Richness, endemism and seasonality of horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Forests of the Equatorial Pacific Region of Ecuador

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In this study, general ecological aspects of the Tabanidae family, including richness, endemism, and seasonality, were evaluated. Analyses reveal that approximately 42% of the species recorded for Ecuador are present in the EPR, and out of the 84 species cataloged in the EPR, 6 are endemic, representing an endemism of 7.14%. Furthermore, it was established that tabanid populations in a coastal dry forest significantly increased their population density during the dry season, while decreasing during the wet season. These results provide an initial foundation that can be applied to conservation and public health aspects for future research. dry season wet season insects entomology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction The Tabanidae family ranks among the most abundant Diptera families worldwide, including those in the Neotropics (Coscarón and Papavero 2009 , Henriques et al. 2012 ). Several species within this family are of importance in human and veterinary health, attributable to the hematophagous behavior of females, potentially acting as disease vectors (Mullens 2019 ). However, males play a crucial role in tropical ecosystems through their contributions to pollination (Goldblatt and Manning 2000 ). Consequently, aspects of natural history and behavior within these ecosystems have been historically documented. In Ecuador, several biogeographical divisions and classifications have been proposed (refer to (Sierra 1999 ; Ridgely and Greenfield 2001 ; Freile and Santander 2005 ). Among these, the phytogeographic zone referred to as the Equatorial Pacific Region (EPR) (Peralvo et al. 2007 ; Espinosa et al. 2012 ) aligns predominantly with the Tumbesian or Jama-Zapotillo endemic region in the southern part (Cracraft 1985 ; Loaiza 2013 ) and the Chocó region in the northern part. This geographical area, which is also shared with Peru, is categorized into three distinct subregions based on its floristic characteristics. First, there are the provinces adjacent to the Chocó, including Esmeraldas and Los Ríos. Second, it encompasses the Peruvian provinces of Piura, Cajamarca, Lambayeque, and La Libertad. Third, it comprises the Ecuadorian provinces of Manabí, Guayas, Sta. Elena, El Oro, Loja, and Tumbes in Perú (Linares-Palomino et al. 2010 ; Espinosa et al. 2012 ). The Ecuadorian EPR is used as a reference because a substantial portion of this phytogeographic area can be profoundly impacted by hydrological resources, such as water availability, during its two distinct seasons (Espinosa et al. 2012 ). Moreover, it is firmly established that tabanids exhibit a degree of dependency on these resources owing to the behavior of their larvae, which can display hydrophilic, semi-hydrophilic, or edaphic traits (Chvala 1972; Baldacchino et al. 2014a ). Furthermore, this approach facilitates exploration of more refined subdivisions, a characteristic that is less evident within the Tumbesian region. Within the EPR, extensive seasonal dry ecosystems span western Ecuador (Peralvo et al. 2007 ; Espinosa et al. 2012 ). These ecosystems have garnered a reputation as among the most imperiled in South America (Dodson and Gentry 1991 ), primarily attributable to anthropogenic factors such as deforestation and alterations in land use. Consequently, an astonishing 83% of these ecosystems are designated as areas exhibiting exceptionally low connectivity, with 86% of their total area falling into the highly threatened classification. Official data sources reported a deforestation rate of 23,618 hectares per year in the western Ecuadorian territory between 2016 and 2018 (Cueva-Ortiz et al. 2019 ; Rivas et al. 2020 ; MAE 2023 ). Seasonally dry forests in the Pacific-Equatorial exhibit reduced species diversity, but have a pronounced degree of endemism, notably among vertebrates and flora (Chvala 1972; Cracraft 1985 ; Cueva-Ortiz et al. 2019 ). It is estimated that one in every five species within these ecosystems is endemic (Escribano-Avila et al. 2017 ). Furthermore, distinct sections of this region are recognized as one of the 25 global biodiversity hotspots. This designation falls into the category of Chocó Darién/Western Ecuador (Brooks et al. 2002 ). In this biogeographic zone, few studies have been conducted on the diversity, distribution, and endemism of various groups, especially arthropods, including horseflies (Buestán 1980 ; Lattke et al. 2016 ; Escribano-Avila et al. 2017 ; Padrón et al. 2023 ). This implies that our understanding of the biological diversity of one of the most medically and ecologically relevant groups of blood-feeding insects in one of the least studied and highly threatened biogeographic zones in Ecuador and South America is limited. Therefore, the objective of this study was to provide a baseline by conducting an inventory of horsefly richness, endemism, and seasonal fluctuation in this important biogeographic zone. Methodology Study Area The Ecuadorian coast experiences two distinct seasons: a dry period, usually prevailing from June to November, and a wet season occurring between December and May, characterized by typically intense rainfall (Gálvez and Regalado 2007 ; Pérez-Espinoza et al. 2019 ). The average annual temperature is 25°C, with precipitation averaging between 500–2000 mm (Pérez-Espinoza et al. 2019 ). However, for analytical purposes, we define the wet season as the months with the highest precipitation (Jan-Apr), as determined by monthly averages for both years, 2011 (37–360 mm) and 2012 (256–606 mm) (INAMHI 2015a , b ). This approach is taken because December is not consistently rainy, and precipitation patterns can vary, influenced by extreme events (Gálvez and Regalado 2007 ), potentially introducing biases into our analyses. We established a reference sampling zone to study horsefly population fluctuations along a temporal gradient. This sampling was carried out over 23 months from February 2011 to December 2012. The selected site was the Bosque Protector Prosperina (BPP) in Guayaquil, Guayas (-2.156667°, -79.964722°), located at an altitude of 210 meters above sea level. This forest is located in the last southeastern extension of the Chongón-Colonche coastal mountain range, which is characterized by a semideciduous lowland dry forest formation that corresponds to the Tumbesian Region (MAE 2013 ; MAE 2023 ). Field and laboratory work Field collection was carried out using a modified Malaise trap (5 m long, 2.5 m high) equipped with 1-liter dry collecting jars containing lethal agents in the form of small blocks of plaster with 5% potassium cyanide. We chose this trapping method because of its effectiveness in capturing dipterans (Townes 1962 ; Marston 1965 ; Skvarla et al. 2021 ). Specimens captured in the trap were collected at 7-day intervals and then identified. The identification process was performed at the species level using keys from the specialized literature and through a comparison of the collected specimens with the reference collection of Jaime Buestán (CJB). As a second step, we compiled records of Tabanidae species from the EPR based on published records. Additionally, we review the entomological collection of Jaime Buestan's horsefly reference collection deposited at the Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INABIO). Using this data, we generated a list to identify potentially endemic species of the EPR, applying the criterion of species' restricted distribution (endemism richness). This involves the sum of species present in the EPR and the proportion of endemism; the latter is based on the number of endemic taxa over the total species richness (Noguera-Urbano 2017 ). Statistical analysis We evaluated the efficiency of sampling in the Prosperina Protective Forest area through a species accumulation analysis, enabling us to determine the success rate in data collection. Furthermore, we assessed the normality and homoscedasticity assumptions of the data using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Subsequently, we estimated variations in the monthly seasonal fluctuation of the sampled species utilizing nonparametric tests, including the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests. A box plot was created to visually represent the data related to the weekly average abundances of the five most prevalent species, incorporating information from both sampling years (2011 and 2012). Nevertheless, January was excluded due to insufficient data in 2011, potentially introducing bias through information absence. In the second box plot, observations were classified according to seasonality into wet and dry. Finally, a heatmap was generated to illustrate the seasonal distribution of the most abundantly collected species, using the total abundances from the two sampling years. Each of these analyses was performed using the software programs Past and Rstudio (Hammer 2001; R Core Team 2023 ). Results Richness and Endemism of Horseflies in the EPR In this dataset, we identified 84 species belonging to 22 horsefly genera (Supplementary Table 1). Only 6 of these species are endemic, constituting an endemism rate of 7.14% for the EPR. Furthermore, the most dominant genera in the EPR, in terms of species number, include Tabanus Linneaus (n = 15), Esenbeckia Rondani (n = 12), and Dicladocera Lutz, 1913 (n = 8). In particular, the provinces with the highest number of species are Guayas (n = 41), Loja (n = 31), Esmeraldas (n = 28) and Manabí (n = 24), followed by less represented ones such as Los Ríos (n = 13), Sta. Elena (n = 11), and El Oro (n = 5). Seasonal variation of horseflies The sampling carried out in the Prosperina forest resulted in the collection of 10 species, totaling 4,670 individuals over the 22-month sampling period, providing a representative community sample (Fig. 1 A). The most abundant species identified was Tabanus colombensis Macquart, which represented 46.5% of the total collected, followed by Tabanus sp. (18.8%), Tabanus occidentalis Linnaeus (16.1%), Tabanus pungens Wiedemann (13.6%), and Tabanus antarcticus Linnaeus (Fig. 1 B). In other words, the Tabanus genus accounted for 95% of the abundance of the entire horsefly assembly. Other collected species include Lepiselaga crassipes (Fabricius), Esenbeckia tigrina Wilkerson, Fidena sp. , Pityocera ecuadorensis Buestán & Krolow, and Stenotabanus bruessi (Hine). The months with peaks in total accumulated abundances for both years of sampling were August (n = 528) and September (n = 485), coinciding with the dry season. On the other hand, a marked decline was observed in February (n = 95). Some species, such as Tabanus colombensis , Tabanus sp ., T. occidentalis , and T. pungens , were active throughout the year but exhibited peaks from August to December. The species Esenbeckia tigrina , Fidena sp. , and Pityocera ecuadorensis were likely very scarce; hence, the progressive seasonal behavior of these species could not be observed. Additionally, statistically significant differences were observed in the abundances of horsefly across the 11 months assessed (H(chi2) = 69.6, p < 0.0001) (Fig. 2 A), indicating that seasonality has an impact on the observed abundance dynamics. Moreover, there were significant differences between the wet and the dry season (H(chi2) = 27.87, p < 0.0001) (see Fig. 2 B). Discussion Richness, Endemism, and Community Similarities of Tabanidae in the EPR In this study, exclusively six potentially endemic species of EPR were identified, accounting for 3% of the 198 species recorded in the country. This percentage is comparable to the 2.1% endemism of horseflies in Ecuador concerning Neotropical species (Buestan et al. 2007 ; Cardenas et al. 2009 ). However, it is crucial to consider that figures mentioned might be conservative due to significant collection gaps, reflecting limitations in bibliographic and museological records, particularly comprising the provinces of Santa Elena, Los Ríos and El Oro, as evidenced in the results. Therefore, the data presented data should be interpreted as informative, although they provide sufficient evidence for making comparisons with other biogeographic regions, even though there are no previous assessments of endemism status in horseflies. The EPR encompasses vast plains stretching from the northern region of Quinindé (Esmeraldas) to the southern town of Huaquillas (Loja) (Winckell et al. 1997 ) enhancing the potential for movement and exchange. However, there are geographical barriers that can result in isolation, notably the Chongón Colonche coastal range, which is usually characterized by elevations below 1000 meters (Winckell et al. 1997 ; Astudillo-Sánchez et al. 2019 ). In contrast, the province of Loja presents a more rugged topography and higher altitudes compared to other localities in the EPR. Seasonality of horseflies in dry forests of EPR The results obtained demonstrated an increased abundance of horseflies during arid periods, supporting a hypothesis proposed by team members decades ago (Buestán 1980 ). Nonetheless, this hypothesis lacked statistical validation until the execution of the current study. Environmental variables (e.g., temperature, precipitation, wind) have been identified as pivotal factors influencing population variability in horseflies, with frequent correlations observed with abundance (Burnett and Hays 1974 ; Hackenberger et al. 2009 ; Baldacchino et al. 2014b ; Herczeg et al. 2018 ). Therefore, we recommend that future research endeavors focus on the individual and combined impact analysis of these variables for a more nuanced understanding. The confirmed dominant genus within the study area is Tabanus , consistent with findings from previous research in the Guayas province (Buestán 1980 ), and other Neotropical localities (Barros 2001 ; de Ríos et al. 2004 ). However, it's essential to note that this pattern is contingent on the specific habitat (Cárdenas 2016). Notably, Tabanus antarcticus displayed a discernible seasonal pattern (Fig. 1 ), marked by a significant surge from January until its disappearance at the end of May. In other Neotropical regions, this species is classified as rare, typically appearing exclusively during the wet season (de Ríos et al. 2004 ), although the possibility of its presence during both seasons, particularly in the Amazon basin, cannot be discounted (Rafael et al. 1991 ; Chainey 1993 ). Fairchild similarly observed this brief appearance in other species, such as Pityocera festae and Esenbeckia illota in Panama, categorizing them as species with a restricted appearance to a specific season (Fairchild 1942 ). Presumably, T. antarcticus adopts the strategy of spending the rainy season in the adult state and the dry season with its offspring in the larval state. Unfortunately, data on the larval natural history of T. antarcticus , as well as many other horsefly species, is unavailable (Baldacchino et al. 2014a ). Nonetheless, this strategy offers specific advantages, mitigating interspecific competition during the dry season and averting trophic niche overlap with other hematophagous horseflies (Waage and Davies 1986 ). This aligns with the commencement of the wet season and the increased primary productivity of the tropical dry forest (Jaramillo et al. 2011 ). While migration cannot be conclusively ruled out to explain its absence in the dry season, evidence of horsefly migratory processes remains scant (Chainey 1993 ) and is generally influenced by climatic or geographical stressors, often limited to more confined altitudinal migrations (Cárdenas 2016). Conclusions Although historically overlooked from a scientific perspective, the Equatorial Pacific Region (EPR), especially its dry forests, provides a biologically significant conservation area with substantial research potential. Therefore, we recommend conducting more studies, not only in the Ecuadorian EPR but also in the Peruvian EPR. Declarations Acknowledgments We express our gratitude to Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL) and Ecoclub ESPOL for granting permission to access the sampling site. We appreciate the logistical support provided by the Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública (INSPI) and extend our thanks to Elizabeth Mendoza for her assistance during field collections. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors have no competing interests. Funding No funding was received for conducting this study. References Astudillo-Sánchez E, Pérez J, Troccoli L, Aponte H, Tinoco O (2019) Flora leñosa del bosque de garúa de la cordillera Chongón Colonche, Santa Elena - Ecuador. Ecol Apl 18:155-169. https://doi.org/10.21704/rea.v18i2.1334 Baldacchino F, Porciani A, Bernard C, Jay-Robert P (2014a) Spatial and temporal distribution of Tabanidae in the Pyrenees Mountains: The influence of altitude and landscape structure. 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Las condiciones generales del medio natural. In Geografía básica del Ecuador: Geografía física.: Vol. I. Instituto Geográfico Militar, Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement. Quito. Supplementary Files Supplementary.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Apr, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 12 Apr, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 15 Mar, 2024 First submitted to journal 14 Mar, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4103659","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":290533162,"identity":"d937bf77-58a3-43f5-98e1-0bd1728c896d","order_by":0,"name":"Jaime Buestán","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Guayaquil: Universidad de Guayaquil","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jaime","middleName":"","lastName":"Buestán","suffix":""},{"id":290533163,"identity":"cfb7ff21-fc4c-40e6-a562-7da5fbabe431","order_by":1,"name":"Alex Pazmiño","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Institute of Biodiversity: Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alex","middleName":"","lastName":"Pazmiño","suffix":""},{"id":290533164,"identity":"602405e0-0929-4815-8c83-4ff317a56a61","order_by":2,"name":"Gabriel Brito Vera","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0214-9979","institution":"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile: Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gabriel","middleName":"Brito","lastName":"Vera","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-14 22:56:22","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4103659/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4103659/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54830979,"identity":"1dabad13-6072-4918-93b6-4dcc67a8c160","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-17 11:10:09","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":142783,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeasonality of Horseflies in the Prosperina Forest. A) Rarefaction analysis (95% confidence). B) Heatmap of the main species per month (2011+2012) with a side bar indicating abundances. Red areas denote higher abundance, while blue areas represent lower abundance.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4103659/v1/622e56750ff0514aca232866.jpg"},{"id":54830978,"identity":"ef1c6e8f-2dfb-4787-bf97-cdc4b24bdd0e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-17 11:10:08","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":183594,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) The monthly total abundance is depicted for the two collection years. B) Boxplots of the monthly abundances for the two collection seasons in the dry forest of Prosperina. Outliers ( * ° ). Different lowercase letters represent statistical differences between variables.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4103659/v1/18972debebf40e714a81e553.jpg"},{"id":54831541,"identity":"c6d6bb48-2041-4da3-9ddf-c01e62a9a36b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-17 11:18:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":344492,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4103659/v1/ab66e873-6ebc-4595-a1f0-51683f5d8631.pdf"},{"id":54830980,"identity":"eb634d7b-3e6e-46dd-9282-2b65769657c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-17 11:10:09","extension":"docx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":213856,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementary.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4103659/v1/9da507a7d9177c228af8c1ec.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Richness, endemism and seasonality of horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Forests of the Equatorial Pacific Region of Ecuador","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Tabanidae family ranks among the most abundant Diptera families worldwide, including those in the Neotropics (Coscar\u0026oacute;n and Papavero \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, Henriques et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Several species within this family are of importance in human and veterinary health, attributable to the hematophagous behavior of females, potentially acting as disease vectors (Mullens \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, males play a crucial role in tropical ecosystems through their contributions to pollination (Goldblatt and Manning \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, aspects of natural history and behavior within these ecosystems have been historically documented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Ecuador, several biogeographical divisions and classifications have been proposed (refer to (Sierra \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Ridgely and Greenfield \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Freile and Santander \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Among these, the phytogeographic zone referred to as the Equatorial Pacific Region (EPR) (Peralvo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Espinosa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) aligns predominantly with the Tumbesian or Jama-Zapotillo endemic region in the southern part (Cracraft \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Loaiza \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and the Choc\u0026oacute; region in the northern part. This geographical area, which is also shared with Peru, is categorized into three distinct subregions based on its floristic characteristics. First, there are the provinces adjacent to the Choc\u0026oacute;, including Esmeraldas and Los R\u0026iacute;os. Second, it encompasses the Peruvian provinces of Piura, Cajamarca, Lambayeque, and La Libertad. Third, it comprises the Ecuadorian provinces of Manab\u0026iacute;, Guayas, Sta. Elena, El Oro, Loja, and Tumbes in Per\u0026uacute; (Linares-Palomino et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Espinosa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Ecuadorian EPR is used as a reference because a substantial portion of this phytogeographic area can be profoundly impacted by hydrological resources, such as water availability, during its two distinct seasons (Espinosa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, it is firmly established that tabanids exhibit a degree of dependency on these resources owing to the behavior of their larvae, which can display hydrophilic, semi-hydrophilic, or edaphic traits (Chvala 1972; Baldacchino et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014a\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, this approach facilitates exploration of more refined subdivisions, a characteristic that is less evident within the Tumbesian region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the EPR, extensive seasonal dry ecosystems span western Ecuador (Peralvo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Espinosa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). These ecosystems have garnered a reputation as among the most imperiled in South America (Dodson and Gentry \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), primarily attributable to anthropogenic factors such as deforestation and alterations in land use. Consequently, an astonishing 83% of these ecosystems are designated as areas exhibiting exceptionally low connectivity, with 86% of their total area falling into the highly threatened classification. Official data sources reported a deforestation rate of 23,618 hectares per year in the western Ecuadorian territory between 2016 and 2018 (Cueva-Ortiz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Rivas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; MAE \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeasonally dry forests in the Pacific-Equatorial exhibit reduced species diversity, but have a pronounced degree of endemism, notably among vertebrates and flora (Chvala 1972; Cracraft \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Cueva-Ortiz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It is estimated that one in every five species within these ecosystems is endemic (Escribano-Avila et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, distinct sections of this region are recognized as one of the 25 global biodiversity hotspots. This designation falls into the category of Choc\u0026oacute; Dari\u0026eacute;n/Western Ecuador (Brooks et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this biogeographic zone, few studies have been conducted on the diversity, distribution, and endemism of various groups, especially arthropods, including horseflies (Buest\u0026aacute;n \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Lattke et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Escribano-Avila et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Padr\u0026oacute;n et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This implies that our understanding of the biological diversity of one of the most medically and ecologically relevant groups of blood-feeding insects in one of the least studied and highly threatened biogeographic zones in Ecuador and South America is limited. Therefore, the objective of this study was to provide a baseline by conducting an inventory of horsefly richness, endemism, and seasonal fluctuation in this important biogeographic zone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Ecuadorian coast experiences two distinct seasons: a dry period, usually prevailing from June to November, and a wet season occurring between December and May, characterized by typically intense rainfall (G\u0026aacute;lvez and Regalado \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; P\u0026eacute;rez-Espinoza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The average annual temperature is 25\u0026deg;C, with precipitation averaging between 500\u0026ndash;2000 mm (P\u0026eacute;rez-Espinoza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, for analytical purposes, we define the wet season as the months with the highest precipitation (Jan-Apr), as determined by monthly averages for both years, 2011 (37\u0026ndash;360 mm) and 2012 (256\u0026ndash;606 mm) (INAMHI \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e). This approach is taken because December is not consistently rainy, and precipitation patterns can vary, influenced by extreme events (G\u0026aacute;lvez and Regalado \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), potentially introducing biases into our analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe established a reference sampling zone to study horsefly population fluctuations along a temporal gradient. This sampling was carried out over 23 months from February 2011 to December 2012. The selected site was the Bosque Protector Prosperina (BPP) in Guayaquil, Guayas (-2.156667\u0026deg;, -79.964722\u0026deg;), located at an altitude of 210 meters above sea level. This forest is located in the last southeastern extension of the Chong\u0026oacute;n-Colonche coastal mountain range, which is characterized by a semideciduous lowland dry forest formation that corresponds to the Tumbesian Region (MAE \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; MAE \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eField and laboratory work\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eField collection was carried out using a modified Malaise trap (5 m long, 2.5 m high) equipped with 1-liter dry collecting jars containing lethal agents in the form of small blocks of plaster with 5% potassium cyanide. We chose this trapping method because of its effectiveness in capturing dipterans (Townes \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e; Marston \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e; Skvarla et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Specimens captured in the trap were collected at 7-day intervals and then identified. The identification process was performed at the species level using keys from the specialized literature and through a comparison of the collected specimens with the reference collection of Jaime Buest\u0026aacute;n (CJB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a second step, we compiled records of Tabanidae species from the EPR based on published records. Additionally, we review the entomological collection of Jaime Buestan's horsefly reference collection deposited at the Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INABIO). Using this data, we generated a list to identify potentially endemic species of the EPR, applying the criterion of species' restricted distribution (endemism richness). This involves the sum of species present in the EPR and the proportion of endemism; the latter is based on the number of endemic taxa over the total species richness (Noguera-Urbano \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe evaluated the efficiency of sampling in the Prosperina Protective Forest area through a species accumulation analysis, enabling us to determine the success rate in data collection. Furthermore, we assessed the normality and homoscedasticity assumptions of the data using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Subsequently, we estimated variations in the monthly seasonal fluctuation of the sampled species utilizing nonparametric tests, including the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA box plot was created to visually represent the data related to the weekly average abundances of the five most prevalent species, incorporating information from both sampling years (2011 and 2012). Nevertheless, January was excluded due to insufficient data in 2011, potentially introducing bias through information absence. In the second box plot, observations were classified according to seasonality into wet and dry. Finally, a heatmap was generated to illustrate the seasonal distribution of the most abundantly collected species, using the total abundances from the two sampling years. Each of these analyses was performed using the software programs Past and Rstudio (Hammer 2001; R Core Team \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRichness and Endemism of Horseflies in the EPR\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this dataset, we identified 84 species belonging to 22 horsefly genera (Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1). Only 6 of these species are endemic, constituting an endemism rate of 7.14% for the EPR. Furthermore, the most dominant genera in the EPR, in terms of species number, include \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e Linneaus (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15), \u003cem\u003eEsenbeckia\u003c/em\u003e Rondani (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12), and \u003cem\u003eDicladocera\u003c/em\u003e Lutz, 1913 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8). In particular, the provinces with the highest number of species are Guayas (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41), Loja (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31), Esmeraldas (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28) and Manab\u0026iacute; (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24), followed by less represented ones such as Los R\u0026iacute;os (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13), Sta. Elena (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11), and El Oro (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSeasonal variation of horseflies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sampling carried out in the Prosperina forest resulted in the collection of 10 species, totaling 4,670 individuals over the 22-month sampling period, providing a representative community sample (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). The most abundant species identified was \u003cem\u003eTabanus colombensis\u003c/em\u003e Macquart, which represented 46.5% of the total collected, followed by \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e sp. (18.8%), \u003cem\u003eTabanus occidentalis\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus (16.1%), \u003cem\u003eTabanus pungens\u003c/em\u003e Wiedemann (13.6%), and \u003cem\u003eTabanus antarcticus\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). In other words, the Tabanus genus accounted for 95% of the abundance of the entire horsefly assembly. Other collected species include \u003cem\u003eLepiselaga crassipes\u003c/em\u003e (Fabricius), \u003cem\u003eEsenbeckia tigrina\u003c/em\u003e Wilkerson, \u003cem\u003eFidena sp.\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePityocera ecuadorensis\u003c/em\u003e Buest\u0026aacute;n \u0026amp; Krolow, and \u003cem\u003eStenotabanus bruessi\u003c/em\u003e (Hine).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe months with peaks in total accumulated abundances for both years of sampling were August (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;528) and September (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;485), coinciding with the dry season. On the other hand, a marked decline was observed in February (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;95). Some species, such as \u003cem\u003eTabanus colombensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTabanus sp\u003c/em\u003e., \u003cem\u003eT. occidentalis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eT. pungens\u003c/em\u003e, were active throughout the year but exhibited peaks from August to December. The species \u003cem\u003eEsenbeckia tigrina\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eFidena sp.\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePityocera ecuadorensis\u003c/em\u003e were likely very scarce; hence, the progressive seasonal behavior of these species could not be observed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, statistically significant differences were observed in the abundances of horsefly across the 11 months assessed (H(chi2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;69.6, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA), indicating that seasonality has an impact on the observed abundance dynamics. Moreover, there were significant differences between the wet and the dry season (H(chi2)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27.87, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRichness, Endemism, and Community Similarities of Tabanidae in the EPR\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, exclusively six potentially endemic species of EPR were identified, accounting for 3% of the 198 species recorded in the country. This percentage is comparable to the 2.1% endemism of horseflies in Ecuador concerning Neotropical species (Buestan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Cardenas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). However, it is crucial to consider that figures mentioned might be conservative due to significant collection gaps, reflecting limitations in bibliographic and museological records, particularly comprising the provinces of Santa Elena, Los R\u0026iacute;os and El Oro, as evidenced in the results. Therefore, the data presented data should be interpreted as informative, although they provide sufficient evidence for making comparisons with other biogeographic regions, even though there are no previous assessments of endemism status in horseflies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EPR encompasses vast plains stretching from the northern region of Quinind\u0026eacute; (Esmeraldas) to the southern town of Huaquillas (Loja) (Winckell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) enhancing the potential for movement and exchange. However, there are geographical barriers that can result in isolation, notably the Chong\u0026oacute;n Colonche coastal range, which is usually characterized by elevations below 1000 meters (Winckell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Astudillo-S\u0026aacute;nchez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the province of Loja presents a more rugged topography and higher altitudes compared to other localities in the EPR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSeasonality of horseflies in dry forests of EPR\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results obtained demonstrated an increased abundance of horseflies during arid periods, supporting a hypothesis proposed by team members decades ago (Buest\u0026aacute;n \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, this hypothesis lacked statistical validation until the execution of the current study. Environmental variables (e.g., temperature, precipitation, wind) have been identified as pivotal factors influencing population variability in horseflies, with frequent correlations observed with abundance (Burnett and Hays \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e; Hackenberger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Baldacchino et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014b\u003c/span\u003e; Herczeg et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, we recommend that future research endeavors focus on the individual and combined impact analysis of these variables for a more nuanced understanding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe confirmed dominant genus within the study area is \u003cem\u003eTabanus\u003c/em\u003e, consistent with findings from previous research in the Guayas province (Buest\u0026aacute;n \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e), and other Neotropical localities (Barros \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; de R\u0026iacute;os et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). However, it's essential to note that this pattern is contingent on the specific habitat (C\u0026aacute;rdenas 2016). Notably, \u003cem\u003eTabanus antarcticus\u003c/em\u003e displayed a discernible seasonal pattern (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), marked by a significant surge from January until its disappearance at the end of May. In other Neotropical regions, this species is classified as rare, typically appearing exclusively during the wet season (de R\u0026iacute;os et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), although the possibility of its presence during both seasons, particularly in the Amazon basin, cannot be discounted (Rafael et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Chainey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Fairchild similarly observed this brief appearance in other species, such as \u003cem\u003ePityocera festae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEsenbeckia illota\u003c/em\u003e in Panama, categorizing them as species with a restricted appearance to a specific season (Fairchild \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1942\u003c/span\u003e). Presumably, \u003cem\u003eT. antarcticus\u003c/em\u003e adopts the strategy of spending the rainy season in the adult state and the dry season with its offspring in the larval state. Unfortunately, data on the larval natural history of \u003cem\u003eT. antarcticus\u003c/em\u003e, as well as many other horsefly species, is unavailable (Baldacchino et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonetheless, this strategy offers specific advantages, mitigating interspecific competition during the dry season and averting trophic niche overlap with other hematophagous horseflies (Waage and Davies \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). This aligns with the commencement of the wet season and the increased primary productivity of the tropical dry forest (Jaramillo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). While migration cannot be conclusively ruled out to explain its absence in the dry season, evidence of horsefly migratory processes remains scant (Chainey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e) and is generally influenced by climatic or geographical stressors, often limited to more confined altitudinal migrations (C\u0026aacute;rdenas 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough historically overlooked from a scientific perspective, the Equatorial Pacific Region (EPR), especially its dry forests, provides a biologically significant conservation area with substantial research potential. Therefore, we recommend conducting more studies, not only in the Ecuadorian EPR but also in the Peruvian EPR.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe express our gratitude to Escuela Superior Polit\u0026eacute;cnica del Litoral (ESPOL) and Ecoclub ESPOL for granting permission to access the sampling site. We appreciate the logistical support provided by the Instituto Nacional de Investigaci\u0026oacute;n en Salud P\u0026uacute;blica (INSPI) and extend our thanks to Elizabeth Mendoza for her assistance during field collections.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for conducting this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAstudillo-S\u0026aacute;nchez E, P\u0026eacute;rez J, Troccoli L, Aponte H, Tinoco O (2019) Flora le\u0026ntilde;osa del bosque de gar\u0026uacute;a de la cordillera Chong\u0026oacute;n Colonche, Santa Elena - Ecuador. Ecol Apl 18:155-169. https://doi.org/10.21704/rea.v18i2.1334\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaldacchino F, Porciani A, Bernard C, Jay-Robert P (2014a) Spatial and temporal distribution of Tabanidae in the Pyrenees Mountains: The influence of altitude and landscape structure. Bull Entomol Res 104:1-11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485313000254\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaldacchino F, Puech L, Manon S, Hertzog LR, Jay-Robert P (2014b) Biting behaviour of Tabanidae on cattle in mountainous summer pastures, Pyrenees, France, and effects of weather variables. Bull Entomol Res 104:471-479. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485313000254\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBarros (2001) Seasonality and Relative Abundance of Tabanidae (Diptera) Captured on Horses in the Pantanal, Brazil. 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Rev Entomol Rio de Janeiro 4:190-192.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTownes H (1962) Design for a Malaise Trap. Proc Entomol Soc Washington, 64:253-262.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaage JK, Davies CR (1986) Host-Mediated Competition in a Bloodsucking Insect Community. J Anim Ecol 55:171-186. https://doi.org/10.2307/4700\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWinckell A, Marocco R, Winter T, Huttel C, Pourrut P, Zebrowski C, Sourdat M (1997) Los Paisajes Naturales del Ecuador. Las condiciones generales del medio natural. In Geograf\u0026iacute;a b\u0026aacute;sica del Ecuador: Geograf\u0026iacute;a f\u0026iacute;sica.: Vol. I. Instituto Geogr\u0026aacute;fico Militar, Instituto Panamericano de Geograf\u0026iacute;a e Historia, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u0026eacute;veloppement. Quito.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"neotropical-entomology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nent","sideBox":"Learn more about [Neotropical Entomology](https://www.springer.com/journal/13744)","snPcode":"13744","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/nent/default2.aspx","title":"Neotropical Entomology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"dry season, wet season, insects, entomology","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4103659/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4103659/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Equatorial Pacific Region (EPR) in Ecuador is characterized by high rates of endemism, vegetation diversity, and rapid loss of vegetation cover due to anthropogenic pressures. In this study, general ecological aspects of the Tabanidae family, including richness, endemism, and seasonality, were evaluated. Analyses reveal that approximately 42% of the species recorded for Ecuador are present in the EPR, and out of the 84 species cataloged in the EPR, 6 are endemic, representing an endemism of 7.14%. Furthermore, it was established that tabanid populations in a coastal dry forest significantly increased their population density during the dry season, while decreasing during the wet season. These results provide an initial foundation that can be applied to conservation and public health aspects for future research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Richness, endemism and seasonality of horseflies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Forests of the Equatorial Pacific Region of Ecuador","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-17 11:10:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4103659/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-04-12T13:26:21+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-04-12T12:57:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-03-15T14:18:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Neotropical Entomology","date":"2024-03-14T18:56:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"neotropical-entomology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nent","sideBox":"Learn more about [Neotropical Entomology](https://www.springer.com/journal/13744)","snPcode":"13744","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/nent/default2.aspx","title":"Neotropical Entomology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"59c6cfb9-2ded-4734-8c95-ee7607796846","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 17th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-23T15:55:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-17 11:10:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4103659","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4103659","identity":"rs-4103659","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}