenting evidence-based strategies to manage child behavioral difficulties based on behavioral parent training. Topics included using praise and child-led play to foster positive relationships, environmental and instructional prevention tools (e.g., visual aids, transition warnings, choices), teaching emotion regulation skills of validation, relaxation, and collaborative problem solving, and responding to functions of behavior with sensory adaptations, differential attention, incentives, and setting limits. After viewing the webinar, participants completed a short 7-item multiple-choice quiz to review understanding of the presented strategies. Participants were able to review the online webinar at any time and as many times as they wished. At 4-weeks follow-up, participants were also asked if they’ve received any other parenting interventions or child mental health services since baseline. The surveys took approximately 30 minutes to complete at each timepoint, and participants received a $ 15 e-gift card and a handout summarizing the webinar content after completing the study. Analyses All analyses were conducted using SPSS version 31, with a Type I error rate of .05. Available case analysis was used, such that participants without observed outcomes (i.e. those with incomplete data) were excluded. First, we conducted paired samples t-tests to evaluate pre- and post- SSI differences in parenting and child outcomes to determine the efficacy of the webinar. Additionally, due to multiple comparisons, we applied the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure to limit the false discovery rate to 0.05. Next, we calculated change scores for the outcome variables that yielded significant changes pre- to post intervention. Change scores were computed as post minus pre, so positive values indicate improvement for outcomes where higher scores reflect better functioning (e.g., PSOC), whereas negative values indicate improvement for outcomes where higher scores reflect greater difficulties (e.g., parenting scale over-reactivity). We then conducted correlations between the outcome change scores and the demographic variables. Finally, we conducted linear and multiple regressions to examine the unique contributions of the demographic variables on parenting and child outcomes. Results The webinar SSI was rated as highly acceptable by participants ( M = 34.94; SD = 6.10) based on the TEI-SF. Parenting beliefs and practices and child behavior problems were compared before and after the webinar SSI. See Table 2 for results. Parenting confidence in managing daily child behaviors, total parenting practices (particularly with regards to parental over-reactivity), and child conduct problem behaviors significantly improved after parents received the webinar SSI. There were no significant changes in other child emotions or behaviors, total parenting sense of competence, parenting confidence in daily child settings, nor in the other parenting dimensions of laxness and hostility. Table 2 Parenting and Child Outcomes Before and After Single Session Intervention (SSI) Measure Pre-SSI Post-SSI df t p Cohen’s d M SD M SD PSOC Satisfaction 33.55 7.15 34.44 7.75 96 1.90 .061 0.19 Efficacy 25.52 6.15 26.54 6.73 96 1.95 .055 0.20 Total Average 3.77 0.71 3.87 .83 96 1.99 .050 0.20 Parenting Tasks Behavior 65.02 19.93 72.03 19.21 98 4.87 < .001* 0.49 Setting 78.73 14.73 79.60 17.03 99 0.65 .521 0.06 Parenting Scale Laxness 2.64 1.07 2.57 1.05 99 -0.98 .328 0.10 Over-reactivity 3.72 1.24 3.39 1.30 99 -3.54 < .001* 0.35 Hostility 1.60 0.80 1.55 0.81 99 -0.74 .463 0.07 Total Score 94.11 20.07 88.20 22.25 99 -4.75 < .001* 0.48 SDQ Emotional 3.35 2.46 3.26 2.40 99 -0.56 .580 0.06 Conduct 4.10 1.94 3.77 2.12 99 -2.56 .012* \(0.26\) Hyperactivity 7.08 2.47 7.00 2.48 99 -0.51 .610 0.05 Peer 2.87 2.24 2.74 2.34 99 -0.92 .362 0.09 Prosocial 6.06 2.14 6.13 2.39 99 0.39 .695 0.04 Impact 3.54 2.34 3.46 2.58 99 -0.44 .662 0.04 Total Difficulties 17.40 5.83 16.77 6.46 99 -1.75 .083 0.17 Note . PSOC = Parenting Sense of Competence; SDQ = Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; M indicates mean; SD indicates Standard Deviation. Raw p-values are displayed. Cohen’s d values were directionally adjusted so that positive values reflect improvement for all measures * Indicates p -values that remained significant after Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate correction (FDR = .05). Twenty-five percent of the participants reported receiving extra intervention at the 4-week follow-up timepoint. Extra intervention received was only correlated with pre-post changes in parental over-reactivity ( r (102) = .226, p = .024) and not significantly related to any other outcome variables in this study. When extra intervention was controlled for in a repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) regarding pre-post changes in over-reactivity, the results remained consistent with the results reported above, with a significant main effect of time (F (1, 97) = 20.02, p < .001, n2 = .171) in which parents improved in over-reactivity after receiving SSI ( M = 3.37, SD = 1.29) compared to before ( M = 3.71, SD = 1.25). We then conducted correlations between the demographic variables and the outcome variables that had significant changes following the SSI (Table 3 ). We found several significant correlations, including fewer years in Canada being associated with greater improvements in parenting satisfaction, and more severe child behavioral difficulties at baseline being associated with smaller gains in parental satisfaction. We also found that being separated or divorced was associated with greater improvements in parental confidence in managing child behavior, and that younger child age was associated with greater reductions in over-reactivity. We also found several correlations approaching significance. Being a female parent and being a parent from a minority background were each associated with greater improvement in parenting efficacy, and greater identification with the dominant culture was associated with greater improvement in parenting satisfaction. In addition, fewer years spent in Canada was associated with greater improvement in parenting over-reactivity, and more severe child behavioral difficulties at baseline was associated with less improvement in total behavioral difficulties. Table 3 Correlations Between Demographic Variables and Outcome SSI Change Scores Child age PSOC Satisfaction PSOC Efficacy Parenting Tasks Behavior Parenting Scale Over-reactivity Parenting Scale Total Scale Score SDQ Conduct SDQ Total Difficulties .042 − .004 .154 .241* .132 − .152 − .141 Parent age − .013 − .018 .072 .075 .033 − .048 − .048 Child gender − .092 .112 − .019 .048 .038 .064 .105 Parent gender − .126 − .191† − .085 .072 .121 .095 − .011 Parent ethnicity .105 .182† .163 − .151 − .078 .047 − .079 Mainstream cultural identification .182† .023 .059 − .114 − .157 .034 .139 Years in Canada − .211* − .090 − .150 .167† .056 .090 .074 Marital Status .078 .119 .200* − .044 − .165 − .084 − .143 Annual Income .049 − .005 .025 .029 − .031 − .078 .029 Parent education .145 − .030 .090 − .103 − .118 .020 .061 Pre-conduct − .203* − .077 − .129 .161 .127 − .181† .035 Note . PSOC = Parenting Sense of Competence; SDQ = Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire * p <.05, † p <.10 To determine the unique contributions of demographic variables on outcome changes post-SSI, we used a more liberal criterion and included all demographic variables that showed correlations at p<.10 as predictors in the linear and multiple regression models. Years spent in Canada and initial child conduct problem severity were unique and significant predictors of changes in parent satisfaction. Specifically, parents who spent fewer years in Canada and parents of children with less severe initial conduct problems experienced greater gains in parenting satisfaction (Table 4 ). Changes in parenting confidence in managing child behavior was significantly predicted by marital status, such that non-married caregivers exhibited greater improvement in parenting confidence (Table 5 ). Finally, changes in parental over-reactivity were uniquely and significantly impacted by child age, such that parents of younger children showed greater improvement in over-reactivity (Table 6 ). Regression models were also conducted to examine predictors of PSOC Efficacy, PSOC Total Average, and SDQ Conduct difference scores. None of the models were statistically significant: PSOC Efficacy, F (3, 92) = 1.97, p = .12, R² = .06; SDQ Conduct, F (1, 98) = 3.33, p = .07, R² = .03. Table 4 PSOC Satisfaction SSI Change Score B SE β t (87) p 95%CI Lower Upper Mainstream cultural identification .04 .02 .19 1.87 .09 − .00 .07 Years in Canada − .09 .04 − .21 -2.05 .04* − .17 − .00 Pre-conduct − .47 .24 − .20 -1.98 .05* − .95 .00 Model Summary \({R}^{2}\) =.13 F = 4.22 p =.01* *p<.05 Table 5 Parenting Tasks Behavior SSI Change Score B SE β t (98) p 95%CI Lower Upper Marital status 9.07 4.52 .20 2.01 .05* .10 18.04 Model Summary \({R}^{2}\) =.04 F = 4.02 p =.05* *p<.05 Table 6 Parenting Scale Over-reactivity SSI Change Score B SE β t (99) p 95%CI Lower Upper Child age .08 .04 .22 2.23 .02* .01 .15 Years in Canada .01 .01 .13 1.33 .10 − .01 .03 Model Summary \({R}^{2}\) =.08 F = 3.94 p =.02* *p<.05 Discussion This study is among the first to evaluate the effectiveness of a webinar SSI for parents whose children struggle with behavioral difficulties. As hypothesized, parents exhibited significant improvements in confidence in managing daily child behaviors and reductions in parenting over-reactivity, and there were significant improvements in child problem behaviors following participation in the web-based SSI. The intervention also demonstrated high acceptability ratings. Our findings align with previous research demonstrating that brief parenting interventions targeting externalizing behaviors can produce meaningful benefits for both parents and children, including enhanced parenting confidence, greater use of strategic parenting approaches, and reductions in problematic child behaviors (Dittman et al., 2016 ; Joachim et al., 2010 ; Morawska et al., 2014 ). Whereas previous brief interventions have been primarily delivered in person, our study addresses an important gap in the literature by demonstrating that a web-based format can yield significant improvements in parent and child outcomes related to externalizing behaviors. Despite only offering one hour of content related to parenting strategies and having no direct contact with a therapist, the SSI produced meaningful improvements in both parent and child outcomes. The greatest effects were observed for parenting confidence in managing child behaviors and reductions in over-reactivity, which is consistent with the nature of the SSI as focused on behavioral parent training. The SSI provided parents with concrete, practical strategies that were easy to apply, and the observed improvements in child behavior align with theoretical frameworks suggesting that even early shifts to dysfunctional parenting behaviors can elicit improvements in children’s behavioral responses (Patterson, 1982 ). Furthermore, the observed high acceptability scores for the SSI suggest that the webinar format was well-received, which supports the feasibility of brief, low-cost, scalable online resources for parents facing challenges with children’s externalizing behavior and barriers to accessing in-person care. Not all parenting dimensions demonstrated improvements. For example, hostility and laxness remained largely unchanged following the intervention, which may reflect the intervention’s focus on behavior management strategies that primarily target reactive discipline patterns. Dimensions such as hostility and laxness represent more entrenched attitudes and broader parenting styles, which may require more intensive, multi-session interventions to achieve meaningful change (Gagné et al., 2023 ). Similarly, although significant improvements were observed in overall child behavior problems, emotional problem areas did not show change, which reflects the intervention’s narrower focus on strategies for addressing externalizing behaviors rather than internalizing symptoms. We also explored which demographic variables were significant predictors of treatment outcome and found that fewer years in Canada, single-parent households, younger child age, and lower severity of baseline child behavioral problems were unique predictors. Notably, years in Canada emerged as a unique predictor, whereas the variable reflecting level of acculturation – mainstream culture identification – did not. This distinction highlights that the amount of time a family has resided in Canada and level of acculturation represent related but conceptually distinct constructs, as it is possible for families to reside in Canada for many years without integrating into the mainstream culture. Parents who spent fewer years in Canada exhibited greater improvement in parenting satisfaction after SSI. Previous research suggests that immigrant parents of children with developmental disorders often experience higher parental stress and lower satisfaction compared to their native-born counterparts (Hoang & Seung, 2022 ), which can contribute to increased child problem behaviors (Chung et al., 2013 ). Furthermore, immigrant parents typically face additional barriers in accessing mental health care and resources (Tulli et al, 2020 ) and often prefer short web-based resources (Tongol, 2025). Therefore, our webinar SSI may have improved parenting satisfaction for parents who are newer to Canada by providing them with resources to support their children in a practical and accessible manner. As predicted, younger child age was associated with greater improvements in parenting over-reactivity. Furthermore, our study also found that less severe pre-webinar child behavioral problems was associated with greater improvements following the webinar. These findings are consistent with previous research showing that younger children tend to exhibit less entrenched externalizing symptoms, which become more pronounced and resistant to change with age (Bernazzani, Cote, & Tremblay, 2001). Consequently, at younger ages, children’s behavior may be more amenable to change when parents receive appropriate supportive resources, which in turn may help reduce parental over-reactivity by interrupting maladaptive reinforcement cycles. Disruptive behavior in young children has been linked to maladaptive parenting, suggesting that positive changes in parenting are likely to result in corresponding improvements in children’s behavior (Hoge, Guerra, & Boxer, 2008 ). In contrast, as children enter adolescence, behavior challenges become increasingly associated with peer influence and less responsive to changes in parenting (Dishion, Bullock, & Granic, 2002 ). When parents experience less reinforcement around their own behavior change, this may result in smaller reductions in over-reactivity. Given that the parenting intervention appeared particularly beneficial for parents of younger children and those with milder behavioral challenges, it is likely that children with more severe behavioral problems may benefit from more intensive, structured, and multi-modal treatment approaches (e.g., behavioral psychotherapy and/or medications). Research conducted on children with externalizing disorders has found that structured, multi-session parent training programs can be effective in improving children’s behavior outcomes (Williford & Shelton, 2014 ). Furthermore, including multiple parties such as parents, children, and teachers in behavioral training can reduce severe externalizing symptoms both in the home context and more broadly (Webster-Stratton, 2001 ; Webster-Stratton & Herman, 2010 ). For example, results from a meta-analysis examining the effectiveness of parent training with and without the child involved found larger intervention effects when children with clinical-level externalizing problems were involved in the treatment (Helander et al., 2024 ). In addition to behavioral approaches, findings from a systematic pharmacological review support the effectiveness of psychostimulant medication in reducing disruptive and aggressive behaviors in children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, or conduct disorder (Pringsheim, Hirsch, Gardner, & Gorman, 2015 ). Contrary to our hypothesis, this study found that being in a single-parent household was associated with greater improvements in parenting confidence when managing children’s behavior. Single parents are disproportionately affected by family health problems, which can undermine parents’ confidence in their parenting role (Ontai et al, 2008 ). By reducing barriers such as work disruptions, transportation demands, and scheduling difficulties, the SSI’s accessible parenting support may be particularly impactful for single parents. Improved access to these resources can strengthen parenting confidence, which is closely linked to more effective and positive parenting practices (Jones & Prinz, 2005 ). Although previous research has suggested that younger parents, parents of boys, and families with higher socioeconomic status may benefit more from parenting interventions, we did not observe these effects. These findings, although not in line with our predictions, contribute to the literature on predictors of parenting interventions and suggest that the SSI may be broadly effective across these demographic groups. It is worth considering that the one-hour webinar in the current study condensed a large amount of content, offering a broad overview of strategies typically presented over several weeks in more intensive parent training programs. The amount of information, combined with the broad scope of the strategies presented, may have made it difficult for parents to retain, implement, and practice the strategies. SSIs that more narrowly target a specific parenting issue may yield greater results. For example, Sanders, Parent, and Forehand ( 2018 )’s piloted an SSI that specifically targeted managing children’s screen time and demonstrated promising results. There are several limitations to this study. First, the exclusive reliance on parental self-report data may have introduced measurement error including social desirability and recall biases. Additionally, there was a high rate of incomplete survey responses at the 4-week follow-up, after families received the SSI but before the final study timepoint. This is a common challenge in survey-based research, as average survey response rates are typically below 60% (Teague et al, 2018 ), but it may also reflect a self-selection bias with families who found the webinar helpful or enjoyable being more motivated to complete the study. Finally, the lack of a control group makes it difficult to determine whether there were other factors, besides the webinar alone and controlling for other treatment received, that could have contributed to the observed effects. Future research in this area should consider designing web-based SSIs that more effectively target behavioral problems in older children, use study designs that incorporate objective behavioral measures and control groups, and recruit more diverse samples to improve the generalizability and applicability of the findings. Clinical Implications Findings from the current study indicate that offering a brief, web-based SSI may serve as an accessible, low-intensity support for parents of children with externalizing behavior difficulties. Specifically, parents demonstrated significant improvements in confidence managing daily child behaviors and reductions in parenting over-reactivity following participation in the webinar, alongside modest improvements in child conduct problems. Possible applications of this intervention include early-stage support, such as offering it to families in placed on waitlists for services so that they can have access to evidence-based strategies that can be immediately implemented while they wait for care, or as a first step in a stepped-care model for families who may not require additional intensive services (Wade, 2023; Schleider, Dobias, Sung, & Mullarkey, 2020 ). Receiving a smaller dose of a more comprehensive intervention while waiting for services has also been shown to increase families’ motivation to participate in services when they reach the top of the waitlist (Keegan et al., 2024 ), which could be another potential application of the web-based SSI model. However, given the single-group, pre-post design and exclusive reliance on parent-report, results should be interpreted with caution, as this design limits causal inference and introduces the possibility of reporting bias. As such, given the available evidence, SSI should not be considered a replacement for multi-session parenting programs when higher intensity of services is warranted. The findings also suggest that the webinar SSI may be broadly applicable across several demographic groups, as improvements were observed regardless of parent age, parent gender, child gender, and socioeconomic status. The generalizability of our findings, however, is constrained by our sample demographics, as our sample predominantly consisted of white, two-parent, high-income families. Thus, further exploration of more diverse populations’ experience with and outcomes following a web-based SSI are needed. Our exploratory subgroup analyses indicated that specific groups exhibited greater benefit from the intervention, such as parents who spent fewer years in Canada, single parents, and parents of younger children with less severe behavioral difficulties at baseline. Thus, while the core components of the SSI may generalize across settings, effectiveness may also depend on specific family characteristics. Given these findings, SSI may be most effective when implemented early in the developmental trajectory of externalizing behaviors. For families of older children or those with more severe behavioral difficulties, the SSI may require further adaptation or being used with additional supports, such as multi-session parent training, child-involved interventions, or school-based components. Further adaptations may also be implemented to enhance the effectiveness of the SSI fort diverse populations. Given the observed association between fewer years in Canada and greater gains in parenting satisfaction, future versions of the SSI may benefit from incorporating culturally responsive examples, translated materials, or other strategies for increasing the accessibility of the materials for culturally diverse families. Declarations Author Contribution Conceptualization: JWTM; Methodology: JWTM; Formal analysis: SCS, AAS; Investigation: JWTM; Writing – original draft preparation: AAS; Writing – review and editing: SCS, JWTM; Funding acquisition: JWTM. Acknowledgement AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank the participants of the study for devoting their time into our research. Thanks to Kelty Mental Health Resource Centre for hosting the webinar. We would also like to acknowledge the efforts of Aneen Conradie who helped with literature review, and Monica Ho and Adeline Nejaty who supported data collection. Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, (redacted for anonymity), upon reasonable request. References Arnold, D. S., O’Leary, S. G., Wolff, L. S., & Acker, M. M. (1993). The Parenting Scale: A measure of dysfunctional parenting in discipline situations. 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The ethnic context of child and adolescent problem behavior: Implications for child and family interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 10 (2), 137–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-007-0021-9 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9013335","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":600978745,"identity":"2905b09b-40c9-4492-935f-53f827ff575f","order_by":0,"name":"Shira C. Segal","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCcYGKIu58QGDAYOBBDOQJFILY7MBkVrgLMY2ENsASODXIj+7ue3DD4Y6OXn3g22VPwrsjCXbmTd/YKixw6nF4M7B5pk9DIeNDc8ktt3mMUg2k2ZmK5NgOJaMW4tEYjMDD8OBxI0NQC0MBgds5Jh5zBgYG5hxO2xGYjPjH4a6+o39D9sKf0C0GH9gbKjH7Zkbic3MPAzMCfISiW0MPAYHgA7jMQAG42HcDgNpkTE4bLhB4mGzNNAvxpLNQL8kHDuOx2HpjxnfVNTJy/cnH/z444+d4Yzzhzd/+FBTjdthELuA6ACyQAIBDRDrGohRNQpGwSgYBSMSAAArsE4FhcQLhgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"British Columbia Children's Hospital","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shira","middleName":"C.","lastName":"Segal","suffix":""},{"id":600978754,"identity":"fab3f0c4-fb21-48f8-a105-4edb37b986fe","order_by":1,"name":"Angelika A. Suyanto","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"British Columbia Children's Hospital","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Angelika","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Suyanto","suffix":""},{"id":600978761,"identity":"bcbeca11-5d28-4eb3-86c0-a1b1b1da5714","order_by":2,"name":"Janet W.T. Mah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"British Columbia Children's Hospital","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Janet","middleName":"W.T.","lastName":"Mah","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-02 19:38:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9013335/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9013335/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104402891,"identity":"13331944-194e-4584-a438-ad0ed91af43e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:16:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1152868,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9013335/v1/3c9e182a-f49f-46fd-a95f-95916e438e7d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Web-Based Single-Session Intervention for Parenting: Efficacy and Predictors","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; A 1-hour web-based parenting SSI improved confidence and reduced over-reactivity at 4-week follow-up.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Child conduct problems significantly decreased after the single-session webinar.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Parents newer to Canada showed greater gains in parenting satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Single parents and parents of younger children demonstrated greater treatment benefit.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Findings support scalable, low-cost SSI models to expand access to parenting supports.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eExternalizing behavior problems, such as oppositionality, aggression, and hyperactivity, are among the most common challenges in childhood, and they have a detrimental effect on both the child and those around them, such as increased risk for academic struggles, violence, and substance abuse in adolescence and adulthood (Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Petersen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Kretschmer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Parents can play a critical role in helping to address these behaviors, as parenting practices have been directly linked to the development and maintenance of children\u0026rsquo;s externalizing behaviors (Elam \u0026amp; DiLalla, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Eilertsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Previous research shows that parental training interventions produce positive outcomes for both the children exhibiting externalizing behaviors and their parents (Tully \u0026amp; Hunt, 2015; Baumel, Mathur, \u0026amp; Muench, 2021; Patterson, Forgatch, \u0026amp; DeGarmo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e); however, accessing these mental health services if often fraught with challenges. Along with geographical, financial, and social barriers, many treatment programs run for multiple sessions and require a lengthy time commitment from families that is often not feasible (Cardamone-Breen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In response to these barriers, the use of single-session interventions (SSIs) has become more popular in addressing a variety of mental health concerns in children and adolescents (McDanal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Thompson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Schleider et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Shroff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSingle Session Parenting Interventions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, Tully and Hunt conducted a meta-analysis of nine brief parenting interventions targeting various child externalizing behaviors, eight of which found significant improvements in child behavior and/or parenting measures. Of those eight, three studies used single-session models which produced significant results. These studies each consisted of a single 2-hour in-person session, and results were evaluated immediately following the intervention and 6 months later. Compared to waitlist controls, the intervention groups demonstrated lower child problem intensity scores, lower dysfunctional parenting scores, better performance on self-efficacy, confidence, and strategic parenting measures, most of which were maintained at 6-month follow-up (Dittman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Joachim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Morawska et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother study examined the effectiveness of an in-person SSI for parent management training by comparing three groups: a 7-hour training group facilitated by two trained group leaders followed by 11 weeks of self-administration, an 11-week program also facilitated by two trained group leaders, and a waitlist control group (Kling, Forster, Sundell, \u0026amp; Melin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Although significant improvements in parenting and child behavior outcomes were observed in both intervention groups compared to the control group, the 11-week intervention group demonstrated the greatest treatment effects at post-treatment and 6-month follow-up. These findings are consistent with previous research showing that SSIs are generally less effective compared to longer treatments or those providing greater support (Calam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sanders et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sourander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Day \u0026amp; Sanders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, SSIs offer an effective, shorter-term, and more accessible treatment option for families that may not have access to more intensive programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is clear from previous research that a single-session intervention aimed at improving parenting practices can be an effective treatment for children with externalizing behaviors. However, the problem of accessibility still exists for families who live in rural communities, lack the time and resources to travel for services, or who face stigma related to accessing in-person services. Given the ever-expanding reach of technology and online resources, SSIs delivered through an online format could represent a promising and accessible option for families.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWeb-based Parenting Interventions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are many examples of interventions that have used technology to address mental health, behavioral, and parenting challenges, although most have consisted of multiple sessions over several weeks. Studies that have implemented web-based parenting interventions typically run across 5 to 12 weekly sessions via webinars or video episodes (Calam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sourander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Day \u0026amp; Sanders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Russell \u0026amp; Lincoln, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Wetterborg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These studies reported significant improvements in child behavior, dysfunctional parenting, parental anger and depression, family warmth and conflict, and parenting self-efficacy measures. Participants who received more materials and greater support (e.g., telephone reminders to complete modules, coaches available for feedback and questions, additional resources such as workbooks) demonstrated greater improvements that were better maintained at 6-month follow-up compared to participants who completed the intervention with less guidance; nevertheless, positive improvements were observed in both groups. In fact, Russell and Lincoln (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) found that parents who completed even a single session showed significant decreases in hostile parenting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eWeb-based SSI\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnfortunately, there is limited research published on web-based SSI for parenting interventions for child externalizing problems. Research by Jans, Sotomayor, and Schleider (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that out of 24 web-based SSIs, only two catered to parents. First, in 2018, Cardamone-Breen and colleagues conducted a web-based SSI aimed at improving parenting practices to prevent adolescent depression and anxiety disorders. Participants completed a one-time online assessment of their current parenting practices and were given evidence-based feedback on their specific practices and tailored information on how to reduce their child\u0026rsquo;s risk of anxiety and depression. They found that parenting risk factors significantly decreased compared to waitlist controls, with results maintained at 3-month follow-up. In the second study, Bailin and Bearman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) developed a self-directed web-based SSI (Parenting A to Z; PAZ) aimed at promoting positive parenting among caregivers of 1- to 8-year-olds. Although PAZ did not lead to significant improvements in children\u0026rsquo;s disruptive behaviors, parental stress, self-efficacy or parenting knowledge of effective practices, the effect size for parental stress was comparable to that seen in longer, more intensive interventions. Clearly, there is a need to further examine web-based SSIs targeting parents of children up to age 12 years with behavioral difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDemographic Predictors\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond exploring whether SSIs are effective, it is also important to understand \u003cem\u003ewhich families\u003c/em\u003e benefit most from this type of resource. Examining predictors of treatment response helps clarify for whom and under what conditions treatments work (Kraemer, Frank, \u0026amp; Kupfer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Although several potential variables have been observed in past studies of parent training interventions for child externalizing behaviors, much of the evidence remains inconclusive and conflicting, prompting the need for further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAge\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKling et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) found that younger mothers showed significantly greater improvements in parenting practices following a multi-session intervention. Further, parenting interventions often show greater benefit for younger children, as their behavior tends to be more directly impacted by their parents compared to older children (Deković \u0026amp; Stoltz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Seabra-Santos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Grusec, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Comer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Gardner, Hutchings, Bywater, \u0026amp; Whitaker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Kling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). However, some studies have failed to find age-related effects. For example, Lundahl, Risser, and Lovejoy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) reported that age did not moderate treatment outcomes in their meta-analysis, though effect sizes were greater for younger children, and suggested that parent training may be robust to age-related differences. Similarly, Beauchaine, Webster-Stratton, and Reid (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) found no effect of age but noted that their upper age limit of 8 years old may not have captured the developmental period, namely adolescence, during which age-related effects are more reliably observed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSeverity of initial child problem behavior\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChildren with greater initial severity of behaviors have been shown to benefit more from treatment in multiple studies (Lundahl, Risser, \u0026amp; Lovejoy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Reyno \u0026amp; McGrath, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Menting, de Castro, \u0026amp; Matthys, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Leijten, Raaijmakers, de Castro, \u0026amp; Matthys, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Deković and Stoltz., 2015, Wetterborg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, one study found that lower baseline levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity were associated with greater likelihood of treatment response in a behavioral intervention trial for ADHD (Owens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGender\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys tend to show greater behavior changes following parenting intervention compared to girls (Fossum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Gardner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Stoltz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), which may be conflated with greater severity of symptoms (Deković \u0026amp; Stoltz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, other studies have found no treatment differences between genders (Beauchaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), and one found that girls exhibited greater reductions in negative behaviors and overall family conflict compared to boys (Wetterborg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthnic/Cultural background\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior reviews have found no significant effect of cultural background as a predictor or moderator of parenting intervention outcomes (Dedousis-Wallace et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Deković \u0026amp; Stoltz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Although the static factor of culture alone does not play a predictive role, the more dynamic factor of acculturation and the family\u0026rsquo;s process of adapting to a new cultural context may play a more direct role in predicting parenting intervention outcomes. Cultural standards dictate many social norms, including having a strong influence on child-rearing practices (Grusec, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, factors such as the length of time a family has lived in a new country can influence the extent to which parents adhere to their heritage culture versus the dominant culture. Challenges in reconciling differing cultural norms may, in turn, also influence a child\u0026rsquo;s responsiveness to treatment (Yasui \u0026amp; Dishion, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, more acculturated Spanish-speaking Latinx families benefited less from a parenting intervention than their English-speaking counterparts (Ramos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), while families with low acculturation benefited less from parent-involved cognitive-behavioral treatment for Latino youth (Vaclavik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSociodemographic Factors\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch indicates that lower-income, less-educated, and single parents often benefit less from parent training sessions compared to those of higher-income, higher-education, and two-parent households (Lundahl, Risser, \u0026amp; Lovejoy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Reyno \u0026amp; McGrath, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Leijten et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), although Menting, de Castro, \u0026amp; Matthys (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) did not find the same pattern for single parents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Objectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeb-based SSIs offer a valuable alternative to more traditional, in-person, multi-session treatment interventions, and are accessible to a wide range of populations. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of a webinar SSI targeting parenting practices to manage externalizing problem behaviors in children. In addition, we explored the demographic characteristics of participants (i.e., child and parent age, child and parent gender, acculturation, socioeconomic status, and severity of initial child symptoms) as possible predictors to better understand which groups benefited most from this SSI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe hypothesize that parenting skills and confidence levels, as well as child behaviors, will improve after SSI. In addition, we hypothesize that parents of younger children, parents that are younger in age themselves, parents of children with greater initial severity of symptoms, parents of boys, and families of higher socioeconomic status and two-parent households will show greater improvements. Finally, we predict that parents\u0026rsquo; acculturation level will affect their response to treatment, although it is unclear from previous data if it will hinder or enhance the effects of treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were a community-based sample of parents of children ages 3\u0026ndash;12 years. This age range was selected to capture the developmental period during which externalizing behaviors typically emerge and to enable comparison of intervention effectiveness across early and middle childhood. Recruitment occurred through flyers, e-newsletters, and social media channels through child and family community centres and mental health networks across the province of British Columbia, Canada. We also recruited via a provincial organization that connects researchers with interested potential participants. Interested parents initiated contact with the research assistant who confirmed their eligibility and obtained informed consent to participate in the study. Inclusion criteria were: 1) Parents/primary caregivers of children aged 3\u0026ndash;12 years old and whose children struggle with disruptive behavior problems. The child did not have to be diagnosed or have met a specific cut-off score, but were required to display either oppositional behavior and/or angry or aggressive outbursts according to parent report; 2) The parent/primary caregiver required sufficient ability to understand English to complete the study measures; 3) The parent/primary caregiver required internet access to complete the SSI and online surveys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOut of 244 individuals recruited, 21 did not complete the baseline surveys and 123 participants did not complete the 4-week follow-up surveys. The final sample consisted of 100 parents, the majority of whom were Caucasian mothers in dual-parenting households. See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for demographic details. A power analysis conducted in G*Power revealed that this final sample (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100) was sufficiently powered to detect medium-sized effects (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5) at α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 for changes in parenting variables and child behavior outcomes. Independent samples t-tests revealed that there were no differences between study dropouts and completers on demographic variables such as child age, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(242)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.84, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .402; parent age, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(242)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.49, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .624; conduct problems, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(210) = -1.33, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .187, years in Canada, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(242)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.60, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .551 and there was no association between completion status and child gender, \u003cem\u003eχ\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e(1, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;244)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .702, or parent gender, \u003cem\u003eχ\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e(2, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;244)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.26, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .324.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipant Characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u0026ndash;52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaucasian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEast Asian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMissing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDual parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh school/Trade school/Some post-secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGraduate school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent annual income\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e50,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e50,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e100,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e100,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e200,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e200,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMissing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild conduct problems at baseline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMainstream cultural identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0-100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMissing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears in Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used four quantitative validated survey instruments for pre- and post- SSI parenting and child outcomes. The Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC; (Johnston \u0026amp; Mash, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) is a 17-item scale used to assess parenting satisfaction and efficacy (i.e., the level of confidence a parent has in their own parenting capabilities). It is intended for use by parents of children aged 0\u0026ndash;17 and uses a 6-point Likert Scale (\u0026ldquo;Strongly Disagree\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;Strongly Agree\u0026rdquo;). Internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha. In the current sample, internal consistency was acceptable to good across subscales: Satisfaction (9 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.77), Efficacy (7 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.84), and Total Average (17 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.86).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Parenting Tasks Checklist (Sanders \u0026amp; Woolley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) is a 28-item checklist that measures parental confidence in dealing with child problem behaviors (Behavior Self-Efficacy subscale) and their confidence in dealing with these behaviors in various settings (Setting Self-Efficacy subscale). Participants are asked to fill this checklist out using a confidence rating of 0-100 (0 meaning \u0026ldquo;Certain I can\u0026rsquo;t do it\u0026rdquo; and 100 meaning \u0026ldquo;Certain I can do it\u0026rdquo;). In the current sample, internal consistency was excellent for both subscales: Behavior (14 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89) and Setting (14 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.95).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Parenting Scale (Arnold, O\u0026rsquo;Leary, Wolff, \u0026amp; Acker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e) is a 30-item questionnaire that primarily aims to measure dysfunctional parenting styles based on laxness, overreactivity, and verbosity. Each question asks about specific scenarios and how the parent would typically react in the past 2-month period, using a 7-point Likert Scale. In the current sample, internal consistency was good for the Total scale (30 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.83). Given alpha is influenced by scale length, the Spearman-Brown correction was computed for subscales with 5 or less items to estimate the expected reliability if factors comprised 10 items (e.g., Rhoades \u0026amp;O\u0026rsquo;Leary, 2010). Corrected alpha values for the subscales were as follows: Laxness = .86, Over-reactivity = .86, and Hostility = .64.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) is a 33-item questionnaire that measures total difficulties, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer problems, and pro-social behavior of the child. Questions are answered on a 3-point Likert Scale (ie. \u0026ldquo;Not True\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Somewhat True\u0026rdquo;, or \u0026ldquo;Certainly True\u0026rdquo;). The Spearman-Brown correction was similarly computed for all SDQ subscales, which all had 5 or less items. Corrected alpha values were as follows: Hyperactivity = .88, Emotional Symptoms = .84, Prosocial Behavior = .84, Impact = .80, Peer Problems = .78, Conduct Problems = .73, and Total Difficulties = .64.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, participants were asked at baseline to complete a survey collecting demographic details such as age, marital status, ethnic background, gender, socioeconomic status.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt post-webinar, parents\u0026rsquo; expectations of effectiveness and acceptability of the SSI was evaluated using the 9-item Treatment Evaluation Inventory Short Form (TEI-SF; Kelley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e). Items were rated on a 5-point Likert type scale, with higher scores indicating greater treatment acceptability. Acceptability scores on the TEI-SF range from 9\u0026ndash;45, with moderate acceptability considered as a score of 27.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e This study was reviewed and approved by the institution research ethics board (redacted for anonymity). Participants completed measures online via Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap), a secure platform for administering surveys and managing databases (Harris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The study design is a nonexperimental, single‑group pre\u0026ndash;post observational design. Outcome measures of parenting and child behavior were completed at two timepoints: i) at baseline before SSI, and ii) at 4 weeks after completing the webinar SSI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe web-based SSI used in this study was a recorded 1-hour webinar, delivered by a clinical child psychologist, presenting evidence-based strategies to manage child behavioral difficulties based on behavioral parent training. Topics included using praise and child-led play to foster positive relationships, environmental and instructional prevention tools (e.g., visual aids, transition warnings, choices), teaching emotion regulation skills of validation, relaxation, and collaborative problem solving, and responding to functions of behavior with sensory adaptations, differential attention, incentives, and setting limits. After viewing the webinar, participants completed a short 7-item multiple-choice quiz to review understanding of the presented strategies. Participants were able to review the online webinar at any time and as many times as they wished. At 4-weeks follow-up, participants were also asked if they\u0026rsquo;ve received any other parenting interventions or child mental health services since baseline.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe surveys took approximately 30 minutes to complete at each timepoint, and participants received a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e15 e-gift card and a handout summarizing the webinar content after completing the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll analyses were conducted using SPSS version 31, with a Type I error rate of .05. Available case analysis was used, such that participants without observed outcomes (i.e. those with incomplete data) were excluded. First, we conducted paired samples t-tests to evaluate pre- and post- SSI differences in parenting and child outcomes to determine the efficacy of the webinar. Additionally, due to multiple comparisons, we applied the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure to limit the false discovery rate to 0.05. Next, we calculated change scores for the outcome variables that yielded significant changes pre- to post intervention. Change scores were computed as post minus pre, so positive values indicate improvement for outcomes where higher scores reflect better functioning (e.g., PSOC), whereas negative values indicate improvement for outcomes where higher scores reflect greater difficulties (e.g., parenting scale over-reactivity). We then conducted correlations between the outcome change scores and the demographic variables. Finally, we conducted linear and multiple regressions to examine the unique contributions of the demographic variables on parenting and child outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe webinar SSI was rated as highly acceptable by participants (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34.94; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.10) based on the TEI-SF. Parenting beliefs and practices and child behavior problems were compared before and after the webinar SSI. See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e for results. Parenting confidence in managing daily child behaviors, total parenting practices (particularly with regards to parental over-reactivity), and child conduct problem behaviors significantly improved after parents received the webinar SSI. There were no significant changes in other child emotions or behaviors, total parenting sense of competence, parenting confidence in daily child settings, nor in the other parenting dimensions of laxness and hostility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting and Child Outcomes Before and After Single Session Intervention (SSI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-SSI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-SSI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSOC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.061\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEfficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Average\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting Tasks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBehavior\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSetting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.521\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaxness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver-reactivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHostility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.463\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.580\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConduct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.012*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(0.26\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHyperactivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.610\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.362\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProsocial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.695\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.662\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. PSOC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Parenting Sense of Competence; SDQ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; M indicates mean; SD indicates Standard Deviation.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaw p-values are displayed. Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d values were directionally adjusted so that positive values reflect improvement for all measures\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e* Indicates \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values that remained significant after Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate correction (FDR = .05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwenty-five percent of the participants reported receiving extra intervention at the 4-week follow-up timepoint. Extra intervention received was only correlated with pre-post changes in parental over-reactivity (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(102) = .226, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .024) and not significantly related to any other outcome variables in this study. When extra intervention was controlled for in a repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) regarding pre-post changes in over-reactivity, the results remained consistent with the results reported above, with a significant main effect of time \u003cem\u003e(F\u003c/em\u003e(1, 97)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, n2 = .171) in which parents improved in over-reactivity after receiving SSI (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.37, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.29) compared to before (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.71, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.25).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe then conducted correlations between the demographic variables and the outcome variables that had significant changes following the SSI (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). We found several significant correlations, including fewer years in Canada being associated with greater improvements in parenting satisfaction, and more severe child behavioral difficulties at baseline being associated with smaller gains in parental satisfaction. We also found that being separated or divorced was associated with greater improvements in parental confidence in managing child behavior, and that younger child age was associated with greater reductions in over-reactivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also found several correlations approaching significance. Being a female parent and being a parent from a minority background were each associated with greater improvement in parenting efficacy, and greater identification with the dominant culture was associated with greater improvement in parenting satisfaction. In addition, fewer years spent in Canada was associated with greater improvement in parenting over-reactivity, and more severe child behavioral difficulties at baseline was associated with less improvement in total behavioral difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelations Between Demographic Variables and Outcome SSI Change Scores\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSOC Satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSOC Efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting Tasks Behavior\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting Scale Over-reactivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting Scale Total Scale Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDQ Conduct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDQ Total Difficulties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.241*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.141\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.072\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.075\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.191\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.085\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.072\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.182\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.079\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMainstream cultural identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.182\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears in Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.211*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.090\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.167\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.090\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.074\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.200*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.084\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual Income\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.090\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.061\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-conduct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.203*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.181\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. PSOC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Parenting Sense of Competence; SDQ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05, \u0026dagger;\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.10\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the unique contributions of demographic variables on outcome changes post-SSI, we used a more liberal criterion and included all demographic variables that showed correlations at p\u0026lt;.10 as predictors in the linear and multiple regression models. Years spent in Canada and initial child conduct problem severity were unique and significant predictors of changes in parent satisfaction. Specifically, parents who spent fewer years in Canada and parents of children with less severe initial conduct problems experienced greater gains in parenting satisfaction (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Changes in parenting confidence in managing child behavior was significantly predicted by marital status, such that non-married caregivers exhibited greater improvement in parenting confidence (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, changes in parental over-reactivity were uniquely and significantly impacted by child age, such that parents of younger children showed greater improvement in over-reactivity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegression models were also conducted to examine predictors of PSOC Efficacy, PSOC Total Average, and SDQ Conduct difference scores. None of the models were statistically significant: PSOC Efficacy, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3, 92)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.97, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .12, \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .06; SDQ Conduct, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 98)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.33, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .07, \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .03.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSOC Satisfaction SSI Change Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(87)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMainstream cultural identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears in Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-conduct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.05*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Summary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({R}^{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e=.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e=.01*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e*p\u0026lt;.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting Tasks Behavior SSI Change Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.05*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Summary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({R}^{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e=.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e=.05*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e*p\u0026lt;.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting Scale Over-reactivity SSI Change Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears in Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Summary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({R}^{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e=.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e=.02*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e*p\u0026lt;.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study is among the first to evaluate the effectiveness of a webinar SSI for parents whose children struggle with behavioral difficulties. As hypothesized, parents exhibited significant improvements in confidence in managing daily child behaviors and reductions in parenting over-reactivity, and there were significant improvements in child problem behaviors following participation in the web-based SSI. The intervention also demonstrated high acceptability ratings. Our findings align with previous research demonstrating that brief parenting interventions targeting externalizing behaviors can produce meaningful benefits for both parents and children, including enhanced parenting confidence, greater use of strategic parenting approaches, and reductions in problematic child behaviors (Dittman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Joachim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Morawska et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Whereas previous brief interventions have been primarily delivered in person, our study addresses an important gap in the literature by demonstrating that a web-based format can yield significant improvements in parent and child outcomes related to externalizing behaviors. Despite only offering one hour of content related to parenting strategies and having no direct contact with a therapist, the SSI produced meaningful improvements in both parent and child outcomes. The greatest effects were observed for parenting confidence in managing child behaviors and reductions in over-reactivity, which is consistent with the nature of the SSI as focused on behavioral parent training. The SSI provided parents with concrete, practical strategies that were easy to apply, and the observed improvements in child behavior align with theoretical frameworks suggesting that even early shifts to dysfunctional parenting behaviors can elicit improvements in children\u0026rsquo;s behavioral responses (Patterson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the observed high acceptability scores for the SSI suggest that the webinar format was well-received, which supports the feasibility of brief, low-cost, scalable online resources for parents facing challenges with children\u0026rsquo;s externalizing behavior and barriers to accessing in-person care.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot all parenting dimensions demonstrated improvements. For example, hostility and laxness remained largely unchanged following the intervention, which may reflect the intervention\u0026rsquo;s focus on behavior management strategies that primarily target reactive discipline patterns. Dimensions such as hostility and laxness represent more entrenched attitudes and broader parenting styles, which may require more intensive, multi-session interventions to achieve meaningful change (Gagn\u0026eacute; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, although significant improvements were observed in overall child behavior problems, emotional problem areas did not show change, which reflects the intervention\u0026rsquo;s narrower focus on strategies for addressing externalizing behaviors rather than internalizing symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also explored which demographic variables were significant predictors of treatment outcome and found that fewer years in Canada, single-parent households, younger child age, and lower severity of baseline child behavioral problems were unique predictors. Notably, years in Canada emerged as a unique predictor, whereas the variable reflecting level of acculturation \u0026ndash; mainstream culture identification \u0026ndash; did not. This distinction highlights that the amount of time a family has resided in Canada and level of acculturation represent related but conceptually distinct constructs, as it is possible for families to reside in Canada for many years without integrating into the mainstream culture. Parents who spent fewer years in Canada exhibited greater improvement in parenting satisfaction after SSI. Previous research suggests that immigrant parents of children with developmental disorders often experience higher parental stress and lower satisfaction compared to their native-born counterparts (Hoang \u0026amp; Seung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which can contribute to increased child problem behaviors (Chung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, immigrant parents typically face additional barriers in accessing mental health care and resources (Tulli et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and often prefer short web-based resources (Tongol, 2025). Therefore, our webinar SSI may have improved parenting satisfaction for parents who are newer to Canada by providing them with resources to support their children in a practical and accessible manner.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs predicted, younger child age was associated with greater improvements in parenting over-reactivity. Furthermore, our study also found that less severe pre-webinar child behavioral problems was associated with greater improvements following the webinar. These findings are consistent with previous research showing that younger children tend to exhibit less entrenched externalizing symptoms, which become more pronounced and resistant to change with age (Bernazzani, Cote, \u0026amp; Tremblay, 2001). Consequently, at younger ages, children\u0026rsquo;s behavior may be more amenable to change when parents receive appropriate supportive resources, which in turn may help reduce parental over-reactivity by interrupting maladaptive reinforcement cycles. Disruptive behavior in young children has been linked to maladaptive parenting, suggesting that positive changes in parenting are likely to result in corresponding improvements in children\u0026rsquo;s behavior (Hoge, Guerra, \u0026amp; Boxer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, as children enter adolescence, behavior challenges become increasingly associated with peer influence and less responsive to changes in parenting (Dishion, Bullock, \u0026amp; Granic, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). When parents experience less reinforcement around their own behavior change, this may result in smaller reductions in over-reactivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven that the parenting intervention appeared particularly beneficial for parents of younger children and those with milder behavioral challenges, it is likely that children with more severe behavioral problems may benefit from more intensive, structured, and multi-modal treatment approaches (e.g., behavioral psychotherapy and/or medications). Research conducted on children with externalizing disorders has found that structured, multi-session parent training programs can be effective in improving children\u0026rsquo;s behavior outcomes (Williford \u0026amp; Shelton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, including multiple parties such as parents, children, and teachers in behavioral training can reduce severe externalizing symptoms both in the home context and more broadly (Webster-Stratton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Webster-Stratton \u0026amp; Herman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). For example, results from a meta-analysis examining the effectiveness of parent training with and without the child involved found larger intervention effects when children with clinical-level externalizing problems were involved in the treatment (Helander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to behavioral approaches, findings from a systematic pharmacological review support the effectiveness of psychostimulant medication in reducing disruptive and aggressive behaviors in children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, or conduct disorder (Pringsheim, Hirsch, Gardner, \u0026amp; Gorman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to our hypothesis, this study found that being in a single-parent household was associated with greater improvements in parenting confidence when managing children\u0026rsquo;s behavior. Single parents are disproportionately affected by family health problems, which can undermine parents\u0026rsquo; confidence in their parenting role (Ontai et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). By reducing barriers such as work disruptions, transportation demands, and scheduling difficulties, the SSI\u0026rsquo;s accessible parenting support may be particularly impactful for single parents. Improved access to these resources can strengthen parenting confidence, which is closely linked to more effective and positive parenting practices (Jones \u0026amp; Prinz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough previous research has suggested that younger parents, parents of boys, and families with higher socioeconomic status may benefit more from parenting interventions, we did not observe these effects. These findings, although not in line with our predictions, contribute to the literature on predictors of parenting interventions and suggest that the SSI may be broadly effective across these demographic groups. It is worth considering that the one-hour webinar in the current study condensed a large amount of content, offering a broad overview of strategies typically presented over several weeks in more intensive parent training programs. The amount of information, combined with the broad scope of the strategies presented, may have made it difficult for parents to retain, implement, and practice the strategies. SSIs that more narrowly target a specific parenting issue may yield greater results. For example, Sanders, Parent, and Forehand (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026rsquo;s piloted an SSI that specifically targeted managing children\u0026rsquo;s screen time and demonstrated promising results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are several limitations to this study. First, the exclusive reliance on parental self-report data may have introduced measurement error including social desirability and recall biases. Additionally, there was a high rate of incomplete survey responses at the 4-week follow-up, after families received the SSI but before the final study timepoint. This is a common challenge in survey-based research, as average survey response rates are typically below 60% (Teague et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), but it may also reflect a self-selection bias with families who found the webinar helpful or enjoyable being more motivated to complete the study. Finally, the lack of a control group makes it difficult to determine whether there were other factors, besides the webinar alone and controlling for other treatment received, that could have contributed to the observed effects. Future research in this area should consider designing web-based SSIs that more effectively target behavioral problems in older children, use study designs that incorporate objective behavioral measures and control groups, and recruit more diverse samples to improve the generalizability and applicability of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClinical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Findings from the current study indicate that offering a brief, web-based SSI may serve as an accessible, low-intensity support for parents of children with externalizing behavior difficulties. Specifically, parents demonstrated significant improvements in confidence managing daily child behaviors and reductions in parenting over-reactivity following participation in the webinar, alongside modest improvements in child conduct problems. Possible applications of this intervention include early-stage support, such as offering it to families in placed on waitlists for services so that they can have access to evidence-based strategies that can be immediately implemented while they wait for care, or as a first step in a stepped-care model for families who may not require additional intensive services (Wade, 2023; Schleider, Dobias, Sung, \u0026amp; Mullarkey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Receiving a smaller dose of a more comprehensive intervention while waiting for services has also been shown to increase families\u0026rsquo; motivation to participate in services when they reach the top of the waitlist (Keegan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which could be another potential application of the web-based SSI model. However, given the single-group, pre-post design and exclusive reliance on parent-report, results should be interpreted with caution, as this design limits causal inference and introduces the possibility of reporting bias. As such, given the available evidence, SSI should not be considered a replacement for multi-session parenting programs when higher intensity of services is warranted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also suggest that the webinar SSI may be broadly applicable across several demographic groups, as improvements were observed regardless of parent age, parent gender, child gender, and socioeconomic status. The generalizability of our findings, however, is constrained by our sample demographics, as our sample predominantly consisted of white, two-parent, high-income families. Thus, further exploration of more diverse populations\u0026rsquo; experience with and outcomes following a web-based SSI are needed. Our exploratory subgroup analyses indicated that specific groups exhibited greater benefit from the intervention, such as parents who spent fewer years in Canada, single parents, and parents of younger children with less severe behavioral difficulties at baseline. Thus, while the core components of the SSI may generalize across settings, effectiveness may also depend on specific family characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven these findings, SSI may be most effective when implemented early in the developmental trajectory of externalizing behaviors. For families of older children or those with more severe behavioral difficulties, the SSI may require further adaptation or being used with additional supports, such as multi-session parent training, child-involved interventions, or school-based components. Further adaptations may also be implemented to enhance the effectiveness of the SSI fort diverse populations. Given the observed association between fewer years in Canada and greater gains in parenting satisfaction, future versions of the SSI may benefit from incorporating culturally responsive examples, translated materials, or other strategies for increasing the accessibility of the materials for culturally diverse families.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: JWTM; Methodology: JWTM; Formal analysis: SCS, AAS; Investigation: JWTM; Writing \u0026ndash; original draft preparation: AAS; Writing \u0026ndash; review and editing: SCS, JWTM; Funding acquisition: JWTM.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgementsWe would like to thank the participants of the study for devoting their time into our research. Thanks to Kelty Mental Health Resource Centre for hosting the webinar. We would also like to acknowledge the efforts of Aneen Conradie who helped with literature review, and Monica Ho and Adeline Nejaty who supported data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, (redacted for anonymity), upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArnold, D. S., O\u0026rsquo;Leary, S. G., Wolff, L. S., \u0026amp; Acker, M. M. (1993). 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Developing the single-session mindset in eating disorder research: Commentary on Schleider et al., 2023 Realizing the untapped promise of single-session interventions for eating disorders. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Eating Disorders, 56\u003c/em\u003e(5), 864\u0026ndash;866. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23930\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/eat.23930\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWebster-Stratton, C. (2001). 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The ethnic context of child and adolescent problem behavior: Implications for child and family interventions. \u003cem\u003eClinical Child and Family Psychology Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(2), 137\u0026ndash;179. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-007-0021-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10567-007-0021-9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"parenting, webinar, single-session intervention, child behavior problems, externalizing behaviors","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9013335/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9013335/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e: Multi-week web-based interventions and in-person single-session interventions (SSIs) have been found to be effective approaches to improving parenting practices in families of children with behavioral and mental health challenges. However, less is known about how well single-session webinars can impact parenting. Additionally, data regarding potential predictors that affect the effectiveness of parenting interventions have been largely inconclusive and conflicting.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective\u003c/strong\u003e: This study aims to examine the effectiveness of a 1-hour web-based SSI for parenting child behavior problems and explore possible predictors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethod\u003c/strong\u003e: 100 parents of children aged 3 to 12 years were recruited from the community. They completed self-report measures on parenting, child behavior problems, and demographics before, and 4 weeks after, watching the webinar. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to evaluate pre-post differences, while correlations and linear and multiple regressions were used to evaluate predictors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e: There were significant improvements in parenting confidence in managing daily child behaviors, parenting skills, and child problem behaviors after parents watched the web-based SSI. Parents who had greater improvements post-treatment were those who spent less years in Canada, those in single-parent households, those with younger children, and those whose children had less severe behavioral problems pre-treatment.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e: The results of this study have implications for developing, enhancing, and targeting mental health resources to maximize access and benefit for families. Future studies should aim to utilize more objective measures of outcomes and include a control group to better assess the causal impact of the treatment.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Web-Based Single-Session Intervention for Parenting: Efficacy and Predictors","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-06 15:10:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9013335/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9c84faf7-48e7-4c53-b2f3-5c95fcbf63a0","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-06T15:10:59+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-06 15:10:59","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9013335","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9013335","identity":"rs-9013335","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}