Parental Engagement in Labor Education in Chinese Primary Schools: A Mixed-Methods Study of Participation Patterns, Cultural Constraints, and Policy Pathways

Parental Engagement in Labor Education in Chinese Primary Schools: A Mixed-Methods Study of Participation Patterns, Cultural Constraints, and Policy Pathways | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Parental Engagement in Labor Education in Chinese Primary Schools: A Mixed-Methods Study of Participation Patterns, Cultural Constraints, and Policy Pathways Yang Wei, Zhaolong Chen, Tongyan Cao, Licheng Zhu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6820837/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Labor education has gained prominence within China’s primary education system in recent years, prompting increased scholarly attention to the role of parental involvement. This study investigates the scope, challenges, and reform pathways of parental involvement in labor education within China’s evolving education system. Drawing on a mixed-methods design, the research integrates questionnaire responses from 538 parents, labor skill assessments from 480 students, and semi-structured interviews with 12 teachers at a representative urban school. Results reveal a paradoxical pattern of high parental support yet low active participation, driven by role ambiguity, fragmented school communication, and utilitarian perceptions of educational value. A “grade-decline effect” is identified, with student labor competencies decreasing in higher grades, alongside a decline in parental perceived efficacy. To interpret these findings, the study introduces a cognition–action–feedback model situated within Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Policy recommendations include time-credit incentives, co-designed curricula, and formative, portfolio-based assessments to enhance equitable and sustainable family–school–community collaboration. The findings contribute to global conversations on culturally responsive family engagement and labor education reform. Social science/Development studies Social science/Education Social science/Psychology Social science/Social policy Social science/Sociology Labor Education Parental Involvement Family–School Collaboration Ecological Framework China Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1 Introduction Labor education has emerged as a strategic focus in global primary education reform, positioned as a core component of the “Five-Education Integration” framework in China. The National Education Development Plan (2024–2035) issued by the State Council calls for a comprehensive cultivation system integrating moral, intellectual, physical, aesthetic, and labor education (Central Committee of the Communist Party of China & State Council of the People's Republic of China., 2025), while the Family Education Promotion Law marks the first legislative move to formalize co-responsibility across families, schools, and communities (National People’s Congress, 2021). However, the translation of such policy mandates into effective practice faces significant challenges. Notably, a persistent cognition–action disconnect is observed: while 94.4% of surveyed parents acknowledge the importance of labor education, only 28.3% report frequent engagement in community service. Additionally, the effectiveness of resource coordination remains low—family–school collaboration in labor education averages 2.31 on a 4-point scale, and less than 30% of families report community support (Wang, 2023). These gaps between aspirational policy and on-the-ground realities highlight the pressing need to examine the mechanisms of parental involvement in labor education. Despite increasing academic interest in labor education, existing studies on parental engagement in this domain remain constrained by several critical limitations. First, perspectives are often fragmented. Educational scholarship tends to concentrate on curriculum design and classroom implementation (e.g., Ping, 2023), whereas sociological research highlights disparities in parental behavior driven by cultural capital and class stratification (e.g., Ream & Palardy, 2008). However, few attempts have been made to integrate these strands into a systemic understanding of how schools, families, and communities interact to shape labor education outcomes. Second, prevailing analytical frameworks are predominantly Western-centric. Notably, Epstein’s widely applied six-dimensional model of family–school partnerships (Epstein, 2018) offers a useful starting point but lacks sensitivity to culturally specific constructs such as filial piety, intergenerational hierarchy, and collectivist parenting values, which critically shape parental roles and decision-making in East Asian contexts (Sheng, 2019). Third, methodological limitations persist across the literature. More than 75% of empirical studies rely heavily on cross-sectional survey data (Chen, 2024), leading to insufficient exploration of the dynamic, relational, and processual dimensions of parental involvement. Meta-analyses have also noted a lack of longitudinal research designs capable of tracing how parental engagement evolves over time or responds to shifting institutional conditions (Smith et al., 2022). These theoretical and methodological shortcomings limit the field’s ability to capture how parental involvement in labor education operates within culturally embedded and policy-driven educational systems. In response to the aforementioned gaps, this review adopts an interdisciplinary approach that integrates insights from education, sociology, and family studies to systematically examine parental involvement in primary school labor education. The review aims to make three key contributions. First, it constructs a triadic explanatory framework consisting of cognitive orientation, behavioral participation, and ecological support structures to decipher the inner mechanisms and outer constraints behind parental participation. The model explains how parents' attitude, roles, and actions are shaped by institutional configurations, value systems, and socio-economic settings. Second, the literature review offers critical comparative examination of international labor education models, including Japan's PTA-facilitated practice-based curriculum and Germany's legislative backing for parental education rights, to contextualize China's policy path and implementation challenges. Third, it advances localized intervention channels in line with China's "family–school–community co-education" agenda. These approaches lean on ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2005) and are framed around the co-construction of labor education in an enabling manner through empowered parents, strengthened teacher capacity, and mobilizing community assets. By distilling cross-disciplinary research and policy innovations, this literature review advances a more inclusive and culturally responsive framework for enhancing parental participation in the transforming Chinese labor education landscape. 2 Literature Review Labor education in China has been re-emphasized in a national agenda, organizing intellectual, moral, and physical development into the K–9 curriculum (Ministry of Education of the PRC, 2020). Labor education is broadly defined as formal learning opportunities for children to establish work habits, perform practicum-based tasks, and develop values like responsibility and perseverance (Wang, 2022; Ding, 2022). In a global context, the goals are aligned with those of twenty-first-century competencies (Care et al., 2018), character education (Berkowitz & Bier, 2005), and experiential learning theory (Passarelli & Kolb, 2023) yet have Chinese characteristics in their integration of socialist principles and state-imposed implementation structures (Liu & Wang, 2023). Parent involvement is a foundation for effective labor education. Based on Epstein’s (2010) Overlapping Spheres of Influence (OSI) framework, family, school, and neighborhood spheres intersect in influencing student growth. More recent work highlights how closer alignment between the spheres increases transmission of behavior among and learning effects (won Kim., 2018). Research further suggests that labor-oriented parental practice differs from, and is separate from, studying-oriented parent involvement, requiring different cognitive mindsets and relational capabilities (Mbua, 2023; Xu, Cheng & Peng, 2021). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory provides a tiered framework for examining parental involvement in labor education in which mesosystemic factors (e.g., home–school relation) and exosystemic elements (e.g., policy pressures) together contribute to behavior (Li, Ma & Wei, 2024). Bourdieu’s (1985) capital theory is an additional layer: families with more cultural and social capital more readily support non-scholarly areas such as labor education (Luo, Liu & Qu, 2022). More current Chinese research confirms that parent labor orientations are related to class, occupation, and educational background (Huang et al., 2023). An inquiry within the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) with the keywords "parental involvement," "labor education," and "primary school" in titles, abstracts, or subject headings returned 1,142 records between 2000 and 2025. The same keywords under the same period also yielded 895 results in a search of the Web of Science. These numbers speak to the rising scholarly and policy attention given to labor education in the foundational years of schooling, specifically the role of families in shaping students’ labor attitudes, habits, and competencies. Keeping up with this fast-moving library is crucial, as the latest evidence across educational sociology, family studies, and national curriculum policy continues to transform our knowledge of the complex dynamics between labor values and institutional collaboration. Theoretical and practical frameworks of "family–school collaboration in labor education" frame the complex interplay between domestic norms, institutional arrangements, and sociocultural expectations shaping the labor development possibilities for young students. When labor is not just a form of physical or menial activity in the primary curriculum, a growing awareness is implicit concerning the multidimensional moral, affective, and identity-related concomitants of educational labor. The framing of the current article under the concept of “family–school collaboration” underscores the need for a critical balance between family attitudes, school-based support systems, and broader cultural values such as diligence, responsibility, and collectivism to ensure that children’s labor development is supported equitably across contexts. Besides, the inclusion of parental cognition, role positioning, and participatory rights in the design of primary labor education policy and pedagogy is vital to ensure sustainable, inclusive engagement. Embedding collaborative frameworks with a commitment to both school professionalism and family involvement can maximize developmental outcomes for the child, enhance parental educational efficacy, and reduce inequality in students’ labor education experiences. In this regard, family–school partnerships are an underpinning mechanism for advancing educational equity and crafting lifelong values of work, respect, and self-reliance. Research consistently indicates that Chinese parents demonstrate high affective endorsement of labor education but often hold shallow conceptual understandings of its pedagogical function (Yang & Mei, 2024). For example, while 84% of surveyed parents believe that “labor builds character,” only 39% could differentiate between physical labor and creative or service-oriented tasks (Duan et al., 2023). This mirrors findings in cross-cultural studies: parental support is often driven more by conformity to policy than internalized educational philosophy (Kim & Brand, 2023; Weiss et al., 2009).Studies also find a cognitive–behavioral decoupling: even parents with strong affective agreement may avoid substantive engagement due to time constraints, role ambiguity, or lack of confidence (Atoum & Al-Adamat, 2024). A large portion of studies focus on parental cognition, attitudes, or values, often derived from self-reported questionnaires (Fields, 1972). While this line of inquiry is valuable for understanding normative orientations, it rarely connects to observed or measured behavior. Few studies verify whether expressed beliefs translate into actual practices, creating a persistent cognition–action gap (Yang, 1997).Furthermore, observational or ethnographic studies capturing real-time parental participation in labor education contexts are scarce, particularly in non-urban schools (Morales-Castilloet al., 2023). The limited use of mixed methods or video-based analysis narrows the understanding of interaction dynamics between families and schools during labor activities. Most existing research is cross-sectional, offering snapshots rather than developmental trajectories. The dynamic interplay between parental engagement, student labor competencies, and evolving family–school relations remains underexplored (Shakhovskoy, 2022; Chen, Wu & He, 2023). Longitudinal designs could help detect how engagement evolves across primary grades, especially during critical transitions (e.g., from lower to upper elementary) or policy shifts (e.g., Double Reduction reform).Moreover, very few studies explore how parental involvement in labor education intersects with adolescent identity formation, autonomy development, or civic participation—domains central to the goals of labor education (Yu, 2020).Moreover, engagement with international labor education literature remains minimal. Comparative insights from Nordic, Southeast Asian, or Latin American contexts—where civic, practical, and democratic aims of schooling are emphasized—could provide valuable contrasts and decenter policy-driven Chinese paradigms (Hoskins et al., 2021). 3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design This study employed a mixed-methods design integrating quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews, forming a triangulated validation framework. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure representativeness across parent demographics and school grades. In-depth interviews were conducted over a six-month period to capture the evolving dynamics of parental participation in labor education. 3.2 Participants Data were collected from a case school (S Primary School) in Nanjing, selected for its typical implementation of labor education policies. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed, with 538 valid responses obtained (response rate: 89.7%). Twelve headteachers and labor education instructors were purposively sampled for semi-structured interviews. Labor literacy was assessed using a pre–post design with 480 students through a multidimensional measurement tool. 3.3 Instruments Comprised 42 items across three dimensions—cognition, behavior, and perceived outcomes. Teacher version focused on policy implementation challenges and professional development needs. Parent version explored motivation, perceived barriers, and access to resources. Adopted a three-dimensional evaluation model consisting of knowledge testing, situational judgment, and practical tasks. 3.4 Data Collection and Analysis Data were cleaned using SPSS 26.0, with missing values addressed via multiple imputation. AMOS 28.0 was used to construct Structural Equation Models (SEM) to examine path relationships among core variables. Interview transcripts were analyzed using three-tiered coding, progressing from local concepts to initial categories and finally core themes. Nvivo 12.0 was employed for word frequency and thematic analysis, with high-frequency codes such as “time conflict” and “competency anxiety” emerging. 3.5 Quality Control Measures Quota variables such as “parental participation frequency” and “child’s grade level” were used to ensure sample balance. Two rounds of expert review and cognitive interviews were conducted during the pilot stage, with three ambiguous items removed. A 10% sample of questionnaires was verified by phone, with an inter-rater consistency coefficient of 0.92. 3.6 Ethical Considerations The study adhered to the principles of informed consent. All participants signed an electronic consent form. An anonymous coding system was used to ensure confidentiality and data were used exclusively for academic purposes. 4 Findings 4.1 Parental Understanding and Engagement: A Paradox of Recognition and Misalignment Survey findings reveal a paradoxical dynamic in parents’ perceptions of labor education, marked by high levels of general support but low levels of nuanced understanding and meaningful engagement. While 82.3% of parents expressed agreement that labor education is necessary for their children’s development, only 43.2% viewed it as equally important as academic learning. This gap suggests that although parents formally endorse labor education, entrenched academic-centric norms—especially prevalent in East Asian educational cultures—continue to marginalize its perceived value in the holistic development of students.(Fig. 4 -1-1) A considerable proportion (38.6%) of parents defined labor narrowly as physical exertion, overlooking broader forms such as service-based, creative, or community-oriented work. Such a limited understanding restricts the scope of parental involvement and undermines efforts to integrate diverse, developmentally appropriate labor experiences into children’s daily routines. More than half (56.7%) of parents viewed their role primarily as that of supervisors rather than co-educators. Only 29.1% reported actively seeking information about school-based labor education programs. This suggests a lack of role clarity and limited initiative to engage with schools as partners in implementing labor education initiatives. Notably, 41.8% of parents indicated that their interest in labor education stemmed from its perceived utility in boosting academic profiles or increasing chances of school admission. This instrumental framing risks reducing labor education to a means–end calculus, rather than cultivating intrinsic values such as responsibility, perseverance, and social contribution.(Fig. 4 -1-2) 4.2 Behavioral Engagement: Structural Constraints and Shallow Participation Parental engagement in labor education is characterized by low frequency and limited depth, with significant structural barriers evident across communication, guidance, decision-making, and community linkage mechanisms. Only 15.8% of parents reported receiving structured instructional support from teachers regarding how to implement labor education at home. In contrast, 82.1% indicated that communication from schools was typically limited to brief logistical notices prior to specific events. This lack of pedagogical scaffolding constrains parents’ ability to align household practices with curricular objectives and weakens the coherence of home–school collaboration. School–home communication primarily focuses on routine safety reminders (62.3%) and outcome-oriented reporting such as photo displays or activity summaries (28.7%). Dedicated discussions regarding labor education practices, pedagogical strategies, or shared expectations constituted only 9% of reported interactions. This points to a misalignment between communication volume and substantive content, reducing opportunities for mutual understanding and co-construction of educational goals. Parental involvement in the planning of labor education activities remains minimal. Only 9.7% of parents had ever participated in the formulation of activity plans, while 76.5% reported that they had never been invited to offer feedback or input by schools. This reflects a broader pattern of symbolic inclusion without substantive participatory governance, reinforcing parents’ passive roles in the labor education process. Underutilization of social resources. Although a large majority of parents (78.3%) expressed support for integrating community-based labor experiences, only 12.4% had taken initiative to help schools identify or connect with local practice sites. This highlights a gap between attitudinal endorsement and actual engagement, suggesting that institutional mechanisms for mobilizing family–community linkages remain underdeveloped. 4.3 Effectiveness and Evaluation: Uneven Outcomes and Limited Parental Gains The effectiveness of parental involvement in labor education appears to be both grade-sensitive and unevenly distributed. While younger students show relatively higher levels of developmental gains, the perceived benefits for parents themselves remain limited. Furthermore, school evaluation practices are heavily product-oriented, with insufficient attention to formative processes. Parental involvement seems to yield greater benefits for younger students. Among surveyed participants, 68.4% of parents with children in lower grades reported that their child’s labor skills had reached the expected standard, compared to only 41.2% in upper grades—a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05). (Fig. 4 -3-1) This may reflect both cognitive developmental factors and diminishing parental engagement as children age. Only 32.1% of parents felt that their own educational competencies had improved through participation in labor education activities. Moreover, 58.9% admitted that they were unclear about how the outcomes of labor education were being assessed. These findings suggest a disconnect between participation and reflective learning, with many parents unable to internalize or evaluate their own growth within the labor education framework. School evaluations were reported to focus predominantly on final outputs—such as photos, reports, and visible products—with 73.6% of parents indicating that labor achievements were assessed primarily through such tangible displays. Process-oriented indicators (e.g., effort, persistence, problem-solving) were largely overlooked, undermining the formative potential of evaluation systems. Statistical analyses supported the importance of both cognitive clarity and professional guidance.(Fig. 4 -3-2) Chi-square tests revealed a significant positive correlation between parental clarity of understanding and their frequency of participation (r = 0.68, p < 0.01). Furthermore, the frequency of teacher-provided guidance showed a strong correlation with overall parental satisfaction (r = 0.72, p < 0.01). These findings highlight the reinforcing loop between informed engagement, guided support, and perceived efficacy. In summary, the impact of labor education is not evenly distributed across grade levels or stakeholder groups. Without explicit standards, formative feedback, and adequate professional scaffolding, parents may struggle to perceive their contributions as meaningful. Addressing these gaps requires a shift from product-centered evaluations toward holistic, relational, and process-based frameworks.(Fig. 4 -3-3) 5 Discussion 5.1 Deep-Rooted Causes of Parental Ambiguity Toward Labor Education The uncertainty seen in parents' comprehension of labor education is a symptom of a deeper contradiction between inherited educational values and the developing aims of whole-person development in modern schooling. Parents may normally profess support for labor education, yet their conceptual models remain rudimentary, conditioned by institutional misfit, cultural inertial, and restricted information exposure. One important limiting factor is the residual weight of pyramidic scholarship ideologies—the catchword of which is the proverbical injunction, “All pursuits are inferior to scholarly study”. Under the cognitive rubric of this image, labor is often understood not as a tool for learning but as a disciplinary measure or a diversion from scholastic achievement. Parents often, therefore, miss the value added by labor education as a pivotal path for developing a sense of responsibility, creativity, and practical problem-solving capacity—all valued capabilities in contemporary schooling systems. Schools, the frontline administrators of national labor education policy, are more often driven to conform to administrative orders than engage in interpreting mandates. Interview evidence showed that teachers reported that only 28.9% of them had undergone formal training in labor education pedagogics. As a consequence, policy discourse is diluted as it is passed down—the line from policy authorities, through educators, and finally, to families, and is therefore said to create a sort of “dilution effect” in policy transmission. Such institutional separation erodes parental comprehension of both the rationale and mechanism of labor education. Parents' knowledge of labor education material is extremely restricted, with 76.3% having received information only in the form of school notification. Such excessive reliance on a singular, frequently superficial information path forbids cross-perspective engagement and critical examination. Such informational monoculture solidifies preconceptions and prevents an evidence-informed, more sophisticated conception of labor education's mandate and potential. 5.2 Mechanisms Behind the Absence of Home–School Collaborative Action The deterioration of effective home–school partnership in labor education is caused by a threefold set of constraints—structural, capacity-related, and cultural. These constraints work together in intricate patterns to stymie communication, dilute engagement, and ultimately erode the collective effectiveness of labor education practices. One of the most critical barriers is the absence of formal mechanisms for the continuation of parent–school discussion. Based on survey findings, 78.2% of parents disclosed that their only way of obtaining information from the school was from sporadic messages in WeChat groups. Such ad hoc information is incapable of fostering the depth of interaction necessary for co-planning, mutual reflection, or continued pedagogical collaboration. Absent a stable and inclusive system for communication, home–school coordination is superficial at best. A second obstacle is the delimiting professional capacity of teachers to engage parents in meaningful labor education. Just 15.8% of surveyed parents reported that they received structured instruction from teachers regarding how to facilitate labor education at home. Such a figure indicates a broader disparity in the teacher education system, where labor education is marginal or rudimentary in pre-service education and in-service training. Consequently, teachers may not have the confidence, techniques, or time to facilitate parental involvement in a pedagogically situated way. Even when structural and professional prerequisites are adequate, collaboration collapses due to value inconsistencies between schools and families. Although educators typically narrate labor education in developmental terms—that is, they underscore character development, civic responsibility, and all-around growth—even more parents perceive labor education in utilitarian terms, as a way to obtain life capabilities or develop self-care abilities. This difference in intent undermines intrinsic motivation for working together and turns labor education into a compliance process instead of a common educational undertaking. 5.3 A Dynamic Model of Diverse Labor Education Outcomes The “grade-level decline effect” in the development of labor competencies is systematically explained by a dynamic input–transformation–feedback framework. The framework accounts for how declining levels of investment, superficial pedagogical conversion, and poor experiential reinforcement contribute to uneven patterns in labor education by grade levels. As children move into successive upper-grade levels, rising pressures from schooling increasingly squeeze out time devoted to labor education in the home. Evidence reveals that average weekly time spent in labor education at home declines from 1.2 hours in lower-grade levels to a mere 0.4 hours in upper-grade levels. This indicates that labor education is routinely set in competition with standardized testing and curriculum load, where labor education is often prioritized out in areas with culturally narrow definitions of academic success. Even when labor education is conducted in schools, both the quality and depth of pedagogical implementation are still restricted. More than a half of parents (62.3%) indicated that labor activities were largely reduced to symbolic practices (e.g., photo-taking or check-off completion) and not meaningful, extended experiences. Such form-over-substance implementation undermines the pedagogical value of labor education and erodes chances for reflection, responsibility, or skill internalization. Feedback mechanisms are also found to be inadequate in supporting parental motivation. Only a fraction of parents (32.1%) perceived improved educational capacity through their participation in labor education. Such a perceived lack of individual growth or acknowledgment discourages regular future parental investment. In the lack of reinforcing feedback loops, labor education turns into an a la cart activity, not an iterated, bidirectional process. 5.4 Theoretical Dialogue: Localizing and Extending Epstein’s Overlapping Spheres of Influence Model While Epstein’s Overlapping Spheres of Influence (OSI) model (Epstein, 1987; 2018) has provided a foundational framework for understanding school–family–community partnerships, the findings of this study suggest two important refinements in the context of contemporary Chinese labor education. These revisions reflect the need to expand the model’s conceptual boundaries and redistribute stakeholder agency in localized educational ecosystems. The original OSI model focuses primarily on the overlapping domains of family and school, often treating the community sphere as a passive or distal influence. However, our data reveal that active parental engagement in community-based labor resources—such as helping to establish local practice bases—is significantly associated with more positive student labor attitudes (r = 0.58, p < 0.01). This underscores the need to reconceptualize the “community” not as a background condition, but as a dynamic educational arena where labor values are experienced, reinforced, and co-constructed. Epstein’s model implicitly positions parents as recipients of influence—primarily shaped by school-initiated actions and policies. In contrast, our findings suggest that when parents are empowered to contribute to the design of labor education activities, their sense of agency and satisfaction increases markedly. Case evidence indicates that parental participation in activity planning led to a 47.6% increase in decision-making satisfaction. This highlights the potential of redefining parental roles from peripheral supporters to co-creators of educational practice—shifting the home–school dynamic from hierarchical delegation to reciprocal governance. 5.5 Research Innovation: A Three-Dimensional Framework Linking Cognition, Action, and Outcome This study advances the current literature on labor education by proposing a three-dimensional explanatory framework that integrates parental cognition, behavioral engagement, and perceived outcomes. Departing from fragmented or linear analyses, the model outlines a dynamic, recursive relationship in which beliefs, practices, and experiences mutually reinforce each other. This structure contributes both empirically and conceptually to the understanding of how home–school partnerships operate within the context of labor education. Parental comprehension plays a strong predictive role in labor education participation. Causal evidence for clearer concepts explaining more participation exists in the form of a positive, statistically significant (r = 0.68, p < 0.01) correlation. This indicates a need for cognitive scaffolding and effective policy transmission. Parental satisfaction is further correlated with teacher support. Correlation evidence (r = 0.72, p < 0.01) exists between teacher support and parent satisfaction, and it reinforces the need for professional facilitation in collaboration between home and school. Parents who perceived labor skill improvement in their children also reported more personal value and competency. Regression (β = 0.61, p < 0.01) indicates a reinforcing causal loop—student development enhances parental belief and continued participation. 6 Conclusions 6.1 Research Conclusions Grounded in a mixed-methods design combining quantitative survey data and qualitative analysis, the current study offers a detailed exploration of the existing state and root challenges of parental involvement in Chinese primary school labor education. Parents have a contradictory attitude of "high recognition but low understanding" of the significance of labor education. Although an overwhelming majority indicates support for its significance, their deeper conceptual understanding is absent. This split may largely be attributed to the combined impact of entrenched conventional assumptions—such as the emphasis on academic work over manual labor—and a reduced transmission of school policies at the juncture between school and home. The pattern of parental engagement in labor education is marked by low frequency and limited depth. Structural barriers—including inadequate teacher training, the absence of institutionalized communication channels, and the marginalization of parental roles in decision-making—impede the formation of effective home–school collaboration mechanisms. Students’ development of labor competencies exhibits a declining trend across grade levels, reflecting what can be termed a “grade-level attenuation effect.” This is further exacerbated by an evaluation system that overemphasizes product-based assessments while neglecting processual learning. Additionally, many parents report a limited sense of personal gain from participation, weakening their motivation for sustained involvement. 6.2 Policy and Practice Recommendations In response to the challenges identified in this study, we propose the following targeted and actionable recommendations to enhance parental involvement in primary school labor education. A dedicated parent handbook should be designed and integrated into parent-school curricula as a compulsory component, embedding labor-related values and pedagogical understanding into everyday parenting discourse. To counteract the "policy dilution" effect, schools and education departments should produce short videos, podcasts, and micro-courses on labor education to communicate objectives, practices, and value orientations in accessible formats. These digital “micro-classrooms” can build awareness and foster conceptual alignment. A tripartite coordination mechanism should be institutionalized through the creation of labor education parent councils. Parents should be granted rights to co-design curricula, contribute community resources, and participate in quality evaluations—forming a triadic participatory role in planning, execution, and assessment. Introduce a "time-for-credit" model wherein parents may exchange volunteer service hours for student labor education credits. This creates a feedback loop of mutual benefit and incentivizes sustained engagement through tangible recognition. Move beyond product-oriented evaluations by incorporating a triadic structure: (a) process portfolios that document ongoing engagement, (b) achievement showcases for outcomes, and (c) community-based feedback for external validation. Such a model ensures visibility of parental contributions and student development. Develop a digital labor literacy platform. Utilize digital tools to visualize student performance in labor education through personalized dashboards. Real-time feedback and data-driven recommendations can enhance both formative assessment and individualized support, improving transparency and responsiveness in the labor learning process. 6.3 Limitations and Future Directions Despite its contributions, this study is subject to several limitations that constrain the generalizability and depth of its findings. These limitations also point to fruitful directions for future research. The study was conducted in a single primary school in Nanjing, China. While the case provides rich contextual insights, the generalizability of the findings may be limited. Future studies should incorporate multi-site comparative designs across regions, school types (e.g., urban vs. rural, public vs. private), and socio-economic strata to validate and refine the proposed framework. The primary data source was a parent questionnaire based on self-reported measures, which are susceptible to social desirability bias. To enhance data robustness, future research should adopt triangulated methods, including classroom observations, student interviews, and teacher reflections, to capture a more holistic and objective account of labor education practices. This study employed a cross-sectional design, providing only a snapshot of parental involvement at a single point in time. As such, it does not capture the temporal dynamics or evolution of participation behaviors. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine how parental cognition, engagement, and perceived outcomes unfold and interact over time, especially in response to policy shifts or institutional innovations. Declarations Ethical Approval This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Nanjing Xiaozhuang University (Approval No. 2025005) on May 23, 2025. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee, and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. Specifically, between May 24 and June 10, 2025, all participants were provided with a detailed written information sheet describing the study’s aims, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. For adult participants, written consent forms were signed and returned either in person or via secure electronic submission before participation. For participants under the age of 18, written consent was obtained from their legal guardians or parents, alongside verbal assent from the minors themselves. Participation was entirely voluntary, and all participants were informed that they could withdraw at any time without penalty. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":91228,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e4-1-1 Parental Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Labor Education\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6820837/v1/d603b80aa85c1b30d720849d.png"},{"id":92194996,"identity":"f45f7dbd-5151-4bf0-88a5-870af9d197b1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-25 15:45:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34989,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e4-1-2 Parental Attitudes Toward Labor Education: A Multi-Dimensional View\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6820837/v1/6825844f861382aeb3271613.png"},{"id":92196245,"identity":"f7d63303-55c3-4952-ad9c-503969b9ec03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-25 15:53:46","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47127,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e4-2 Structural Gaps in Parental Engagement with Labor Education\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6820837/v1/dc74db5325ae1fdfb965526b.png"},{"id":92194997,"identity":"08013785-92c9-4e58-97e2-58903e48d693","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-25 15:45:46","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13604,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e4-3-1 Student Labor Skill Proficiency by Grade Level\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6820837/v1/205f534553be65edd0c441d3.png"},{"id":92195001,"identity":"c0213b8e-2116-48f1-9c3c-0ffea689859b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-25 15:45:46","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26411,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e4-3-2 Focus of School Evaluation in Labor Education\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6820837/v1/cb766c0d80864faed923baf1.png"},{"id":92195000,"identity":"7cef9480-1264-41a4-b152-84f3c95a202d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-25 15:45:46","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e4-3-3 Significant Positive Correlations (p \u0026lt; 0.01)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6820837/v1/fb2fda3b46d2679e5c7c8a68.png"},{"id":101296991,"identity":"ad71faf0-f104-44c0-b007-d4c93fe11e9d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-28 09:24:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1113332,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6820837/v1/d152768b-abf2-4808-ab02-8fc7ccded7b7.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Parental Engagement in Labor Education in Chinese Primary Schools: A Mixed-Methods Study of Participation Patterns, Cultural Constraints, and Policy Pathways","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLabor education has emerged as a strategic focus in global primary education reform, positioned as a core component of the \u0026ldquo;Five-Education Integration\u0026rdquo; framework in China. The National Education Development Plan (2024\u0026ndash;2035) issued by the State Council calls for a comprehensive cultivation system integrating moral, intellectual, physical, aesthetic, and labor education (Central Committee of the Communist Party of China \u0026amp; State Council of the People's Republic of China., 2025), while the Family Education Promotion Law marks the first legislative move to formalize co-responsibility across families, schools, and communities (National People\u0026rsquo;s Congress, 2021). However, the translation of such policy mandates into effective practice faces significant challenges. Notably, a persistent cognition\u0026ndash;action disconnect is observed: while 94.4% of surveyed parents acknowledge the importance of labor education, only 28.3% report frequent engagement in community service. Additionally, the effectiveness of resource coordination remains low\u0026mdash;family\u0026ndash;school collaboration in labor education averages 2.31 on a 4-point scale, and less than 30% of families report community support (Wang, 2023). These gaps between aspirational policy and on-the-ground realities highlight the pressing need to examine the mechanisms of parental involvement in labor education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite increasing academic interest in labor education, existing studies on parental engagement in this domain remain constrained by several critical limitations. First, perspectives are often fragmented. Educational scholarship tends to concentrate on curriculum design and classroom implementation (e.g., Ping, 2023), whereas sociological research highlights disparities in parental behavior driven by cultural capital and class stratification (e.g., Ream \u0026amp; Palardy, 2008). However, few attempts have been made to integrate these strands into a systemic understanding of how schools, families, and communities interact to shape labor education outcomes. Second, prevailing analytical frameworks are predominantly Western-centric. Notably, Epstein\u0026rsquo;s widely applied six-dimensional model of family\u0026ndash;school partnerships (Epstein, 2018) offers a useful starting point but lacks sensitivity to culturally specific constructs such as filial piety, intergenerational hierarchy, and collectivist parenting values, which critically shape parental roles and decision-making in East Asian contexts (Sheng, 2019). Third, methodological limitations persist across the literature. More than 75% of empirical studies rely heavily on cross-sectional survey data (Chen, 2024), leading to insufficient exploration of the dynamic, relational, and processual dimensions of parental involvement. Meta-analyses have also noted a lack of longitudinal research designs capable of tracing how parental engagement evolves over time or responds to shifting institutional conditions (Smith et al., 2022). These theoretical and methodological shortcomings limit the field\u0026rsquo;s ability to capture how parental involvement in labor education operates within culturally embedded and policy-driven educational systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e In response to the aforementioned gaps, this review adopts an interdisciplinary approach that integrates insights from education, sociology, and family studies to systematically examine parental involvement in primary school labor education. The review aims to make three key contributions. First, it constructs a triadic explanatory framework consisting of cognitive orientation, behavioral participation, and ecological support structures to decipher the inner mechanisms and outer constraints behind parental participation. The model explains how parents' attitude, roles, and actions are shaped by institutional configurations, value systems, and socio-economic settings. Second, the literature review offers critical comparative examination of international labor education models, including Japan's PTA-facilitated practice-based curriculum and Germany's legislative backing for parental education rights, to contextualize China's policy path and implementation challenges. Third, it advances localized intervention channels in line with China's \"family\u0026ndash;school\u0026ndash;community co-education\" agenda. These approaches lean on ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2005) and are framed around the co-construction of labor education in an enabling manner through empowered parents, strengthened teacher capacity, and mobilizing community assets. By distilling cross-disciplinary research and policy innovations, this literature review advances a more inclusive and culturally responsive framework for enhancing parental participation in the transforming Chinese labor education landscape.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eLabor education in China has been re-emphasized in a national agenda, organizing intellectual, moral, and physical development into the K\u0026ndash;9 curriculum (Ministry of Education of the PRC, 2020). Labor education is broadly defined as formal learning opportunities for children to establish work habits, perform practicum-based tasks, and develop values like responsibility and perseverance (Wang, 2022; Ding, 2022). In a global context, the goals are aligned with those of twenty-first-century competencies (Care et al., 2018), character education (Berkowitz \u0026amp; Bier, 2005), and experiential learning theory (Passarelli \u0026amp; Kolb, 2023) yet have Chinese characteristics in their integration of socialist principles and state-imposed implementation structures (Liu \u0026amp; Wang, 2023). Parent involvement is a foundation for effective labor education. Based on Epstein\u0026rsquo;s (2010) Overlapping Spheres of Influence (OSI) framework, family, school, and neighborhood spheres intersect in influencing student growth. More recent work highlights how closer alignment between the spheres increases transmission of behavior among and learning effects (won Kim., 2018). Research further suggests that labor-oriented parental practice differs from, and is separate from, studying-oriented parent involvement, requiring different cognitive mindsets and relational capabilities (Mbua, 2023; Xu, Cheng \u0026amp; Peng, 2021). Bronfenbrenner\u0026rsquo;s ecological systems theory provides a tiered framework for examining parental involvement in labor education in which mesosystemic factors (e.g., home\u0026ndash;school relation) and exosystemic elements (e.g., policy pressures) together contribute to behavior (Li, Ma \u0026amp; Wei, 2024). Bourdieu\u0026rsquo;s (1985) capital theory is an additional layer: families with more cultural and social capital more readily support non-scholarly areas such as labor education (Luo, Liu \u0026amp; Qu, 2022). More current Chinese research confirms that parent labor orientations are related to class, occupation, and educational background (Huang et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn inquiry within the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) with the keywords \"parental involvement,\" \"labor education,\" and \"primary school\" in titles, abstracts, or subject headings returned 1,142 records between 2000 and 2025. The same keywords under the same period also yielded 895 results in a search of the Web of Science. These numbers speak to the rising scholarly and policy attention given to labor education in the foundational years of schooling, specifically the role of families in shaping students\u0026rsquo; labor attitudes, habits, and competencies. Keeping up with this fast-moving library is crucial, as the latest evidence across educational sociology, family studies, and national curriculum policy continues to transform our knowledge of the complex dynamics between labor values and institutional collaboration. Theoretical and practical frameworks of \"family\u0026ndash;school collaboration in labor education\" frame the complex interplay between domestic norms, institutional arrangements, and sociocultural expectations shaping the labor development possibilities for young students. When labor is not just a form of physical or menial activity in the primary curriculum, a growing awareness is implicit concerning the multidimensional moral, affective, and identity-related concomitants of educational labor. The framing of the current article under the concept of \u0026ldquo;family\u0026ndash;school collaboration\u0026rdquo; underscores the need for a critical balance between family attitudes, school-based support systems, and broader cultural values such as diligence, responsibility, and collectivism to ensure that children\u0026rsquo;s labor development is supported equitably across contexts. Besides, the inclusion of parental cognition, role positioning, and participatory rights in the design of primary labor education policy and pedagogy is vital to ensure sustainable, inclusive engagement. Embedding collaborative frameworks with a commitment to both school professionalism and family involvement can maximize developmental outcomes for the child, enhance parental educational efficacy, and reduce inequality in students\u0026rsquo; labor education experiences. In this regard, family\u0026ndash;school partnerships are an underpinning mechanism for advancing educational equity and crafting lifelong values of work, respect, and self-reliance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch consistently indicates that Chinese parents demonstrate high affective endorsement of labor education but often hold shallow conceptual understandings of its pedagogical function (Yang \u0026amp; Mei, 2024). For example, while 84% of surveyed parents believe that \u0026ldquo;labor builds character,\u0026rdquo; only 39% could differentiate between physical labor and creative or service-oriented tasks (Duan et al., 2023). This mirrors findings in cross-cultural studies: parental support is often driven more by conformity to policy than internalized educational philosophy (Kim \u0026amp; Brand, 2023; Weiss et al., 2009).Studies also find a cognitive\u0026ndash;behavioral decoupling: even parents with strong affective agreement may avoid substantive engagement due to time constraints, role ambiguity, or lack of confidence (Atoum \u0026amp; Al-Adamat, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA large portion of studies focus on parental cognition, attitudes, or values, often derived from self-reported questionnaires (Fields, 1972). While this line of inquiry is valuable for understanding normative orientations, it rarely connects to observed or measured behavior. Few studies verify whether expressed beliefs translate into actual practices, creating a persistent cognition\u0026ndash;action gap (Yang, 1997).Furthermore, observational or ethnographic studies capturing real-time parental participation in labor education contexts are scarce, particularly in non-urban schools (Morales-Castilloet al., 2023). The limited use of mixed methods or video-based analysis narrows the understanding of interaction dynamics between families and schools during labor activities. Most existing research is cross-sectional, offering snapshots rather than developmental trajectories. The dynamic interplay between parental engagement, student labor competencies, and evolving family\u0026ndash;school relations remains underexplored (Shakhovskoy, 2022; Chen, Wu \u0026amp; He, 2023). Longitudinal designs could help detect how engagement evolves across primary grades, especially during critical transitions (e.g., from lower to upper elementary) or policy shifts (e.g., Double Reduction reform).Moreover, very few studies explore how parental involvement in labor education intersects with adolescent identity formation, autonomy development, or civic participation\u0026mdash;domains central to the goals of labor education (Yu, 2020).Moreover, engagement with international labor education literature remains minimal. Comparative insights from Nordic, Southeast Asian, or Latin American contexts\u0026mdash;where civic, practical, and democratic aims of schooling are emphasized\u0026mdash;could provide valuable contrasts and decenter policy-driven Chinese paradigms (Hoskins et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Research Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a mixed-methods design integrating quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews, forming a triangulated validation framework. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure representativeness across parent demographics and school grades. In-depth interviews were conducted over a six-month period to capture the evolving dynamics of parental participation in labor education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were collected from a case school (S Primary School) in Nanjing, selected for its typical implementation of labor education policies. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed, with 538 valid responses obtained (response rate: 89.7%). Twelve headteachers and labor education instructors were purposively sampled for semi-structured interviews. Labor literacy was assessed using a pre\u0026ndash;post design with 480 students through a multidimensional measurement tool.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Instruments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eComprised 42 items across three dimensions\u0026mdash;cognition, behavior, and perceived outcomes. Teacher version focused on policy implementation challenges and professional development needs. Parent version explored motivation, perceived barriers, and access to resources. Adopted a three-dimensional evaluation model consisting of knowledge testing, situational judgment, and practical tasks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Data Collection and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were cleaned using SPSS 26.0, with missing values addressed via multiple imputation. AMOS 28.0 was used to construct Structural Equation Models (SEM) to examine path relationships among core variables. Interview transcripts were analyzed using three-tiered coding, progressing from local concepts to initial categories and finally core themes. Nvivo 12.0 was employed for word frequency and thematic analysis, with high-frequency codes such as \u0026ldquo;time conflict\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;competency anxiety\u0026rdquo; emerging.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Quality Control Measures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e Quota variables such as \u0026ldquo;parental participation frequency\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;child\u0026rsquo;s grade level\u0026rdquo; were used to ensure sample balance. Two rounds of expert review and cognitive interviews were conducted during the pilot stage, with three ambiguous items removed. A 10% sample of questionnaires was verified by phone, with an inter-rater consistency coefficient of 0.92.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6 Ethical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study adhered to the principles of informed consent. All participants signed an electronic consent form. An anonymous coding system was used to ensure confidentiality and data were used exclusively for academic purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Parental Understanding and Engagement: A Paradox of Recognition and Misalignment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurvey findings reveal a paradoxical dynamic in parents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of labor education, marked by high levels of general support but low levels of nuanced understanding and meaningful engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile 82.3% of parents expressed agreement that labor education is necessary for their children\u0026rsquo;s development, only 43.2% viewed it as equally important as academic learning. This gap suggests that although parents formally endorse labor education, entrenched academic-centric norms\u0026mdash;especially prevalent in East Asian educational cultures\u0026mdash;continue to marginalize its perceived value in the holistic development of students.(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e-1-1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA considerable proportion (38.6%) of parents defined labor narrowly as physical exertion, overlooking broader forms such as service-based, creative, or community-oriented work. Such a limited understanding restricts the scope of parental involvement and undermines efforts to integrate diverse, developmentally appropriate labor experiences into children\u0026rsquo;s daily routines. More than half (56.7%) of parents viewed their role primarily as that of supervisors rather than co-educators. Only 29.1% reported actively seeking information about school-based labor education programs. This suggests a lack of role clarity and limited initiative to engage with schools as partners in implementing labor education initiatives. Notably, 41.8% of parents indicated that their interest in labor education stemmed from its perceived utility in boosting academic profiles or increasing chances of school admission. This instrumental framing risks reducing labor education to a means\u0026ndash;end calculus, rather than cultivating intrinsic values such as responsibility, perseverance, and social contribution.(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e-1-2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Behavioral Engagement: Structural Constraints and Shallow Participation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental engagement in labor education is characterized by low frequency and limited depth, with significant structural barriers evident across communication, guidance, decision-making, and community linkage mechanisms. Only 15.8% of parents reported receiving structured instructional support from teachers regarding how to implement labor education at home. In contrast, 82.1% indicated that communication from schools was typically limited to brief logistical notices prior to specific events. This lack of pedagogical scaffolding constrains parents\u0026rsquo; ability to align household practices with curricular objectives and weakens the coherence of home\u0026ndash;school collaboration. School\u0026ndash;home communication primarily focuses on routine safety reminders (62.3%) and outcome-oriented reporting such as photo displays or activity summaries (28.7%). Dedicated discussions regarding labor education practices, pedagogical strategies, or shared expectations constituted only 9% of reported interactions. This points to a misalignment between communication volume and substantive content, reducing opportunities for mutual understanding and co-construction of educational goals. Parental involvement in the planning of labor education activities remains minimal. Only 9.7% of parents had ever participated in the formulation of activity plans, while 76.5% reported that they had never been invited to offer feedback or input by schools. This reflects a broader pattern of symbolic inclusion without substantive participatory governance, reinforcing parents\u0026rsquo; passive roles in the labor education process. Underutilization of social resources. Although a large majority of parents (78.3%) expressed support for integrating community-based labor experiences, only 12.4% had taken initiative to help schools identify or connect with local practice sites. This highlights a gap between attitudinal endorsement and actual engagement, suggesting that institutional mechanisms for mobilizing family\u0026ndash;community linkages remain underdeveloped.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Effectiveness and Evaluation: Uneven Outcomes and Limited Parental Gains\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of parental involvement in labor education appears to be both grade-sensitive and unevenly distributed. While younger students show relatively higher levels of developmental gains, the perceived benefits for parents themselves remain limited. Furthermore, school evaluation practices are heavily product-oriented, with insufficient attention to formative processes. Parental involvement seems to yield greater benefits for younger students. Among surveyed participants, 68.4% of parents with children in lower grades reported that their child\u0026rsquo;s labor skills had reached the expected standard, compared to only 41.2% in upper grades\u0026mdash;a statistically significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e-3-1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis may reflect both cognitive developmental factors and diminishing parental engagement as children age. Only 32.1% of parents felt that their own educational competencies had improved through participation in labor education activities. Moreover, 58.9% admitted that they were unclear about how the outcomes of labor education were being assessed. These findings suggest a disconnect between participation and reflective learning, with many parents unable to internalize or evaluate their own growth within the labor education framework. School evaluations were reported to focus predominantly on final outputs\u0026mdash;such as photos, reports, and visible products\u0026mdash;with 73.6% of parents indicating that labor achievements were assessed primarily through such tangible displays. Process-oriented indicators (e.g., effort, persistence, problem-solving) were largely overlooked, undermining the formative potential of evaluation systems. Statistical analyses supported the importance of both cognitive clarity and professional guidance.(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e-3-2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChi-square tests revealed a significant positive correlation between parental clarity of understanding and their frequency of participation (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.68, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Furthermore, the frequency of teacher-provided guidance showed a strong correlation with overall parental satisfaction (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.72, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). These findings highlight the reinforcing loop between informed engagement, guided support, and perceived efficacy. In summary, the impact of labor education is not evenly distributed across grade levels or stakeholder groups. Without explicit standards, formative feedback, and adequate professional scaffolding, parents may struggle to perceive their contributions as meaningful. Addressing these gaps requires a shift from product-centered evaluations toward holistic, relational, and process-based frameworks.(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e-3-3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Deep-Rooted Causes of Parental Ambiguity Toward Labor Education\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe uncertainty seen in parents' comprehension of labor education is a symptom of a deeper contradiction between inherited educational values and the developing aims of whole-person development in modern schooling. Parents may normally profess support for labor education, yet their conceptual models remain rudimentary, conditioned by institutional misfit, cultural inertial, and restricted information exposure. One important limiting factor is the residual weight of pyramidic scholarship ideologies\u0026mdash;the catchword of which is the proverbical injunction, \u0026ldquo;All pursuits are inferior to scholarly study\u0026rdquo;. Under the cognitive rubric of this image, labor is often understood not as a tool for learning but as a disciplinary measure or a diversion from scholastic achievement. Parents often, therefore, miss the value added by labor education as a pivotal path for developing a sense of responsibility, creativity, and practical problem-solving capacity\u0026mdash;all valued capabilities in contemporary schooling systems. Schools, the frontline administrators of national labor education policy, are more often driven to conform to administrative orders than engage in interpreting mandates. Interview evidence showed that teachers reported that only 28.9% of them had undergone formal training in labor education pedagogics. As a consequence, policy discourse is diluted as it is passed down\u0026mdash;the line from policy authorities, through educators, and finally, to families, and is therefore said to create a sort of \u0026ldquo;dilution effect\u0026rdquo; in policy transmission. Such institutional separation erodes parental comprehension of both the rationale and mechanism of labor education. Parents' knowledge of labor education material is extremely restricted, with 76.3% having received information only in the form of school notification. Such excessive reliance on a singular, frequently superficial information path forbids cross-perspective engagement and critical examination. Such informational monoculture solidifies preconceptions and prevents an evidence-informed, more sophisticated conception of labor education's mandate and potential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Mechanisms Behind the Absence of Home\u0026ndash;School Collaborative Action\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe deterioration of effective home\u0026ndash;school partnership in labor education is caused by a threefold set of constraints\u0026mdash;structural, capacity-related, and cultural. These constraints work together in intricate patterns to stymie communication, dilute engagement, and ultimately erode the collective effectiveness of labor education practices. One of the most critical barriers is the absence of formal mechanisms for the continuation of parent\u0026ndash;school discussion. Based on survey findings, 78.2% of parents disclosed that their only way of obtaining information from the school was from sporadic messages in WeChat groups. Such ad hoc information is incapable of fostering the depth of interaction necessary for co-planning, mutual reflection, or continued pedagogical collaboration. Absent a stable and inclusive system for communication, home\u0026ndash;school coordination is superficial at best. A second obstacle is the delimiting professional capacity of teachers to engage parents in meaningful labor education. Just 15.8% of surveyed parents reported that they received structured instruction from teachers regarding how to facilitate labor education at home. Such a figure indicates a broader disparity in the teacher education system, where labor education is marginal or rudimentary in pre-service education and in-service training. Consequently, teachers may not have the confidence, techniques, or time to facilitate parental involvement in a pedagogically situated way. Even when structural and professional prerequisites are adequate, collaboration collapses due to value inconsistencies between schools and families. Although educators typically narrate labor education in developmental terms\u0026mdash;that is, they underscore character development, civic responsibility, and all-around growth\u0026mdash;even more parents perceive labor education in utilitarian terms, as a way to obtain life capabilities or develop self-care abilities. This difference in intent undermines intrinsic motivation for working together and turns labor education into a compliance process instead of a common educational undertaking.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 A Dynamic Model of Diverse Labor Education Outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u0026ldquo;grade-level decline effect\u0026rdquo; in the development of labor competencies is systematically explained by a dynamic input\u0026ndash;transformation\u0026ndash;feedback framework. The framework accounts for how declining levels of investment, superficial pedagogical conversion, and poor experiential reinforcement contribute to uneven patterns in labor education by grade levels. As children move into successive upper-grade levels, rising pressures from schooling increasingly squeeze out time devoted to labor education in the home. Evidence reveals that average weekly time spent in labor education at home declines from 1.2 hours in lower-grade levels to a mere 0.4 hours in upper-grade levels. This indicates that labor education is routinely set in competition with standardized testing and curriculum load, where labor education is often prioritized out in areas with culturally narrow definitions of academic success. Even when labor education is conducted in schools, both the quality and depth of pedagogical implementation are still restricted. More than a half of parents (62.3%) indicated that labor activities were largely reduced to symbolic practices (e.g., photo-taking or check-off completion) and not meaningful, extended experiences. Such form-over-substance implementation undermines the pedagogical value of labor education and erodes chances for reflection, responsibility, or skill internalization. Feedback mechanisms are also found to be inadequate in supporting parental motivation. Only a fraction of parents (32.1%) perceived improved educational capacity through their participation in labor education. Such a perceived lack of individual growth or acknowledgment discourages regular future parental investment. In the lack of reinforcing feedback loops, labor education turns into an a la cart activity, not an iterated, bidirectional process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.4 Theoretical Dialogue: Localizing and Extending Epstein\u0026rsquo;s Overlapping Spheres of Influence Model\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile Epstein\u0026rsquo;s Overlapping Spheres of Influence (OSI) model (Epstein, 1987; 2018) has provided a foundational framework for understanding school\u0026ndash;family\u0026ndash;community partnerships, the findings of this study suggest two important refinements in the context of contemporary Chinese labor education. These revisions reflect the need to expand the model\u0026rsquo;s conceptual boundaries and redistribute stakeholder agency in localized educational ecosystems. The original OSI model focuses primarily on the overlapping domains of family and school, often treating the community sphere as a passive or distal influence. However, our data reveal that active parental engagement in community-based labor resources\u0026mdash;such as helping to establish local practice bases\u0026mdash;is significantly associated with more positive student labor attitudes (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.58, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). This underscores the need to reconceptualize the \u0026ldquo;community\u0026rdquo; not as a background condition, but as a dynamic educational arena where labor values are experienced, reinforced, and co-constructed. Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model implicitly positions parents as recipients of influence\u0026mdash;primarily shaped by school-initiated actions and policies. In contrast, our findings suggest that when parents are empowered to contribute to the design of labor education activities, their sense of agency and satisfaction increases markedly. Case evidence indicates that parental participation in activity planning led to a 47.6% increase in decision-making satisfaction. This highlights the potential of redefining parental roles from peripheral supporters to co-creators of educational practice\u0026mdash;shifting the home\u0026ndash;school dynamic from hierarchical delegation to reciprocal governance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.5 Research Innovation: A Three-Dimensional Framework Linking Cognition, Action, and Outcome\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study advances the current literature on labor education by proposing a three-dimensional explanatory framework that integrates parental cognition, behavioral engagement, and perceived outcomes. Departing from fragmented or linear analyses, the model outlines a dynamic, recursive relationship in which beliefs, practices, and experiences mutually reinforce each other. This structure contributes both empirically and conceptually to the understanding of how home\u0026ndash;school partnerships operate within the context of labor education. Parental comprehension plays a strong predictive role in labor education participation. Causal evidence for clearer concepts explaining more participation exists in the form of a positive, statistically significant (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.68, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) correlation. This indicates a need for cognitive scaffolding and effective policy transmission. Parental satisfaction is further correlated with teacher support. Correlation evidence (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.72, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) exists between teacher support and parent satisfaction, and it reinforces the need for professional facilitation in collaboration between home and school. Parents who perceived labor skill improvement in their children also reported more personal value and competency. Regression (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.61, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) indicates a reinforcing causal loop\u0026mdash;student development enhances parental belief and continued participation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6 Conclusions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.1 Research Conclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrounded in a mixed-methods design combining quantitative survey data and qualitative analysis, the current study offers a detailed exploration of the existing state and root challenges of parental involvement in Chinese primary school labor education. Parents have a contradictory attitude of \"high recognition but low understanding\" of the significance of labor education. Although an overwhelming majority indicates support for its significance, their deeper conceptual understanding is absent. This split may largely be attributed to the combined impact of entrenched conventional assumptions\u0026mdash;such as the emphasis on academic work over manual labor\u0026mdash;and a reduced transmission of school policies at the juncture between school and home. The pattern of parental engagement in labor education is marked by low frequency and limited depth. Structural barriers\u0026mdash;including inadequate teacher training, the absence of institutionalized communication channels, and the marginalization of parental roles in decision-making\u0026mdash;impede the formation of effective home\u0026ndash;school collaboration mechanisms. Students\u0026rsquo; development of labor competencies exhibits a declining trend across grade levels, reflecting what can be termed a \u0026ldquo;grade-level attenuation effect.\u0026rdquo; This is further exacerbated by an evaluation system that overemphasizes product-based assessments while neglecting processual learning. Additionally, many parents report a limited sense of personal gain from participation, weakening their motivation for sustained involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.2 Policy and Practice Recommendations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response to the challenges identified in this study, we propose the following targeted and actionable recommendations to enhance parental involvement in primary school labor education. A dedicated parent handbook should be designed and integrated into parent-school curricula as a compulsory component, embedding labor-related values and pedagogical understanding into everyday parenting discourse. To counteract the \"policy dilution\" effect, schools and education departments should produce short videos, podcasts, and micro-courses on labor education to communicate objectives, practices, and value orientations in accessible formats. These digital \u0026ldquo;micro-classrooms\u0026rdquo; can build awareness and foster conceptual alignment. A tripartite coordination mechanism should be institutionalized through the creation of labor education parent councils. Parents should be granted rights to co-design curricula, contribute community resources, and participate in quality evaluations\u0026mdash;forming a triadic participatory role in planning, execution, and assessment. Introduce a \"time-for-credit\" model wherein parents may exchange volunteer service hours for student labor education credits. This creates a feedback loop of mutual benefit and incentivizes sustained engagement through tangible recognition. Move beyond product-oriented evaluations by incorporating a triadic structure: (a) process portfolios that document ongoing engagement, (b) achievement showcases for outcomes, and (c) community-based feedback for external validation. Such a model ensures visibility of parental contributions and student development. Develop a digital labor literacy platform. Utilize digital tools to visualize student performance in labor education through personalized dashboards. Real-time feedback and data-driven recommendations can enhance both formative assessment and individualized support, improving transparency and responsiveness in the labor learning process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.3 Limitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite its contributions, this study is subject to several limitations that constrain the generalizability and depth of its findings. These limitations also point to fruitful directions for future research. The study was conducted in a single primary school in Nanjing, China. While the case provides rich contextual insights, the generalizability of the findings may be limited. Future studies should incorporate multi-site comparative designs across regions, school types (e.g., urban vs. rural, public vs. private), and socio-economic strata to validate and refine the proposed framework. The primary data source was a parent questionnaire based on self-reported measures, which are susceptible to social desirability bias. To enhance data robustness, future research should adopt triangulated methods, including classroom observations, student interviews, and teacher reflections, to capture a more holistic and objective account of labor education practices. This study employed a cross-sectional design, providing only a snapshot of parental involvement at a single point in time. As such, it does not capture the temporal dynamics or evolution of participation behaviors. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine how parental cognition, engagement, and perceived outcomes unfold and interact over time, especially in response to policy shifts or institutional innovations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Nanjing Xiaozhuang University (Approval No. 2025005) on May 23, 2025. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee, and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. Specifically, between May 24 and June 10, 2025, all participants were provided with a detailed written information sheet describing the study\u0026rsquo;s aims, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. For adult participants, written consent forms were signed and returned either in person or via secure electronic submission before participation. For participants under the age of 18, written consent was obtained from their legal guardians or parents, alongside verbal assent from the minors themselves. Participation was entirely voluntary, and all participants were informed that they could withdraw at any time without penalty.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the Research on the Path and Strategy of Integrating Artificial Intelligence with Ideological and Political Education in Local Ordinary Normal Colleges, 2024DJKT01.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAtoum, A. Y., \u0026amp; Al-Adamat, O. A. (2024). Cognitive dissonance and its relationship to academic engagement. \u003cem\u003eCognition, Brain, Behavior\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e28\u003c/em\u003e(1), 53-67.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBerkowitz, M. W., \u0026amp; Bier, M. C. (2005). What works in character education: A research-driven guide for educators.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBourdieu, P. (1985). 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(2020, March 20). \u003cem\u003eOpinions on Comprehensively Strengthening Labor Education in Universities, Middle and Primary Schools in the New Era\u003c/em\u003e. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/moe_1777/moe_1778/202003/t20200326_435127.html\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCentral Committee of the Communist Party of China \u0026amp; State Council of the People\u0026apos;s Republic of China. (2025, January 19). \u003cem\u003eMaster Plan on Building China into a Leading Country in Education (2024\u0026ndash;2035)\u003c/em\u003e. Retrieved from https://english.www.gov.cn/policies/latestreleases/202501/20/content_WS678d85c6c6d0868f4e8eef83.html\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eChen, C. (2024). 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Parental Involvement With Early Adolescents: Variations Related to the Gender in Rural and Urban Areas. \u003cem\u003eSAGE Open\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(1), 21582440231158620.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNational People\u0026rsquo;s Congress of the People\u0026rsquo;s Republic of China. (2021). \u003cem\u003eFamily Education Promotion Law of the People\u0026rsquo;s Republic of China\u003c/em\u003e. China Legal Publishing House.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePassarelli, A. M., \u0026amp; Kolb, D. A. (2023). Using experiential learning theory to promote student learning and development in programs of education abroad. In \u003cem\u003eStudent learning abroad\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 137-161). Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePing, W. (2023). 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Research Review No. 5. \u003cem\u003eCampaign for Educational Equity, Teachers College, Columbia University\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ewon Kim, S. (2018). Parental involvement in developing countries: A meta-synthesis of qualitative research. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Educational Development\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e, 149-156.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eXu, D., Cheng, Q., \u0026amp; Peng, J. (2021). A review of research on labor education for young children in China over the past 30 years. \u003cem\u003eEarly Childhood Education Z\u003c/em\u003e, (6), 77\u0026ndash;82.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYan, J. (1997). The disconnection between cognition and behavior: Problems and causes in the development of prosocial behavior among young children. \u003cem\u003eEarly Childhood Education\u003c/em\u003e, (3), 7.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYang, F., \u0026amp; Mei, X. (2024). Research on the current situation and countermeasures of family labor education. \u003cem\u003eAdvances in Education\u003c/em\u003e, 14, 1062.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYu, B. (2020). \u003cem\u003eFamily Background, Cultural Capital, Obesity, and Academic Achievement in Childhood\u003c/em\u003e (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Labor Education, Parental Involvement, Family–School Collaboration, Ecological Framework, China","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6820837/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6820837/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eLabor education has gained prominence within China\u0026rsquo;s primary education system in recent years, prompting increased scholarly attention to the role of parental involvement. This study investigates the scope, challenges, and reform pathways of parental involvement in labor education within China\u0026rsquo;s evolving education system. Drawing on a mixed-methods design, the research integrates questionnaire responses from 538 parents, labor skill assessments from 480 students, and semi-structured interviews with 12 teachers at a representative urban school. Results reveal a paradoxical pattern of high parental support yet low active participation, driven by role ambiguity, fragmented school communication, and utilitarian perceptions of educational value. A \u0026ldquo;grade-decline effect\u0026rdquo; is identified, with student labor competencies decreasing in higher grades, alongside a decline in parental perceived efficacy. To interpret these findings, the study introduces a cognition\u0026ndash;action\u0026ndash;feedback model situated within Bronfenbrenner\u0026rsquo;s ecological systems theory. Policy recommendations include time-credit incentives, co-designed curricula, and formative, portfolio-based assessments to enhance equitable and sustainable family\u0026ndash;school\u0026ndash;community collaboration. The findings contribute to global conversations on culturally responsive family engagement and labor education reform.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Parental Engagement in Labor Education in Chinese Primary Schools: A Mixed-Methods Study of Participation Patterns, Cultural Constraints, and Policy Pathways","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-25 15:45:41","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6820837/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"da3ef5f3-a940-462f-84cb-411efd5ee7e9","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":55084888,"name":"Social science/Development studies"},{"id":55084889,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":55084890,"name":"Social science/Psychology"},{"id":55084891,"name":"Social science/Social policy"},{"id":55084892,"name":"Social science/Sociology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-23T12:41:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-25 15:45:41","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6820837","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6820837","identity":"rs-6820837","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}