Normativity and Effects of Witnessing Stigma-Based Peer Victimization among Youth

Normativity and Effects of Witnessing Stigma-Based Peer Victimization among Youth | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Normativity and Effects of Witnessing Stigma-Based Peer Victimization among Youth Diana J. Meter, Jesiah P. Salazar This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8712554/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Adolescents may encounter peer victimization because of their socially stigmatized or devalued identities and traits, referred to as stigma-based peer victimization (SBPV). All forms of SBPV are harmful, but some forms may be deemed more normative and tolerable. According to social dominance theory, even certain stigmatized groups are considered to be dominant over others. The study included 1,606 diverse adolescents aged 14–17 (44% girls, 52% boys, 4% other genders, 588 racial/ethnic minority youth, 307 LGBTQ+, 276 disabled, 1027 receiving free or reduced priced lunch). Participants self-reported witnessed SBPV victimization, depressive/anxious symptoms and delinquency and sexual harassment. A repeated measures ANOVA was run to test which forms of SBPV were witnessed most commonly. We also tested whether witnessing certain forms of SBPV vs. others was more related to adjustment problems or sexual harassment using multiple regression. We found significant differences in prevalence of SBPV witnessed. Using Bonferroni adjusted values, we conducted pairwise comparisons and found that prevalence of witnessing different forms of SBPV differed. Witnessing fatphobic and homophobic SBPV seems particularly pervasive, while skinnyphobic SBPV is not. After controlling for own identity/traits, witnessing skinnyphobic, racial/ethnic, and ableist victimization was associated with most problems, while witnessing homophobic and fatphobic victimization mostly was not. Stigma-based peer victimization adjustment sexual harassment witnessing Introduction Adolescents may encounter peer victimization because of their socially stigmatized or devalued identities and traits, referred to as stigma-based peer victimization (SBPV, blinded). Within the United States, like many other nations, there is a history of bias and prejudice against those with disabilities (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 1996), people of color (Harrell, 2000), sexual minorities (Nadal, 2013), and those who are overweight or obese (Puhl & Brownell, 2001). All forms of SBPV are harmful, but some forms may be deemed more tolerable. This may result in 1) higher levels of some forms of SBPV and 2) fewer negative effects of witnessing certain forms of SBPV. In the current study, we assessed these factors to inform whether some forms of SBPV are more tolerable to adolescents, and therefore if they deem more attention from prevention and intervention efforts. The U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights ensures equal access to high quality education. This includes laws prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, national origin, sex, disability, and age (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Despite these prohibitions, many youth who identify with historically marginalized groups receive interpersonal peer victimization, a form of discrimination, due to their group identification or physical traits, which have been historically stigmatized. Interestingly, youth with different historically marginalized identities are not at equal risk for victimization. In fact, it seems as though some youth may be at higher risk because certain forms of bias-based peer victimization are more common and may not be defended against as much (blinded). SBPV can take multiple forms, and the types of SBPV that exist are a direct reflection of stigmatized identities within a particular culture or sociopolitical system. In this study we have chosen to focus on four forms of SBPV common in the United States: Homophobic, weight, racial/ethnic, and ableist (Farmer et al., 2015; Myers et al., 2020; Van Geel et al., 2014). It is important to note that a victim of SBPV does not necessarily have to identify with the group being stigmatized by the denigrating victimization behavior; SBPV can be used as a way of reinforcing social norms in a group. For example, homophobic SBPV often includes verbal aggression like name-calling that denigrates gender and sexually non-conforming behavior (Myers et al., 2020). Although LGBT students are frequent targets of homophobic SBPV, heterosexual youth are also often targets of homophobic SPBV because it is used as a way of reinforcing traditional sexual and gender-typical behavior (Espelage et al., 2019). Therefore, individuals in a peer group may witness SBPV directed toward peers with a variety of identities, but it nonetheless shares the message that particular identities or traits are less valued or acceptable. Weight-based SBPV is targeted at youth who are considered overweight or obese (Van Geel et al., 2014), however, although infrequently studied, in the current study we have chosen to include skinnyphobic and fatphobic SBPV as separate forms of peer victimization so that differences between these two subforms of weight-based SBPV can be examined. Racial/ethnic SBPV is based on one’s race or ethnicity, and is typically, but not always, enacted by peers from different racial or ethnic backgrounds than the victim (Bayram Özdemir et al., 2022). Victimization due to nationality, immigration status, refugee status, etc. could overlap with race/ethnic SBPV. Ableist SBPVis typically directed toward students with disabilities, sometimes due to differences in disabled students’ social competencies and lower positioning in social networks compared to typically developing peers (Farmer et al., 2015). Two theoretical perspectives can help explain why the phenomenon of SBPV occurs among groups of youth. First, according to social dominance theory, within societies, certain groups are considered to be dominant over others. In a society in which certain groups prevail as dominant groups, discrimination or victimization of certain groups may be tolerated or justified in order to maintain the status quo of social dominance. Within this framework, even among stigmatized, historically marginalized groups, certain groups may be more stigmatized than others (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). System justification theory also suggests that certain types of discrimination may be more palatable to some individuals as certain psychological needs are met by upholding, supporting, and justifying injustice. Thus, some discriminatory beliefs may be normalized at the individual level as part of maintaining the status quo (Jost & Banaji, 1994). For example, despite racial/ethnic victimization and discrimination being disallowed in public schools, this form of victimization continues to exist. However, there are other forms of SBPV and discrimination that are not specifically enumerated in laws and policies, such as those targeting sexual identity or body size. Therefore, some forms of SBPV might be deemed more socially acceptable than others and we would expect to witness them more than forms of SBPV that are explicitly not allowed. Without specific protections for certain groups in place, this communicates that these forms of victimization and discrimination are more acceptable. Within these frameworks, we believe that a likely consequence of certain groups’ victimization being justified is a higher prevalence of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment can be defined as “a broad range of noncooperative verbal or nonverbal behaviors of a sexual nature that are intended to insult and degrade the victim” (Duncan et al., 2019; Bolduc et al., 2022, p. 1148). Similar to bias-based peer victimization, it is theorized to take place within contexts in which individuals hold different positions within social hierarchies, and as is the case with bias-based peer victimization, perpetration can be used as a way to indicate these social hierarchies and reinforce social norms (Bolduc et al., 2022). In line with this theoretical perspective, individuals from marginalized groups who historically have less social power, including women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and those who do not fulfill stereotypical gender norms, would be expected to be victims of sexual harassment at higher levels. There is research that suggests that experiences of peer victimization and sexual harassment tend to be correlated (e.g., Duncan et al., 2019; Felix & McMahon, 2006) and that sexual harassment can predict involvement in later peer victimization (Chiodo et al., 2009). Sexual harassment is sometimes considered to be a form of peer victimization alongside other form such as physical or verbal (Felix & You, 2011). Operationalization of sexual harassment may overlap with the operationalization of stigma-based peer victimization. For example, name-calling sexual harassment may overlap with anti-LGBTQ+ slurs that would be considered to be stigma-based peer victimization. Sexual harassment has also been shown to be associated with appearance-based peer victimization, which can include weight-based peer victimization (Duncan et al., 2019). Sexual harassment has been included in research on peer victimization but is not regularly included in studies of multiple forms of bias-based peer victimization. Because of the probable correlation between bias-based peer victimization and sexual harassment, we included sexual harassment as an outcome in the current study. The current study has two goals. First, we investigated whether witnessing certain forms of SBPV was more prevalent than witnessing others. Second, we investigated the effects of witnessing certain forms of SBPV. While we expected there to be some prevalence and negative effects of all forms of SBPV, we expected that there would be more witnessed SBPV and more negative effects of witnessing SBPB when the SBPV was a targeted at a group for whom there are rarely enumerated laws and protections. Methods Participants The study included 1,606 diverse adolescents aged 14-17 (44% girls, 52% boys, 4% other genders, 588 racial/ethnic minority youth, 307 LGBTQ+, 276 disabled, 1027 receiving free or reduced priced lunch). Participants were recruited via Qualtrics. The study was advertised to adult Qualtrics Panel participants who were asked to recruit their students to participate. Parents and youth participants had to provide their consent and assent to participate. Parents received compensation via the Qualtrics panel. The procedures were approved by the IRB of the authors’ institution. Measures Witnessed SBPV . Participants self-reported witnessed SBPV including victimization due to body size, race/ethnicity, homophobia, or ability. There were four items for each type of SBPV that represented different forms of peer victimization including verbal (e.g., “Some kids call each other names or use phrases like fatty, porker, tubby, etc.) and relational victimization (e.g., “A student spread a rumor about someone because of their race/ethnicity”). All items began with a stem, “Some kids call each other names or use phrases about racial or ethnic groups in a mean way like the N word, white trash, etc.” and then were asked to report on the frequency with which they witnessed these behaviors in the last 30 days on a scale from 0 = 0 to 4 = 7 or more times. These items were adapted from Homophobic Peer Victimization items used by Poteat and Vecho (2016). The internal consistency for larger body size SBPV was α = .95, for smaller body size SBPV α = .95, for racial/ethnic SBPV α = .93, Homophobic SBPV α = .91, and ability SBPV α = .93). Depressive/anxious symptoms . Depressive/anxious symptoms were reported via the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) using 21 items measured on a scale from 0 = Not true to 2 = Very true or often true, α = .93. An example item is “I am nervous or tense.” Delinquency . Delinquency was reported via the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) using 15 items measured on the same scale as above, α = .88. An example item is “I don't feel guilty after doing something I shouldn't.” Sexual harassment was recorded via seven items from the American Association of University Women measure (Lipson, 2001). Participants were asked to rate during the last year, how often, if at all, anyone had (this includes students, teachers, other school employees, or anyone else) done various forms of sexual behaviors to them during school-related times when they did not want them to. School-related times include when you are on your way to or home from school; when you are on school grounds, including before, during, or after school hours; and when you're on a school trip. Participants responded on a scale from 0 = Never to 3 = Six+ times, α = .86. An example item is, “Spread sexual rumors about you.” Control variables. SBPV traits and identities (i.e. self-reported body size, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, and ability) and receipt of free/reduced-priced lunch were included as control variables when applicable. Plan of Analysis First, we calculated correlations between witnessing each form of SBPV, depressive/anxious symptoms, sexual harassment and assault, and identification with stigmatized identities. Next, to investigate whether some forms of SBPV occurred more often than others, we ran a repeated measures ANOVA using rstatix (Kassambara, 2023) in R (R Core Team, 2024) on the variables homophobic SBPV, ethnic/racial SBPV, ableist SBPV, skin color SBPV, and fatphobic SBPV. Using Bonferroni adjusted values, we conducted pairwise comparisons. Last, in order to understand if witnessing certain forms of SBPV vs. others were more related to adjustment problems. We first calculated the correlations between the observed variables and then ran a path analysis in lavaan (Rosseel, 2012), regressing witnessing different forms of SBPV on depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and sexual harassment, controlling for participant’s own characteristics that may be stigmatized, including being a racial/ethnic minority, a sexual minority, being fat, skinny, disabled, or receiving free/reduced-price lunch. We included these factors as control variables because one’s own identity may affect how one perceives and interprets witnessing SBPV of others. Missing data for this analysis were handled using FIML (Little et al., 2014). Results Correlations between study variables are available in Table 1. Witnessing each form of SBPV was positively, significantly correlated to a large degree, suggesting that when one form of SBPV is witnessed, it is common for the other types to occur in the same context. Additionally, witnessing all forms of SBPV was positively, significantly related to depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and sexual harassment. Correlations between witnessing SBPV and sexual assault were small and tended to be negative. Participants’ own identities’ correlations with other study variables tended to be small in magnitude. Next, we investigated differences in the amount of witnessed SBPV reported by participants. Means and standard deviations for each type of witnessed SBPV is reported in Table 2. Generally, witnessing skinnyphobic SBPV was less pervasive than witnessing other forms of SBPV. Witnessing fatphobic and homophobic SBPV were particularly pervasive. The dependent samples ANOVA was significant, signifying differences in the amount of different types of SBPV witnessed ( F (4, 6388 df ) = 242.77, p < .05). The Mauchly’s test for sphericity was significant ( W = .95, p < .05), but with sphericity corrections the result remained significant at the p < .05 level. We found significant differences between different forms of SBPV, with fatphobic peer victimization reported the most. Using Bonferroni adjusted values, we conducted pairwise comparisons and found that the following forms of SBPV differed from each other (see Table 3). Homophobic SBPV was the most commonly witnessed form of SBPV, followed by fatphobic, ableist, racial/ethnic, and skinnyphobic. However, we note that the means for all but skinnyphobic SBPV were quite similar and therefore may not be practically observed. Last, we investigated whether witnessing certain forms of SBPV was related to outcomes (see Table 4). Although not the main goal of the study, it is important to note that many of our control variables, participants own identities and traits, predicted study outcomes. Specifically, those with minoritized racial and ethnic identities reported less depression/anxiety, less delinquency, and less sexual harassment than their non-racially minoritized peers. Sexually minoritized youth reported more depression/anxiety and more sexual harassment than their non-LGBTQ+ peers. Participants who reported having bigger bodies than their peers reported more depressive/anxious symptoms. Being disabled was associated with depression/anxiety, delinquency, and sexual harassment. Receiving free and reduced/price lunch was related to depression/anxiety and delinquency. We state this because it is important to note that after controlling for these factors, witnessing SBPV has an effect on adjustment. Witnessing skinnyphobic, racial/ethnic, and ableist SBPV was related to all outcomes, depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and sexual harassment. Witnessing homophobic SBPV was related to sexual harassment. Discussion Our results showed that there are small but significant differences between the amount of witnessed SBPV among adolescents in our sample. Specifically, most witnessed SBPV was homophobic in nature, followed by fatphobic, ableist, racial/ethnic, and skinnyphobic. Our results suggest that some forms of SBPV are more common than others. Further, we found that witnessing certain forms of SBPV was associated with adjustment problems and sexual harassment, but other forms were not. Some forms of SBPV being witnessed more than others suggests that there are individuals who belong to stigmatized groups who might be more at risk for victimization. But beyond that, it suggests that certain forms of victimization may be more acceptable and therefore more likely to be witnessed by others in a peer group. This finding was mirrored in other research showing that students were reported defending some forms of SBPV more than others (blinded). As is the case in the current study, it seems that some forms of SBPV are potentially viewed as more tolerable than others. This might be representative of larger societal attitudes toward certain stigmatized identities, as well as the effects of enumerating particular identities and traits in laws and policies that prohibit peer victimization. Discrimination and victimization due to race/ethnicity and disability is specifically included in antibullying policy (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services), while body-size based peer victimization, for example, is rarely included in antibullying policy (Lessard et al., 2022). Anti-peer victimization policies often overlap with federal Title IX and civil rights legislation to protect a free and appropriate public education, which means schools must protect students whose education is affected by victimization due to these identities (stopbullying.org). Protections for sexual and gender minority youth are inconsistent between states (Lessard et al., 2020). Consistent with systems justification theory, it is possible that students more easily justify SBPV of certain people due to the lack of systemic protections for those individuals and consequent normalization of violence toward them. It is similarly of interest that witnessing some forms of SBPV consistently predicted problem outcomes including depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and experienced sexual harassment. The very forms that were predictive of these problematic outcomes were the forms that were less common, namely skinnyphobic, racial/ethnic, and ableist SBPV. Racial/ethnic and ableist SBPV are technically protected by federal law and are enumerated in many antibullying policies. Further, smaller body sizes tend not to be stigmatized in the United States and are often considered to be the ideal body size. Together this suggests that when individuals witness the less socially sanctioned forms of SBPV, it is associated with adjustment problems. This again reflects that there are some forms of SBPV that may be deemed more socially acceptable, or at least less unacceptable, than others, putting students with particular identities and traits at greater risk. The relation between witnessing SBPV and sexual harassment is especially illustrative, as rather than this be an individual outcome, it is an interpersonal, and arguably peer-level outcome. We suggest that the relation between witnessing certain forms of SBPV and experienced sexual harassment indicates that there are contextual climates in which the two experiences might co-occur. In other words, where interpersonal harm of one type rampant, interpersonal harm of another type might be rampant as well. These contexts might be especially risky for gender and sexual minoritized youth who report more sexual harassment than their heterosexual and cisgender peers above and beyond the effects of witnessing SBPV and other identities/traits. Contexts with more homophobic SBPV specifically may signify a context in which traditional gender and sexual roles and behavior are “policed” by the peer group (Espelage et al., 2019); the strong correlation between homophobic SBPV and sexual harassment in the current study may be an indicator of this, and is an area of research ripe for future study. Understanding the social context in which SBPV occur more generally can help elucidate how decreasing SBPV can create more supportive developmental context from students who belong to historically marginalized or stigmatized groups and their peers who do not identify with these groups or traits. We also found an effect of witnessing SBPV above and beyond the effect of identifying with historically stigmatized or marginalized traits or identities. High levels of SBPV may create an environment in which youth feel the need to be hypervigilant and avoid identification with or expression of traits that might make their targets for SBPV. This may be at odds with their own desire to express their identities or impossible for certain youth, even if they do want to avoid the risk for SBPV. Future research should investigate the interactions between own identities and witnessing different forms of SBPV to better understand which students are at risk from being in contexts high in SBPV whether it is directed at them personally or whether they are witnesses to others’ peer victimization. Limitations One major limitation of this study is our consideration of identity and trait groups as homogenous. We recognize that racially and ethnically marginalized youth who come from different racial or ethnic groups may have unique experiences, and beyond that, even within groups, there is much diversity in experiences. Similarly, there are differences between youth who identify with different sexual minority groups, have different types of disabilities and different disability severity, and different body shapes and sizes. Our goal in the current study was to begin initial examinations in differences between witnessing types of SBPV, and given the multiple categories of SBPV we already investigate, more detailed analyses seemed impossible. However, we do encourage researchers to conduct these specific analyses when possible, as we intend to in future research, so that the best use of prevention and intervention efforts can be applied. In conclusion, as has been shown in previous research (blinded), there seem to be some forms of bias-based peer victimization that are witnessed more than others; this suggests that some individuals who identify with stigmatized groups may be at greater risk for victimization. It also suggests that certain forms of victimization may be more socially acceptable. In order to create inclusive, safe environments for all students, laws and policies that protect students from peer victimization should include enumerated groups and these policies must be enforced. In the context of inequality in social acceptability of different forms of peer victimization, steps must be taken to ensure protections against mistreatment of students is equitable. Declarations Ethics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declaration : Please ensure that all the necessary declarations are listed in the manuscript. Please refer to the submission guidelines for more information. If not applicable, please provide the following declaration in the manuscript: ‘Ethics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations: not applicable. Funding Declaration Funding was provided to the first author in the form of start-up funding from [blinded]. Author Contribution Authorship is limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work. D.M. was responsible for overall project conceptualization, methodology, analyses, writing, and funding acquisition. J.S. was responsible for conceptualization, initial analyses, some original draft preparation, editing and review. Data Availability Data is available from the first author upon request. References Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Child behavior checklist for ages 6–18 . University of Vermont Burlington, VT. https://reachoutandread.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/CBCL-1-Summary.pdf Bayram Özdemir, S., Yanagida, T., & Özdemir, M. (2022). Bystanders of ethnic victimization: Do classroom context and teachers’ approach matter for how adolescents intend to act? Child Development , 93 (5), 1540–1558. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13822 Bolduc, M. L., Martin-Storey, A., & Paquette, G. (2022). Correlates of sexual harassment victimization among adolescents: A scoping review. Journal of Social Issues , 79 (4), 1147–1173. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12529 Chiodo, D., Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C., Hughes, R., & Jaffe, P. (2009). Impact of sexual harassment victimization by peers on subsequent adolescent victimization and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health , 45 (3), 246–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.01.006 Duncan, N., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Furman, W. (2019). Sexual harassment and appearance‐based peer victimization: Unique associations with emotional adjustment by gender and age. Journal of Adolescence , 75 (1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.06.016 Espelage, D. L., Valido, A., Hatchel, T., Ingram, K. M., Huang, Y., & Torgal, C. (2019). A literature review of protective factors associated with homophobic bullying and its consequences among children & adolescents. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 45 , 98–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.003 Farmer, T., Wike, T. L., Alexander, Q. R., Rodkin, P. C., & Mehtaji, M. (2015). Students with disabilities and involvement in peer victimization: Theory, research, and considerations for the future. Remedial and Special Education , 36 (5), 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932515572911 Felix, E. D., & McMahon, S. D. (2006). Gender and multiple forms of peer victimization: How do they influence adolescent psychosocial adjustment? Violence and Victims , 21 (6), 707–724. 10.1891/0886-6708.21.6.707 Felix, E. D., & You, S. (2011). Peer victimization within the ethnic context of high school. Journal of Community Psychology , 39 (7), 860–875. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20465 Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 70 (1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087722 Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology , 33 (1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x Kassambara, A. (2023). rstatix: Pipe-friendly framework for basic statistical tests (R package version 0.7.2) [Computer software]. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rstatix Lessard, L. M., Watson, R. J., & Puhl, R. M. (2020). Bias-based bullying and school adjustment among sexual and gender minority adolescents: The role of gay-straight alliances. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 49 (5), 1094–1109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01205-1 Lessard, L. M., Watson, R. J., Schacter, H. L., Wheldon, C. W., & Puhl, R. M. (2022). Weight enumeration in United States anti-bullying laws: Associations with rates and risks of weight-based bullying among sexual and gender minority adolescents. Journal of Public Health Policy , 43 (1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41271-021-00322-w Lipson, J. (2001). Hostile hallways: Bullying, teasing, and sexual harassment in school . ERIC . https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED454132 Little, T. D., Jorgensen, T. D., Lang, K. M., & Moore, E. W. G. (2014). On the joys of missing data. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 39 (2), 151–162. https://academic.oup.com/jpepsy/article-abstract/39/2/151/883719 Mackelprang, R. W., & Salsgiver, R. O. (1996). People with disabilities and social work: Historical and contemporary issues. Social Work , 41 (1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/41.1.7 [blinded]. Myers, W., Turanovic, J. J., Lloyd, K. M., & Pratt, T. C. (2020). The victimization of LGBTQ students at school: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Violence , 19 (4), 421–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2020.1725530 Poteat, V. P., & Vecho, O. (2016). Who intervenes against homophobic behavior? Attributes that distinguish active bystanders. Journal of School Psychology , 54 , 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.10.002 R Core Team (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 4.x) [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/ Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance theory. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology , 2 . https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4912667&publisher=FZ7200#page=1025 United States Department of Health and Human Services (n.d.). StopBullying.gov . https://www.stopbullying.gov/ Van Geel, M., Vedder, P., & Tanilon, J. (2014). Are overweight and obese youths more often bullied by their peers? A meta-analysis on the relation between weight status and bullying. International Journal of Obesity , 38 (10), 1263–1267. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.117 Tables Table 1. Correlations between study variables. Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 Witnessed Homophobic SBPV 1.00 2 Witnessed Fatphobia SBPV .73*** 1.00 3 Witnessed Skinnyphobia SBPV .57*** .67*** 1.00 4 Witnessed Ethnic/Racial SBPV .67*** .67*** .58*** 5 Witnessed Ableist SBPV .69*** .72*** .63*** .66*** 1.00 6 Depression/Anxiety .29*** .30*** .30*** .28*** .30*** 1.00 7 Delinquency .26*** .27*** .28*** .29*** .28*** .53*** 1.00 8 Sexual Harassment .39*** .38*** .42*** .40*** .41*** .49*** .50*** 9 Minoritized Race/Ethnicity -.00 -.03 -.02 .10*** -.01 -.06* -.06* -.05* 1.00 10 Sexual Minority .14*** .13*** .11*** .10*** .08** .23*** .07** .15*** -.02 1.00 11 Bigger Body .08** .16*** .01 .06* .09*** .12*** .06* .06* -.00 .05 1.00 12 Smaller Body .07** .02 .08** .03 .05* .04 -.01 .00 -.04 .06* -.24*** 1.00 13 Disabled .06* .09** .05* .06* .10*** .20*** .13*** .11*** -.04 .07** .13*** -.01 1.00 14 Free/Reduced-Price Lunch .04 .08** .09** .11*** .06* .13*** .11*** .04 .11*** .05* .07** -.04 .12*** Notes. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 Table 2. Average and standard deviation of witnessed forms of SBPV. Witnessed SBPV M SD Homophobic 1.61 1.24 Ethnic/racial 1.33 1.24 Ableist 1.44 1.26 Skinnyphobic .90 1.08 Fatphobic 1.52 1.25 Note. Numbers represent N = 1598 participants who had complete data for this analysis. Table 3. Mean differences between witnessed forms of SBPV. SBPV Type SBPV Type df Statistic Sig. Adj. Ableist Ethnic/racial 1597 4.12 < .001 Ableist Fatphobic 1597 -3.65 < .01 Ableist Homophobic 1597 -7.03 < .001 Ableist Skinnyphobic 1597 21.10 < .001 Ethnic/racial Fatphobic 1597 -7.57 < .001 Ethnic/racial Homophobic 1597 -11.0 < .001 Ethnic/racial Skinnyphobic 1597 15.9 < .001 Fatphobic Homophobic 1597 -3.83 < .01 Fatphobic Skinnyphobic 1597 25.7 < .001 Homophobic Skinnyphobic 1597 26.2 < .001 Table 4. Path analysis associations between witnessing SBPV and outcomes Outcome Predictor B Beta SE Depression/Anxiety Racial/ethnic minority -.06** -.07 .02 Sexual minority .19*** .17 .03 Bigger body than peers .07** .08 .02 Smaller body than peers .04 .03 .03 Disability .16*** .14 .03 Free/reduced price lunch .07** .08 .02 Witnessed homophobic SBPV .01 .04 .01 Witnessed fatphobic SBPV .01 .02 .01 Witnessed skinnyphobic SBPV .05*** .13 .01 Witnessed ethnic/racial SPBV .03* .08 .01 Witnessed Ableist SBPV .03* .09 .01 Delinquency Racial/ethnic minority -.05** -.07 .02 Sexual minority .01 .02 .02 Bigger body than peers .01 .02 .02 Smaller body than peers -.02 -.02 .02 Disability .07*** .09 .02 Free/reduced price lunch .05** .07 .02 Witnessed homophobic SBPV .01 .04 .01 Witnessed fatphobic SBPV .00 -.01 .01 Witnessed skinnyphobic SBPV .04*** .12 .01 Witnessed ethnic/racial SPBV .04*** .15 .01 Witnessed Ableist SBPV .02* .08 .01 Sexual Harassment Racial/ethnic minority -.06** -.06 .02 Sexual minority .11*** .08 .03 Bigger body than peers .01 .01 .03 Smaller body than peers -.05 -.04 .03 Disability .09** .07 .03 Free/reduced price lunch -.02 -.02 .02 Witnessed homophobic SBPV .03* .09 .01 Witnessed fatphobic SBPV -.01 -.03 .02 Witnessed skinnyphobic SBPV .10*** .22 .01 Witnessed ethnic/racial SPBV .06*** .14 .01 Witnessed Ableist SBPV .05*** .13 .01 Notes. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 10 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 10 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 02 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 02 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 27 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8712554","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":621495829,"identity":"a5d24cd3-aae9-41ed-a735-3e2950f6a062","order_by":0,"name":"Diana J. Meter","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCwwgm4wMInUCkFh4GBmYD4rQcQGhhkyBKC99x5mcPfjBsk7Nn731WzfPnMAM/e44BXi2Sh9nMDXsYbhvz8Bw3u83bdphBsucNfi0GhxnMJHgYbif2SKSx3eZtOMxgcIOALQaH2b9J/mG4Xd8j/4ytGOQwe8JaeMykgbYk8EiwsTHzsAFtkSDoF54yaRmD24Y9Z9KYJee2pfNInHlWgFcL3/nj2yTfVNyWZ28/xvjhzR9rOf725A14tUCdh2DyEKF8FIyCUTAKRgEhAAB/8D9A7fXUrQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Utah State University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Diana","middleName":"J.","lastName":"Meter","suffix":""},{"id":621495830,"identity":"241fbd00-93b3-42f2-8382-4544fc2da8bc","order_by":1,"name":"Jesiah P. Salazar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Utah State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jesiah","middleName":"P.","lastName":"Salazar","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-27 16:08:31","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8712554/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8712554/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108490727,"identity":"c09d9a0c-97cc-40b9-b763-608f370ed385","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 09:47:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":397591,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8712554/v1/0eb636ff-da9f-4307-84bb-d8d147be5cee.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Normativity and Effects of Witnessing Stigma-Based Peer Victimization among Youth","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdolescents may encounter peer victimization because of their socially stigmatized or devalued identities and traits, referred to as \u003cem\u003estigma-based peer victimization\u003c/em\u003e (SBPV, blinded). Within the United States, like many other nations, there is a history of bias and prejudice against those with disabilities (Mackelprang \u0026amp; Salsgiver, 1996), people of color (Harrell, 2000), sexual minorities (Nadal, 2013), and those who are overweight or obese (Puhl \u0026amp; Brownell, 2001). All forms of SBPV are harmful, but some forms may be deemed more tolerable. This may result in 1) higher levels of some forms of SBPV and 2) fewer negative effects of witnessing certain forms of SBPV. In the current study, we assessed these factors to inform whether some forms of SBPV are more tolerable to adolescents, and therefore if they deem more attention from prevention and intervention efforts.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights ensures equal access to high quality education. This includes laws prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, national origin, sex, disability, and age (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Despite these prohibitions, many youth who identify with historically marginalized groups receive interpersonal peer victimization, a form of discrimination, due to their group identification or physical traits, which have been historically stigmatized. Interestingly, youth with different historically marginalized identities are not at equal risk for victimization. In fact, it seems as though some youth may be at higher risk because certain forms of bias-based peer victimization are more common and may not be defended against as much (blinded).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSBPV can take multiple forms, and the types of SBPV that exist are a direct reflection of stigmatized identities within a particular culture or sociopolitical system. In this study we have chosen to focus on four forms of SBPV common in the United States: Homophobic, weight, racial/ethnic, and ableist (Farmer et al., 2015; Myers et al., 2020; Van Geel et al., 2014). It is important to note that a victim of SBPV does not necessarily have to identify with the group being stigmatized by the denigrating victimization behavior; SBPV can be used as a way of reinforcing social norms in a group. For example, homophobic SBPV often includes verbal aggression like name-calling that denigrates gender and sexually non-conforming behavior (Myers et al., 2020). Although LGBT students are frequent targets of homophobic SBPV, heterosexual youth are also often targets of homophobic SPBV because it is used as a way of reinforcing traditional sexual and gender-typical behavior (Espelage et al., 2019). Therefore, individuals in a peer group may witness SBPV directed toward peers with a variety of identities, but it nonetheless shares the message that particular identities or traits are less valued or acceptable. Weight-based SBPV is targeted at youth who are considered overweight or obese (Van Geel et al., 2014), however, although infrequently studied, in the current study we have chosen to include skinnyphobic and fatphobic SBPV as separate forms of peer victimization so that differences between these two subforms of weight-based SBPV can be examined. Racial/ethnic SBPV is based on one’s race or ethnicity, and is typically, but not always, enacted by peers from different racial or ethnic backgrounds than the victim (Bayram Özdemir et al., 2022). Victimization due to nationality, immigration status, refugee status, etc. could overlap with race/ethnic SBPV. Ableist SBPVis typically directed toward students with disabilities, sometimes due to differences in disabled students’ social competencies and lower positioning in social networks compared to typically developing peers (Farmer et al., 2015).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo theoretical perspectives can help explain why the phenomenon of SBPV occurs among groups of youth. First, according to social dominance theory, within societies, certain groups are considered to be dominant over others. In a society in which certain groups prevail as dominant groups, discrimination or victimization of certain groups may be tolerated or justified in order to maintain the status quo of social dominance. Within this framework, even among stigmatized, historically marginalized groups, certain groups may be more stigmatized than others (Sidanius \u0026amp; Pratto, 1999). System justification theory also suggests that certain types of discrimination may be more palatable to some individuals as certain psychological needs are met by upholding, supporting, and justifying injustice. Thus, some discriminatory beliefs may be normalized at the individual level as part of maintaining the status quo (Jost \u0026amp; Banaji, 1994). \u0026nbsp;For example, despite racial/ethnic victimization and discrimination being disallowed in public schools, this form of victimization continues to exist. However, there are other forms of SBPV and discrimination that are not specifically enumerated in laws and policies, such as those targeting sexual identity or body size. Therefore, some forms of SBPV might be deemed more socially acceptable than others and we would expect to witness them more than forms of SBPV that are explicitly not allowed. Without specific protections for certain groups in place, this communicates that these forms of victimization and discrimination are more acceptable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin these frameworks, we believe that a likely consequence of certain groups’ victimization being justified is a higher prevalence of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment can be defined as “a broad range of noncooperative verbal or nonverbal behaviors of a sexual nature that are intended to insult and degrade the victim” (Duncan et al., 2019; Bolduc et al., 2022, p. 1148). Similar to bias-based peer victimization, it is theorized to take place within contexts in which individuals hold different positions within social hierarchies, and as is the case with bias-based peer victimization, perpetration can be used as a way to indicate these social hierarchies and reinforce social norms (Bolduc et al., 2022). In line with this theoretical perspective, individuals from marginalized groups who historically have less social power, including women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and those who do not fulfill stereotypical gender norms, would be expected to be victims of sexual harassment at higher levels. There is research that suggests that experiences of peer victimization and sexual harassment tend to be correlated (e.g., Duncan et al., 2019; Felix \u0026amp; McMahon, 2006) and that sexual harassment can predict involvement in later peer victimization (Chiodo et al., 2009). Sexual harassment is sometimes considered to be a form of peer victimization alongside other form such as physical or verbal (Felix \u0026amp; You, 2011). Operationalization of sexual harassment may overlap with the operationalization of stigma-based peer victimization. For example, name-calling sexual harassment may overlap with anti-LGBTQ+ slurs that would be considered to be stigma-based peer victimization. Sexual harassment has also been shown to be associated with appearance-based peer victimization, which can include weight-based peer victimization (Duncan et al., 2019). Sexual harassment has been included in research on peer victimization but is not regularly included in studies of multiple forms of bias-based peer victimization. Because of the probable correlation between bias-based peer victimization and sexual harassment, we included sexual harassment as an outcome in the current study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study has two goals. First, we investigated whether witnessing certain forms of SBPV was more prevalent than witnessing others. Second, we investigated the effects of witnessing certain forms of SBPV. While we expected there to be some prevalence and negative effects of all forms of SBPV, we expected that there would be more witnessed SBPV and more negative effects of witnessing SBPB when the SBPV was a targeted at a group for whom there are rarely enumerated laws and protections. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study included 1,606 diverse adolescents aged 14-17 (44% girls, 52% boys, 4% other genders, 588 racial/ethnic minority youth, 307 LGBTQ+, 276 disabled, 1027 receiving free or reduced priced lunch). Participants were recruited via Qualtrics. The study was advertised to adult Qualtrics Panel participants who were asked to recruit their students to participate. Parents and youth participants had to provide their consent and assent to participate. Parents received compensation via the Qualtrics panel. The procedures were approved by the IRB of the authors’ institution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWitnessed SBPV\u003c/em\u003e. Participants self-reported witnessed SBPV including victimization due to body size, race/ethnicity, homophobia, or ability. There were four items for each type of SBPV that represented different forms of peer victimization including verbal (e.g., “Some kids call each other names or use phrases like fatty, porker, tubby, etc.) and relational victimization (e.g., “A student spread a rumor about someone because of their race/ethnicity”). All items began with a stem, “Some kids call each other names or use phrases about racial or ethnic groups in a mean way like the N word, white trash, etc.” and then were asked to report on the frequency with which they witnessed these behaviors in the last 30 days on a scale from \u003cem\u003e0 = 0\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e4 = 7 or more times.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThese items were adapted from Homophobic Peer Victimization items used by Poteat and Vecho (2016). The internal consistency for larger body size SBPV was α = .95, for smaller body size SBPV α = .95, for racial/ethnic SBPV α = .93, Homophobic SBPV α = .91, and ability SBPV α = .93).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDepressive/anxious symptoms\u003c/em\u003e. Depressive/anxious symptoms were reported via the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach \u0026amp; Rescorla, 2001) using 21 items measured on a scale from 0 = Not true to 2 = Very true or often true, α = .93. An example item is “I am nervous or tense.”\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDelinquency\u003c/em\u003e. Delinquency was reported via the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach \u0026amp; Rescorla, 2001) using 15 items measured on the same scale as above, α = .88. An example item is “I don't feel guilty after doing something I shouldn't.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSexual harassment\u003c/em\u003e was recorded via seven items from the American Association of University Women measure (Lipson, 2001). Participants were asked to rate during the last year, how often, if at all, anyone had (this includes students, teachers, other school employees, or anyone else) done various forms of sexual behaviors to them during school-related times when they did not want them to. School-related times include when you are on your way to or home from school; when you are on school grounds, including before, during, or after school hours; and when you're on a school trip. Participants responded on a scale from 0 = Never to 3 = Six+ times, α = .86. An example item is, “Spread sexual rumors about you.”\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eControl variables.\u003c/em\u003e SBPV traits and identities (i.e. self-reported body size, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, and ability) and receipt of free/reduced-priced lunch were included as control variables when applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlan of Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, we calculated correlations between witnessing each form of SBPV, depressive/anxious symptoms, sexual harassment and assault, and identification with stigmatized identities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNext, to investigate whether some forms of SBPV occurred more often than others, we ran a repeated measures ANOVA using rstatix (Kassambara, 2023) in R (R Core Team, 2024) on the variables homophobic SBPV, ethnic/racial SBPV, ableist SBPV, skin color SBPV, and fatphobic SBPV. Using Bonferroni adjusted values, we conducted pairwise comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLast, in order to understand if witnessing certain forms of SBPV vs. others were more related to adjustment problems. We first calculated the correlations between the observed variables and then ran a path analysis in lavaan (Rosseel, 2012), regressing witnessing different forms of SBPV on depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and sexual harassment, controlling for participant’s own characteristics that may be stigmatized, including being a racial/ethnic minority, a sexual minority, being fat, skinny, disabled, or receiving free/reduced-price lunch. We included these factors as control variables because one’s own identity may affect how one perceives and interprets witnessing SBPV of others. Missing data for this analysis were handled using FIML (Little et al., 2014).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eCorrelations between study variables are available in Table 1. Witnessing each form of SBPV was positively, significantly correlated to a large degree, suggesting that when one form of SBPV is witnessed, it is common for the other types to occur in the same context. Additionally, witnessing all forms of SBPV was positively, significantly related to depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and sexual harassment. \u0026nbsp;Correlations between witnessing SBPV and sexual assault were small and tended to be negative. Participants’ own identities’ correlations with other study variables tended to be small in magnitude.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Next, we investigated differences in the amount of witnessed SBPV reported by participants. Means and standard deviations for each type of witnessed SBPV is reported in Table 2. Generally, witnessing skinnyphobic SBPV was less pervasive than witnessing other forms of SBPV. Witnessing fatphobic and homophobic SBPV were particularly pervasive. The dependent samples ANOVA was significant, signifying differences in the amount of different types of SBPV witnessed (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e (4, 6388 \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e) = 242.77, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05). The Mauchly’s test for sphericity was significant (\u003cem\u003eW\u003c/em\u003e = .95, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05), but with sphericity corrections the result remained significant at the p \u0026lt; .05 level. \u0026nbsp;We found significant differences between different forms of SBPV, with fatphobic peer victimization reported the most. Using Bonferroni adjusted values, we conducted pairwise comparisons and found that the following forms of SBPV differed from each other (see Table 3). Homophobic SBPV was the most commonly witnessed form of SBPV, followed by fatphobic, ableist, racial/ethnic, and skinnyphobic. However, we note that the means for all but skinnyphobic SBPV were quite similar and therefore may not be practically observed.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Last, we investigated whether witnessing certain forms of SBPV was related to outcomes (see Table 4). Although not the main goal of the study, it is important to note that many of our control variables, participants own identities and traits, predicted study outcomes. Specifically, those with minoritized racial and ethnic identities reported less depression/anxiety, less delinquency, and less sexual harassment than their non-racially minoritized peers. Sexually minoritized youth reported more depression/anxiety and more sexual harassment than their non-LGBTQ+ peers. Participants who reported having bigger bodies than their peers reported more depressive/anxious symptoms. Being disabled was associated with depression/anxiety, delinquency, and sexual harassment. Receiving free and reduced/price lunch was related to depression/anxiety and delinquency. We state this because it is important to note that after controlling for these factors, witnessing SBPV has an effect on adjustment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Witnessing skinnyphobic, racial/ethnic, and ableist SBPV was related to all outcomes, depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and sexual harassment. Witnessing homophobic SBPV was related to sexual harassment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur results showed that there are small but significant differences between the amount of witnessed SBPV among adolescents in our sample. Specifically, most witnessed SBPV was homophobic in nature, followed by fatphobic, ableist, racial/ethnic, and skinnyphobic. Our results suggest that some forms of SBPV are more common than others. Further, we found that witnessing certain forms of SBPV was associated with adjustment problems and sexual harassment, but other forms were not.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Some forms of SBPV being witnessed more than others suggests that there are individuals who belong to stigmatized groups who might be more at risk for victimization. But beyond that, it suggests that certain forms of victimization may be more acceptable and therefore more likely to be witnessed by others in a peer group. This finding was mirrored in other research showing that students were reported defending some forms of SBPV more than others (blinded). As is the case in the current study, it seems that some forms of SBPV are potentially viewed as more tolerable than others. This might be representative of larger societal attitudes toward certain stigmatized identities, as well as the effects of enumerating particular identities and traits in laws and policies that prohibit peer victimization. Discrimination and victimization due to race/ethnicity and disability is specifically included in antibullying policy (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services), while body-size based peer victimization, for example, is rarely included in antibullying policy (Lessard et al., 2022). Anti-peer victimization policies often overlap with federal Title IX and civil rights legislation to protect a free and appropriate public education, which means schools must protect students whose education is affected by victimization due to these identities (stopbullying.org). Protections for sexual and gender minority youth are inconsistent between states (Lessard et al., 2020). Consistent with systems justification theory, it is possible that students more easily justify SBPV of certain people due to the lack of systemic protections for those individuals and consequent normalization of violence toward them.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;It is similarly of interest that witnessing some forms of SBPV consistently predicted problem outcomes including depressive/anxious symptoms, delinquency, and experienced sexual harassment. The very forms that were predictive of these problematic outcomes were the forms that were less common, namely skinnyphobic, racial/ethnic, and ableist SBPV. Racial/ethnic and ableist SBPV are technically protected by federal law and are enumerated in many antibullying policies. Further, smaller body sizes tend \u003cem\u003enot\u003c/em\u003e to be stigmatized in the United States and are often considered to be the ideal body size. Together this suggests that when individuals witness the less socially sanctioned forms of SBPV, it is associated with adjustment problems. This again reflects that there are some forms of SBPV that may be deemed more socially acceptable, or at least less unacceptable, than others, putting students with particular identities and traits at greater risk.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;The relation between witnessing SBPV and sexual harassment is especially illustrative, as rather than this be an individual outcome, it is an interpersonal, and arguably peer-level outcome. We suggest that the relation between witnessing certain forms of SBPV and experienced sexual harassment indicates that there are contextual climates in which the two experiences might co-occur. In other words, where interpersonal harm of one type rampant, interpersonal harm of another type might be rampant as well. These contexts might be especially risky for gender and sexual minoritized youth who report more sexual harassment than their heterosexual and cisgender peers above and beyond the effects of witnessing SBPV and other identities/traits.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Contexts with more homophobic SBPV specifically may signify a context in which traditional gender and sexual roles and behavior are “policed” by the peer group (Espelage et al., 2019); the strong correlation between homophobic SBPV and sexual harassment in the current study may be an indicator of this, and is an area of research ripe for future study. Understanding the social context in which SBPV occur more generally can help elucidate how decreasing SBPV can create more supportive developmental context from students who belong to historically marginalized or stigmatized groups and their peers who do not identify with these groups or traits.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;We also found an effect of witnessing SBPV above and beyond the effect of identifying with historically stigmatized or marginalized traits or identities. High levels of SBPV may create an environment in which youth feel the need to be hypervigilant and avoid identification with or expression of traits that might make their targets for SBPV. This may be at odds with their own desire to express their identities or impossible for certain youth, even if they do want to avoid the risk for SBPV. Future research should investigate the interactions between own identities and witnessing different forms of SBPV to better understand which students are at risk from being in contexts high in SBPV whether it is directed at them personally or whether they are witnesses to others’ peer victimization.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne major limitation of this study is our consideration of identity and trait groups as homogenous. We recognize that racially and ethnically marginalized youth who come from different racial or ethnic groups may have unique experiences, and beyond that, even within groups, there is much diversity in experiences. Similarly, there are differences between youth who identify with different sexual minority groups, have different types of disabilities and different disability severity, and different body shapes and sizes. Our goal in the current study was to begin initial examinations in differences between witnessing types of SBPV, and given the multiple categories of SBPV we already investigate, more detailed analyses seemed impossible. However, we do encourage researchers to conduct these specific analyses when possible, as we intend to in future research, so that the best use of prevention and intervention efforts can be applied.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, as has been shown in previous research (blinded), there seem to be some forms of bias-based peer victimization that are witnessed more than others; this suggests that some individuals who identify with stigmatized groups may be at greater risk for victimization. It also suggests that certain forms of victimization may be more socially acceptable. In order to create inclusive, safe environments for all students, laws and policies that protect students from peer victimization should include enumerated groups and these policies must be enforced. In the context of inequality in social acceptability of different forms of peer victimization, steps must be taken to ensure protections against mistreatment of students is equitable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declaration\u003c/strong\u003e: Please ensure that all the necessary declarations are listed in the manuscript. Please refer to the submission guidelines for more information. If not applicable, please provide the following declaration in the manuscript: ‘Ethics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Funding was provided to the first author in the form of start-up funding from [blinded].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthorship is limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work. D.M. was responsible for overall project conceptualization, methodology, analyses, writing, and funding acquisition. J.S. was responsible for conceptualization, initial analyses, some original draft preparation, editing and review.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData is available from the first author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAchenbach, T. M., \u0026amp; Rescorla, L. A. (2001). \u003cem\u003eChild behavior checklist for ages 6\u0026ndash;18\u003c/em\u003e. University of Vermont Burlington, VT. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://reachoutandread.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/CBCL-1-Summary.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://reachoutandread.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/CBCL-1-Summary.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBayram \u0026Ouml;zdemir, S., Yanagida, T., \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;zdemir, M. (2022). Bystanders of ethnic victimization: Do classroom context and teachers\u0026rsquo; approach matter for how adolescents intend to act? \u003cem\u003eChild Development\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e93\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1540\u0026ndash;1558. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13822\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/cdev.13822\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBolduc, M. L., Martin-Storey, A., \u0026amp; Paquette, G. (2022). Correlates of sexual harassment victimization among adolescents: A scoping review. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Social Issues\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e79\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1147\u0026ndash;1173. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12529\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/josi.12529\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChiodo, D., Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C., Hughes, R., \u0026amp; Jaffe, P. (2009). Impact of sexual harassment victimization by peers on subsequent adolescent victimization and adjustment: A longitudinal study. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Adolescent Health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e45\u003c/em\u003e(3), 246\u0026ndash;252. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.01.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.01.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDuncan, N., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., \u0026amp; Furman, W. (2019). Sexual harassment and appearance‐based peer victimization: Unique associations with emotional adjustment by gender and age. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Adolescence\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e75\u003c/em\u003e(1), 12\u0026ndash;21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.06.016\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.06.016\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEspelage, D. L., Valido, A., Hatchel, T., Ingram, K. M., Huang, Y., \u0026amp; Torgal, C. (2019). A literature review of protective factors associated with homophobic bullying and its consequences among children \u0026amp; adolescents. \u003cem\u003eAggression and Violent Behavior\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e45\u003c/em\u003e, 98\u0026ndash;110. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.003\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.003\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarmer, T., Wike, T. L., Alexander, Q. R., Rodkin, P. C., \u0026amp; Mehtaji, M. (2015). Students with disabilities and involvement in peer victimization: Theory, research, and considerations for the future. \u003cem\u003eRemedial and Special Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e36\u003c/em\u003e(5), 263\u0026ndash;274. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0741932515572911\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0741932515572911\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFelix, E. D., \u0026amp; McMahon, S. D. (2006). Gender and multiple forms of peer victimization: How do they influence adolescent psychosocial adjustment? \u003cem\u003eViolence and Victims\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e(6), 707\u0026ndash;724. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1891/0886-6708.21.6.707\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1891/0886-6708.21.6.707\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFelix, E. D., \u0026amp; You, S. (2011). Peer victimization within the ethnic context of high school. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Community Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e39\u003c/em\u003e(7), 860\u0026ndash;875. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20465\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/jcop.20465\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHarrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. \u003cem\u003eAmerican Journal of Orthopsychiatry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e70\u003c/em\u003e(1), 42\u0026ndash;57. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/h0087722\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/h0087722\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJost, J. T., \u0026amp; Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. \u003cem\u003eBritish Journal of Social Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e33\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;27. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKassambara, A. (2023). \u003cem\u003erstatix: Pipe-friendly framework for basic statistical tests\u003c/em\u003e (R package version 0.7.2) [Computer software]. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rstatix\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rstatix\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLessard, L. M., Watson, R. J., \u0026amp; Puhl, R. M. (2020). Bias-based bullying and school adjustment among sexual and gender minority adolescents: The role of gay-straight alliances. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Youth and Adolescence\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e49\u003c/em\u003e(5), 1094\u0026ndash;1109. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01205-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10964-020-01205-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLessard, L. M., Watson, R. J., Schacter, H. L., Wheldon, C. W., \u0026amp; Puhl, R. M. (2022). Weight enumeration in United States anti-bullying laws: Associations with rates and risks of weight-based bullying among sexual and gender minority adolescents. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Public Health Policy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e43\u003c/em\u003e(1), 27\u0026ndash;39. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1057/s41271-021-00322-w\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1057/s41271-021-00322-w\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLipson, J. (2001). \u003cem\u003eHostile hallways: Bullying, teasing, and sexual harassment in school\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eERIC\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED454132\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED454132\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLittle, T. D., Jorgensen, T. D., Lang, K. M., \u0026amp; Moore, E. W. G. (2014). On the joys of missing data. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Pediatric Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e39\u003c/em\u003e(2), 151\u0026ndash;162. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://academic.oup.com/jpepsy/article-abstract/39/2/151/883719\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://academic.oup.com/jpepsy/article-abstract/39/2/151/883719\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMackelprang, R. W., \u0026amp; Salsgiver, R. O. (1996). People with disabilities and social work: Historical and contemporary issues. \u003cem\u003eSocial Work\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e41\u003c/em\u003e(1), 7\u0026ndash;14. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/sw/41.1.7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/sw/41.1.7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e[blinded].\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMyers, W., Turanovic, J. J., Lloyd, K. M., \u0026amp; Pratt, T. C. (2020). The victimization of LGBTQ students at school: A meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of School Violence\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(4), 421\u0026ndash;432. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2020.1725530\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/15388220.2020.1725530\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePoteat, V. P., \u0026amp; Vecho, O. (2016). Who intervenes against homophobic behavior? Attributes that distinguish active bystanders. \u003cem\u003eJournal of School Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e54\u003c/em\u003e, 17\u0026ndash;28. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.10.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jsp.2015.10.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eR Core Team (2024). \u003cem\u003eR: A language and environment for statistical computing\u003c/em\u003e (Version 4.x) [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.R-project.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.R-project.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSidanius, J., \u0026amp; Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance theory. \u003cem\u003eHandbook of Theories of Social Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4912667\u0026amp;publisher=FZ7200#page=1025\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4912667\u0026amp;publisher=FZ7200#page=1025\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUnited States Department of Health and Human Services (n.d.). \u003cem\u003eStopBullying.gov\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.stopbullying.gov/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.stopbullying.gov/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Geel, M., Vedder, P., \u0026amp; Tanilon, J. (2014). Are overweight and obese youths more often bullied by their peers? A meta-analysis on the relation between weight status and bullying. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Obesity\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e38\u003c/em\u003e(10), 1263\u0026ndash;1267. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.117\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/ijo.2014.117\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorrelations between study variables.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"845\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Homophobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Fatphobia SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Skinnyphobia SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.57***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.67***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Ethnic/Racial SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.67***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.67***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.58***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Ableist SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.69***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.72***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.63***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.66***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDepression/Anxiety\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.29***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelinquency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.26***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.27***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.29***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.53***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual Harassment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.39***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.38***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.42***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.40***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.41***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.49***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.50***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinoritized Race/Ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual Minority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.23***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBigger Body\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.16***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmaller Body\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.24***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDisabled\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFree/Reduced-Price Lunch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes.\u003c/em\u003e * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAverage and standard deviation of witnessed forms of SBPV.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHomophobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthnic/racial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbleist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkinnyphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; .90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFatphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Numbers represent \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e = 1598 participants who had complete data for this analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean differences between witnessed forms of SBPV.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSBPV Type\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSBPV Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStatistic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSig. Adj.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbleist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthnic/racial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbleist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFatphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbleist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHomophobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbleist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkinnyphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthnic/racial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFatphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthnic/racial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHomophobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthnic/racial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkinnyphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFatphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHomophobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFatphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkinnyphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHomophobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkinnyphobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePath analysis associations between witnessing SBPV and outcomes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOutcome\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDepression/Anxiety\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRacial/ethnic minority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual minority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.19***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBigger body than peers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.07**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmaller body than peers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDisability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.16***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFree/reduced price lunch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.07**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed homophobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed fatphobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed skinnyphobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.05***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed ethnic/racial SPBV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.03*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Ableist SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.03*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelinquency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRacial/ethnic minority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual minority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBigger body than peers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmaller body than peers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDisability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.07***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFree/reduced price lunch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.05**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed homophobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed fatphobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed skinnyphobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed ethnic/racial SPBV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.04***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Ableist SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.02*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual Harassment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRacial/ethnic minority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual minority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.11***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; .08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBigger body than peers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmaller body than peers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDisability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFree/reduced price lunch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed homophobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed fatphobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed skinnyphobic SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed ethnic/racial SPBV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed Ableist SBPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes.\u003c/em\u003e * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-bullying-prevention","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbp","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Bullying Prevention](https://rd.springer.com/journal/42380)","snPcode":"42380","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42380/3","title":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Stigma-based peer victimization, adjustment, sexual harassment, witnessing","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8712554/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8712554/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAdolescents may encounter peer victimization because of their socially stigmatized or devalued identities and traits, referred to as \u003cem\u003estigma-based peer victimization\u003c/em\u003e (SBPV). All forms of SBPV are harmful, but some forms may be deemed more normative and tolerable. According to social dominance theory, even certain stigmatized groups are considered to be dominant over others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study included 1,606 diverse adolescents aged 14\u0026ndash;17 (44% girls, 52% boys, 4% other genders, 588 racial/ethnic minority youth, 307 LGBTQ+, 276 disabled, 1027 receiving free or reduced priced lunch). Participants self-reported witnessed SBPV victimization, depressive/anxious symptoms and delinquency and sexual harassment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA repeated measures ANOVA was run to test which forms of SBPV were witnessed most commonly. We also tested whether witnessing certain forms of SBPV vs. others was more related to adjustment problems or sexual harassment using multiple regression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe found significant differences in prevalence of SBPV witnessed. Using Bonferroni adjusted values, we conducted pairwise comparisons and found that prevalence of witnessing different forms of SBPV differed. Witnessing fatphobic and homophobic SBPV seems particularly pervasive, while skinnyphobic SBPV is not. After controlling for own identity/traits, witnessing skinnyphobic, racial/ethnic, and ableist victimization was associated with most problems, while witnessing homophobic and fatphobic victimization mostly was not.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Normativity and Effects of Witnessing Stigma-Based Peer Victimization among Youth","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-20 21:30:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8712554/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"20447524537256924824044570888546689526","date":"2026-04-10T12:02:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-10T09:07:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-02T13:46:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-02T13:40:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","date":"2026-01-27T15:53:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-bullying-prevention","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbp","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Bullying Prevention](https://rd.springer.com/journal/42380)","snPcode":"42380","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42380/3","title":"International Journal of Bullying Prevention","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"33483ea8-9e4f-4c41-b63d-288940e95254","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 20th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-20T21:30:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-20 21:30:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8712554","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8712554","identity":"rs-8712554","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}