Integrated Industrial Process Management for Sustainable Conversion of Solid Waste into Economically Valuable Refuse-Derived Fuel.

Integrated Industrial Process Management for Sustainable Conversion of Solid Waste into Economically Valuable Refuse-Derived Fuel. | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Integrated Industrial Process Management for Sustainable Conversion of Solid Waste into Economically Valuable Refuse-Derived Fuel. Rapepat Sumethchotimetha, Kanokporn Sompornpailin This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9303969/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Solid wastes from household areas and landfill recovery from central region of Thailand were distinctly transported and examined for their composition. The waste acquired from both managements exhibited a substantial proportion of diverse categories of plastic in both household and landfill wastes (60% and 54%, respectively), succeeded by textile and plant-based waste. Wastes from both origins were mixed and fed into a reduction step of RDF process, wherein the waste materials were diminished in size and contaminants were eliminated. In the first production line, the processed material was classified utilizing a dish screen. Materials screened with sizes less than 50- and 100-mm yielded RDF3 and RDF2.5, representing 19.84% and 17.50%, correspondingly. The screened material, characterized by particle sizes exceeding 100 mm, was integrated with the material from the air separator in the second production line. These materials were subsequently subjected to a drying process, and thereafter underwent final processes of disc screening and fine shredding, culminating in an RDF3.5 of 31.83%. The mean moisture content of RDF3.5 was 11.91 ± 1.62%, significantly lower than that of RDF2.5 and RDF3, which were recorded at 31.08 ± 1.47% and 23.95 ± 0.92%, respectively. While the chloride contents of RDF3 and RDF3.5 were analogous, this content in both RDF types was significantly elevated in comparison to RDF2.5. The HHV of RDF3.5 was 40–50% superior to that of RDF2.5 and RDF3. Managing waste from both sources into the industrial RDF production process can yield high-calorific value RDF, thereby contributing favorably to the circular economy and sustainable waste management. Waste management RDF industrial process landfill solid waste municipal solid waste sustainable energy renewable sources Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction The amount of waste generated has increased dramatically, becoming a major problem in every corner of the world over the past year, and is expected to increase even more in the future. This is due to a variety of variables including growing populations, urbanization, and economic expansion [ 1 ]. Every year, the world generates approximately 2.01 billion tons of waste. According to the World Bank, East Asia and the Pacific are the main waste producers, accounting for 23 percent (468 million tons) of the world's per year waste generation [ 2 ]. Future waste generation predictions indicate that the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) is expected to rise by nearly 70 percent (to 3.4 billion metric tons) annually by 2050 [ 3 ]. The five most waste-producing countries in Southeast Asia are Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, and Malaysia. The overall composition of waste varies between countries; therefore, each country manages waste, from its generation to disposal, using different methods. Waste composition and infrastructure conditions are important factors in determining the appropriate waste management system for each country [ 4 ]. MSW is the majority of waste gets generated in a municipality without segregation and may either be dangerous or harmless. It is independent of the source of MSW, but its influence on the ecosystem and various living forms affects pollution of air, water, and soil, depending on the disposal technique [ 5 ]. Nearly 30% of total MSW generated is not collected, and the majority of what is collected does not get processed in accordance with current standards regarding environmental management. Furthermore, nearly 42% of MSW is dumped in the open or burned uncontrollably. Plastic waste is a growing global concern because it persists for extended periods of time and is absorbed by organisms, providing health effects across the food chain, potentially including people [ 6 , 7 ]. Therefore, effective MSW management also has a positive impact on environment. In many countries around the world, there is growing concern about urban waste management, so choosing sustainable solutions that address both environmental and economic dimensions is a shared priority for policymakers and countries around the world [ 8 , 9 ]. The excellent waste management practices are frequently incorporated in the generation, collection, storage, processing, recovery, transportation, and disposal steps. However, rather than disposal, waste prevention, recycling, and other recovery operations are instances of sustainable waste management, which is the most environmentally beneficial process [ 10 – 13 ]. Of all the components in solid waste, plastics, paper, glass and metals have the highest recycling potential. The overall recycling rate has approximately 50 percent of total solid waste, while plastic waste only accounts for 6 percent, however, plastic waste should be reused rather than being thrown into landfills [ 5 , 14 ]. Despite increasing investments in waste management plans, there is still a large amount of residual material requiring treatment [ 15 ]. Managing large volumes of municipal waste requires a more integrated approach, including recycling, composting, pyrolysis, incineration, landfilling and energy recovery, depending on the facilities and management options available in the area [ 16 ]. The majority of developed countries adopt advanced waste management technologies in combination with improved regulations, local government involvement, and public awareness, all of which play essential roles in sustainable waste management introduced to reduce solid waste [ 17 ]. In developing countries, open dumping and open burning are the most common waste management and disposal procedures due to the lack of the technological infrastructure essential for controlling solid waste [ 18 ]. As a result, uncontrolled disposal can result in critical heavy metal pollution, whereas open burning can emit CO, CO 2 , SO, NO, particulate matter (PM) and other pollutant emissions that are harmful to the environment [ 19 ]. These challenges could become opportunities if they change their perspective on waste as a resource, coupled with increasing waste recycling rates and waste-to-energy (WTE) technologies [ 20 – 22 ]. Incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), anaerobic digestion, composting and landfill gas recovery processes are the most commonly used WTE technology [ 23 ]. Energy recovery by WTE conversion is an effective approach to reducing volumes of solid waste, therefore this conversion process is one of the methods gaining attention for decreasing the requirement for landfill sites, generating value from waste and fulfilling the growing demand for low-cost energy sources [ 24 – 28 ]. WTE technologies represent a great opportunity to initiate the use of renewable energy sources for large-scale power generation and WTE heat generation to replace fossil fuels which produces greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change [ 29 – 31 ]. MSW has a low initial calorific value due to its high moisture content from its main organic component [ 32 ]. Improving the quality of MSW for use as RDF can be achieved by several RDF process. Under RDF production process, waste is physically modified through processes of shredding, drying and compacting to resulting in RDF with different qualities and properties which can be used as a substitute for natural gas and coal in various industries, including the cement industry, power producers and industrial boilers [ 33 ]. However, this production process was depended on solid waste input and RDF users’ requirement [ 34 ]. According to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards [ 35 ], RDF can be classified into 7 categories depending on the final waste management process, characteristics and form of RDF. RDF1 represents discarded MSW. RDF2 or Coarse RDF is waste managed to coarse particle size with or without ferrous metal separation. Meanwhile, RDF3, or Fluff RDF, is waste managed to separate glass, metal, and inorganic materials and shredded. RDF4 or Powder RDF refers to combustible waste that has been managed into powder form. RDF5 or Densified RDF is combustible waste that has been densified into pellets, slugs, cubes, or briquettes. RDF6, referred to as RDF slurry is combustible waste that has been managed into liquid fuel. Finally, RDF7 or RDF syngas is a gaseous fuel produced from combustible waste. Each type of RDF was shown different properties and calorific values. RDF demand has dramatically gone up in recent years, with the global RDF market valued at 4.91 billion US dollars in 2023 and forecasted to reach 10.60 billion US dollars at the end of 2033 [ 36 ]. Over 10 years ago, Thailand's government, represented by the Ministry of Energy, expressed interest in and supported energy from waste. The government's plan aimed at boosting the proportion of alternative energy use of total usage [ 37 ]. Solid waste compositions are important on waste management because they assess possible material recovery, identify component sources, and estimate the physical, chemical, and thermal properties of wastes which affects the quality of the produced RDF. The waste composition is variable due to season, lifestyle, demographic, regional, and local legislation factors [ 38 ]. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the composition of solid wastes from municipal and landfill before it enters the process of being converted into RDF through industrial-scale management. This plant was designed and developed to handle solid wastes in the central region of Thailand. The industrial-scale waste management process and the quantity and quality of RDF output were analyzed, to meet the requirements of Thai industry. 2. Material and Methods 2.1 Solid waste collection and classification Solid wastes from municipal and landfill were collected from the central region of Thailand. Two waste samples resulting from local waste management, differ in terms of processing time and waste characteristics. MSW disposed of was transported to a temporary area and air-dried under sunlight exposure to reduce odor; this process takes approximately ten days. Waste from landfills had a lifespan of three to five years. Waste samples from the two sources were separately transported by truck to an industrial-scale RDF processing plant. Waste arriving at the industrial plant was sampled for preliminary waste quality assessments (moisture and contaminants) based on domestic industrial methodologies, as described [ 39 ] After satisfying the inspection criteria, waste from each source was piled separately and randomly sampled at a depth of 30 cm of the pile in the amount of 5 kg for 10 times. The wastes from the sampling were categorized according to the proposed method [ 40 ]. Waste sample compositions were manually classified into eight categorizing types according to the material characteristics: plastic bags, mixed plastics, wood and leaves, clothes and textiles, foam, paper, electronic waste and metal, and glass. The percentage of each category's sample weight relative to total weight was calculated. The obtained data were statistically analyzed to determine significant differences between sample groups using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT) to assess the mean of the data, with a significance threshold of ≥ 0.05. 2.2 Designing process of RDF plant The overall equipment cooperated in RDF process employed for this plant is presented in Fig. 1 . This process is separated into 3 group: 1) Reduction process has function on waste separation, reduction and size screening, 2) Drying process: composed of moisture reduction, 3) Final process: Size reduction and screening of fine-sized materials. RDF plant sized 64000 m 2 located at Huai Haeng Subdistrict, Kaeng Khoi District, Saraburi Province, which is approximately 120 kilometers northeast of Bangkok, Thailand. This plant was established in 2023 and has an installed production capacity of 300,000 tons per year. 2.3 Production process of RDF Solid wastes derived from municipal and landfill site were mixed together and feed into RDF production process using TMC grab crane from GC Grab (Thailand). In the industrial-scale RDF production process, the machinery layout and RDF output location are shown in Figs. 1 . The RDF production process is divided into three groups of machinery: reduction process, drying process, and final process, which are systematically separated into two production lines. These production lines can be operated depending on the waste characteristics and the quality of RDF required. Each production line within the RDF manufacturing process is equipped with operating machines to input solid waste with a capacity of 30 tons per hour. Reduction process of RDF production line comprises a solid waste reduction system which includes a pre-shredder, magnetic separation, air separation, and disc screening. The mixed wastes were pre-shredded into small pieces (less than 100 mm) using M&J 4000s pre shredder (Metso, Finland). This pre shredder composed of a cutting platform equipped rotating blades that have forward and backward cutting and the gap presents between each set of cutting blades on the cutting platform. Pre shredder is connected with magnetic belt (TZE Co., Ltd., Thailand) and the subsequent unit is an air separator (TZE Co., Ltd., Thailand). Only samples from first production line were derived to the double-stage disc screening machine, Hextra model (Ecostar, Italy) for the screening process. This disc screen machine can separate material sizes smaller than 50- and 100-mm. Waste fractions larger than 100 mm were sorted using a drum feeder and then were suddenly transferred to drying process using a rotary drum dryer system assembled by Excellence Technology Thailand (ECT). Material derived from the air separation process of secondary production line also entered the same drying process step. This step encompassed of heating component (horizontal furnace, cyclone fire retardance) and drying component (rotary drum dryer and cyclone dryer). The rotary drum dryer was consisted of a 20-meter-long cyclical steel plate with a diameter of 340 cm. This drum dryer was utilized to diminish the moisture content at 140°C for a duration of 25–30 minutes. The specimens were sorted once more by the drum feeder to ensure a uniform flow rate of sized waste entering the final process of the RDF production system. These specimens underwent size screening steps via the disc screen with sieve diameters of 20 and 40 mm (Metso, Finland). Oversized materials were subjected to further size reduction utilizing the M&J 240e fine shredder to comply with RDF specifications. The proportion of each RDF product and their productivity concerning raw materials were ascertained. The productivity of raw materials within a production process was calculated employing the following formula: total output/total input. The ratio of the amount produced and amount of raw material used in production, which measures the quantity of products able to be produced in a specific timeframe. 2.4 RDF quality analysis The RDF releasing samples were analyzed in process below and compared to the RDF quality requirements of Thailand's local cement industry (Table 1 .) Table 1 The quality of RDF in the market and the standards for RDF distribution in Thailand. RDF type Parameters Particle size (mm) LHV (MJ/kg) Chloride content (%) Moisture content (%) 2 300–500 mm ≥ 11 NA NA 2.5 < 100 mm ≥ 15 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 35 3 < 50 mm ≥ 19 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 30 3.5 < 50 mm ≥ 20 ≤ 0.5 ≤ 20 NA = Not Available Moisture content analysis Ten replicate RDF samples from various locations were sampled and visually screened for contamination. These samples were blended and reduced to 0.6 mm using a Retsch SM 300 cutting mill (Germany). A 100-gram sample was used to measure the moisture content using the industry standard drying method (Reeb & Milota, 1999). The percentage was then calculated using the following formula. Moisture content (%) = [(Wet weight - Dry weight)/Wet weight] *100 Chlorine content analysis The chlorine content in RDF product was converted into a water-soluble chloride form which was quantitated by titrimetric methods using Metrohm Eco Titrator (Switzerland). Calorific value analysis The bomb calorimeter method was used for measuring the energy available from RDF solid forms sample. This technique is following the ASTM E711-87 standard method. The mixed RDF sample was reduced the size into 0.4 mm using ball mill (Retsch model PM 100, Germany). These sample were measured the calorific value by isoperibolic calorimeter (LECO AC-500, USA). Analytical sample was placed in combustion vessel and then introduced to the calorimeter. The calorimeter was calibrated by the combustion of a reactive standard (benzoic acid) and provided higher heating value (HHV) or gross calorific value (GCV). 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 The composition of MSW raw materials Preliminary examination revealed that the waste samples contained moisture content and contaminants (heavy fractions and soil) ranging from 22.4–41.5% and 3.2–6.6%, respectively, showing no statistically significant differences between both sources. These wastes were classified into eight categories based on material properties and calculated by weight percentage (Fig. 2 .). Solid wastes derived from both waste managements, presents high proportion of plastic wastes (plastics bag and mixed plastics) especially plastic bags, that composed more than 50% of the general categorizing types (about 60% and 54% in wastes derived from municipalities and from landfills, respectively). Waste from these management processes presented average plastic portion higher the result of the plastics waste fraction from landfill waste at the Nonthaburi solid waste disposal site [ 41 , 42 ], municipal solid waste from On-nut composting plant in Bangkok (24.6% to 44.8%) [ 43 ], but is similar to the municipal and landfill solid waste collected from eastern Thailand using similar management processes [ 39 ]. Municipal waste was composed of 16% clothes and textiles, 14% wood and leaves, 6% foam, 3% paper, and 1% electronics waste and metal. While, long-term accumulation of landfill waste consists of 13% clothing and textiles, 10% wood and leaves, and 2% paper. This landfill site had a small amount of electronics waste and metal, glass and foam (about 2–5%), However, this percentage is higher than the sample from municipal areas. Based on this research finding, two different waste management found less organic waste differs from the other regions (municipal or urban zones) in Thailand, which are most comprised of organic waste [ 44 , 45 ]. This solid wastes from household site had undergone processes to reduce moisture and organic matter contents in order to minimize odor according to the plant's initial material acceptance criteria. Waste with low organic matter content results in improved original moisture content of the material [ 46 , 47 ]. However, this solid waste from municipal site had moisture contents and the proportion of organics waste higher than solid wastes from landfill site, while landfill waste contains a higher proportion of small waste than household waste. The reduction of waste size in landfills is a result of long-term microbiological decomposition processes [ 48 ]. These solid wastes consist of a high proportion of the combustible wastes (plastics, clothes and textile, wood and leaves, and paper) approximately 80–90%. Especially plastic waste, which is a suitable resource for converting to usefulness as an alternative fuel in RDF form [ 49 , 50 ]. Rahotharn et al . [ 42 ] found that waste older than two years and ten days derived from landfill sites had little effect on the production of energy, however waste older than ten years produced a lot of energy and had the most potential to be used as RDF. Plastic waste can take a long time to breakdown or decomposition in landfills (about 10–100 years) due to many of factors, including their unique biochemical properties and surroundings or climate conditions [ 51 ]. 3.2 RDF production After passing quality testing upon arrival, samples of solid waste from each management method were then mixed together before being sent to RDF production process to ensure the continuous production of the industrial system. These wastes had moisture content of 40–45%, contained 4–7% contaminants, and could be classified as RDF 1 or RDF2 depending on its quality. One production line has a production capacity of approximately 630 tons per day and 4,410 tons per week. The additional production lines receiving raw materials can increase production capacity to 1,260 tons per day and 8,820 tons per week. The industrial-scale production process and output of RDF products are shown in Figs. 3 and 4 . Frist and secondary production lines have parallel reduction process of the pre-shedder machine, combined with magnetic separation, following with air separator (Fig. 3 ). Each production line achieved its maximum production capacity, capable of conveying 30 tons of material per hour. After the waste material (Fig. 4 a) was initially fed into the pre-shedder machine, a cutting platform reduced the size of the waste material. Approximately 3% of contaminants such as sand, soil, gravel, and small metal components pass through the gap in the cutting platform of this machine. The remaining waste material was then sent to a metal detector to remove ferrous metals, and large fractions were removed by a magnetic conveyor belt. While the light fraction materials were then passed through an air separator and heavy fragments, approximately 25–35% of contaminants such as soil, gravel, metals, and organic matters, were removed. Light fragments of the first production line were subjected to size screening by disc screen for further separation. Approximately 70% of these light fragments were double-screening with different sieve sizes., resulting in an RDF2.5 value of 17.25% (< 100 mm fractional size) and an RDF3 value of 19.84% (< 50 mm fractional size) (Fig. 3 , Fig. 4 b and c). While the secondary production line operated faster than the first because, after the air separation step, the light fraction materials directly sent to the drying and final processes to produce RDF3.5, bypassing the RDF2.5 and RDF3 production steps. These parallel processes have high potential for separating high-quality waste materials, results in various types of RDF products. Light fragments with sizes larger than 100 millimeters from first production lines and all light fragment from second production lines were conveyed to a drum feeder and entered the RDF3.5 production process. These fractions then underwent a drying process to reduce the moisture content to the optimal level. The final step, the dry material fractions were performed disc screening. This material fractions with particle sizes smaller than 40 mm were collected as RDF3.5, while larger particles were reduced in size and dust removed before being collected as RDF3.5. The resulting RDF3.5 yield of 31.83% was the highest among all RDF types produced in this study (Fig. 3 , Fig. 4 d). The first line in RDF production was reducing the amount of solid material by adding economic value to material resources. This is a key method for material flow reduction, efficient resource utilization and decreasing energy consumption, widely used by companies that convert waste into energy. The waste can be minimally processed in order to produce fuel suitable for specific applications for as by removing organic fractions or metals and glass. On the other hand, that material has been improved, which are used as fuel in part of high graded RDF [ 52 ]. The production process significantly impacts the quality and grade of RDF. High-quality RDF requires multiple steps and separation processes to achieve consistency and high calorific value, while the drying process is crucial for controlling the moisture content to the optimal level of the RDF product [ 53 , 54 ]. Furthermore, the quality of raw materials fed into the production process can determine the production efficiency and output over a given period. In one day, two production lines could convert raw materials into different types of RDF as shown in Table 2 . Every ton of waste raw material fed in produces 0.18 tons of RDF2.5, 0.20 tons of RDF3, and 0.32 tons of RDF3.5. Finally, approximately 30% of the original raw materials are lost during the production process. 3.3 RDF properties The properties of RDF from this process, expressed as average values ​​of moisture content, chlorine content, and heat energy of samples, are shown in Table 2 . Moisture content is a key parameter in RDF compaction. The results vary depending on the RDF type and are related to the RDF quality requirements. Moisture content of RDF from these production lines ranged from 9.75% to 33.39%. RDF2.5 had the highest average moisture content (31.08 ± 1.47%), and moisture content decreases as the RDF quality or processing mechanism meets higher requirements. RDF3 and RDF3.5 had the second lowest average moisture content (23.95 ± 0.29%) and the third lowest (11.91 ± 1.62%), with statically difference. Table 2 Characteristics and energy content of RDF-releasing samples from industrial process. RDF type Moisture content (%) Chloride content (%) HHV/GCV (MJ/kg) RDF2.5 31.08 ± 1.47 c 0.15 ± 0.08 a 18.50 ± 0.20 a RDF3 23.95 ± 0.92 b 0.37 ± 0.07 b 20.06 ± 0.49 a RDF3.5 11.91 ± 1.62 a 0.38 ± 0.17 b 29.13 ± 1.93 b The difference letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 compared within the same parameter (moisture content, chloride content or HHV/GV). The average chlorine content (%) in the RDF production process ranged from 0.06% to 0.69%, with average values ​​of 0.15 ± 0.09%, 0.37 ± 0.07%, and 0.38 ± 0.17% for RDF2.5, RDF3, and RDF3.5, respectively. RDF3 and RDF3.5 had similar chloride content, with statistically significant differences compared to RDF2.5. All RDF types produced using this studied process exhibited optimal chlorine content, conforming to the requirements of the cement kiln industry in Thailand and other regions, such as European countries (generally less than 0.8%) [ 55 ]. Heating value ​​of individual RDF sources were measured and presented as the high heating value (HHV) or gross calorific value (GCV) in Table 2 . The average HHV of RDF varied from 18.50 ± 0.20-29.13 ± 1.93 MJ/kg depending on the type of RDF. The highest HHV was found in RDF3.5 29.13 ± 1.93 MJ/kg, followed by RDF3 and RDF2.5, which had HHVs of 20.06 ± 0.49 and18.50 ± 0.20 MJ/kg, respectively. The energy content of RDF3 and RDF2.5, respectively, varies among several factors, including morphological composition and production technology, can influence the energy content of different RDF varieties [ 56 ]. However, industrial process management plays a crucial role in ensuring that energy from waste fuel meets quality standards. The reason for designing a 2-line system is to produce high-quality RDF that meets the needs of energy users. Furthermore, it ensures efficient energy use and safe operation. High RDF quality need to meet general requirements that include, optimal calorific value, low chlorine content, less impurities and specified grain size [ 57 ]. RDF from this Industrial process presents the average moisture content, chlorine content, and caloric values, which indicates that the produced RDF satisfies the RDF quality requirements of Thailand's local cement and power plant industries. Dianda et al. [ 46 ] found that increasing the quantity of organic waste led to an escalation in moisture content. The different moisture contents of distinct RDF types are influenced by the mechanical operations (size reduction and drying) in RDF production and RDF moisture content diminishes as the particle size reduces [ 58 ]. Chlorine emission was correlated to the source of raw materials derived from waste and the operational temperature within the manufacturing procedure. Polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) utilized in packaging serve as the primary source of chlorine and generate the largest quantity of organochlorine compounds [ 51 , 59 ]. Diminished concentrations of deleterious components, encompassing heavy metals and chlorine, are fundamental characteristics for appropriate recycled fuel (RDF). Industrial RDF consumers have established benchmarks or thresholds concerning the percentage of chlorine in RDF. Excessive chlorine concentrations can induce corrosion, disrupt engine functionality, and emit pollutants during RDF incineration [ 60 , 61 ]. This investigation revealed that all RDF fuel generated from a composite of municipal and landfill solid wastes possessed a higher average calorific value than RDF fuel produced from a mixture of municipal solid waste and landfill waste (15.80 MJ/kg) utilizing an industrial production methodology in Brazil [ 53 ]. A mathematical model has been developed to predict the high calorific value (HHV) of municipal solid waste, and analysis of the HHV of municipal solid waste in Bangkok, considering its physical composition, revealed a value of 22.52 MJ/kg sample [ 43 ]. The elevated calorific value of the RDF releasing samples has been demonstrated to be influenced by the optimal ratio of plastic compositions to organic waste [ 41 , 62 , 63 ]. Mohanlal [ 64 ] reported that plastic exhibited the highest calorific value (26.67 MJ/kg) in comparison to other waste constituents, similar to the findings of Ibikunle et al. [ 65 ], which indicated plastics to have high calorific values ranging from 37.26 to 39.33 MJ/kg. This phenomenon is attributable to the stable chemical bond structure and low oxygen content inherent in plastic waste, leading to a higher heat of combustion [ 66 ]. Moreover, calorific value is associated with moisture content; that is, diminishing moisture content enhances calorific value, consequently, moisture content can be utilized as one of the parameters in ascertaining calorific value [ 67 ]. Large-scale RDF businesses are sensitive and require careful attention to the receiving and inspection of incoming raw materials. Highly contaminated and high-moisture raw materials entering the plant can significantly impact the cost of RDF production. After the production process, the finished RDF product, compared to the initial raw materials, is reduced by 30–40% as a result of removing contaminated and moisture-free materials. The composition of raw material wastes directly impacts the final characteristics of RDF products. Therefore, proper waste separation before entering the production process is crucial and can result in a product of equivalent quality using fewer production processes. RDF quality based on its preparation process and physical characteristics, commonly RDF type generated in Asian country are RDF1, RDF2 and RDF3. These RDF types have relatively low calorific value, so it is necessary to reduce the moisture content in RDF-3 to maximize its calorific value for efficient use, this will have a positive economic impact by reducing costs [ 25 , 68 ], Although RDF3.5 is not broadly defined, it refers to RDF3, which may require further drying process. This RDF3.5 is well-known locally in the cement and power plant industries. Although the high calorific value (HHV) of RDF3.5 is approximately 1.4 times higher than that of RDF3, the local market price of RDF3.5 is twice that of RDF3. 85% and 15% of the RDF produced from this process are sent to cement kilns and private power plants, respectively. These industrial plants are increasingly to switch to use RDF as it is approximately one time cheaper than coal and also promotes environmental sustainability. However, RDF producer often faces stricter regulations when used in cement production and other industries [ 25 , 69 ]. The cement industry is a high-energy and carbon-emitting industry. The high calorific value of RDF allows it to efficiently replace coal and other fossil fuels in cement kilns, not only reducing production costs but also supporting the industry's sustainability efforts by decreasing overall carbon emissions [ 70 ]. The versatility of RDF allows it to be customized to meet specific energy needs, making it suitable for various industrial applications. Integrating RDF into various processes not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions but also lowers fuel costs and enhances energy security [ 71 ]. Furthermore, the use of RDF promotes the circular economy by transforming waste into valuable resources, which not only reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills but also generates significant environmental benefits [ 72 ]. The reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by up to 2,155.3 million tons per year underscores the role of RDF in mitigating the impacts of climate change [ 73 ]. Furthermore, the heat recovery of 2 to 5.5 gigacalories per ton makes RDF an efficient energy source, while the estimated fuel savings of 15%, equivalent to 4.92 tons per hour, represent a significant economic advantage [ 74 ]. Cost savings of approximately US $ 486 per hour from diminished Petro coke consumption, alongside net savings of US $ 389 per hour when accounting for carbon dioxide emissions, illustrate the dual advantages of employing RDF: financial and environmental benefits [ 74 , 75 ]. This RDF management aims not only to utilize the fuel's calorific value to replace primary solid fossil fuels but also has the potential to address waste management issues while also creating environmental benefits such as reducing landfill space and supporting clean energy solutions as RDF significantly reduces carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and global warming compared to conventional fuels [ 69 , 76 ]. 4. Conclusion Municipal solid waste mainly derived from household and landfill solid waste from central area of Thailand transferred to RDF plant had similar waste components. The waste that has been accumulated consists mostly of plastics. Waste age was not found to be significant in the main waste composition. The high percentage of plastics (54–60%) in waste indicates that RDF products can be produced from plastic fractions. The production process was able to convert MSW raw material to three forms of RDF at approximately 70%, however at approximately 30% of the original raw material was lost. The results show that MSW raw materials have a sufficient calorific value for energy production. Various RDFs produced in this study, including RDF2.5, RDF3, and RDF3.5, have good physical and chemical properties. RDF3.5 showed the highest product quantity (31.83%) and quality (10.16% moisture content, 0.33% chloride content, and 29.13 MJ/kg HHV content). While RDF3 (23.95% moisture content, 0.37% chloride content, and 20.06 MJ/kg HHV content) and RDF2.5 (31.08% moisture content, 0.15% chloride content, and 18.50 MJ/kg HHV content) were second and third in terms of product quantity and quality, respectively. The characteristics of all RDF types in the study process indicated that they were suitable for use as an alternative fuel in Thailand's local cement kiln industry. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank N15 Technology Co. Ltd. for providing the materials, industrial processes, and equipment for research and analysis. Author contributions Sumethchotimetha, R - Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Resources, Software, Project administration. Sompornpailin, K - Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Validation . Funding This work has not been supported by external funding. Data availability Data will be available on request. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable Consent to publish Not applicable. Competing interests No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). References Statista Research Department. Global waste generation - statistics & facts [Internet]. 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Characteristics of Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) at The Waste Processing Facility (WPF) of The Faculty of Engineering, Untirta. World Chem Eng J. 2023;7(1):6–10. Mohanlal DS. Charecterizarion of refuse derived fuel (RDF) for waste to energy generation and impact analysis. Master Thesis; 2021. Ibikunle RA, Titiladunayo IF, Akinnuli BO, Dahunsi SO, Olayanju TMA. Estimation of power generation from municipal solid wastes: A case Study of Ilorin metropolis, Nigeria. Energy Reports. 2019;5:126–35. Salamanca AV. Thermal characterization of MSW for purpose of its gasification and pyrolysis. Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña; 2013. Purnamaa I, Sarib SP, Kuncoroc H. Comparative study of waste moisture content drying method between hot air blowing method and boiling method in a heated room. IJST. 2022;1(3). Karpan B, Raman AAA, Aroua MKT. Waste-to-energy: Coal-like refuse derived fuel from hazardous waste and biomass mixture. Process Saf Environ Prot. 2021;149:655–64. Salaripoor H, Yousefi H, Abdoos M. Life cycle environmental assessment of Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) as an alternative to fossil fuels in cement production: A sustainable approach for mitigating carbon emissions. Fuel Commun. 2025;22:100135. Ige OE, Kabeya M. Decarbonizing the Cement Industry: Technological, Economic, and Policy Barriers to CO2 Mitigation Adoption. Clean Technol. 2025;7(4):85. Sharma U, Sharma D, Kumar A, Bansal T, Agarwal A, Kumar S, et al. Utilization of refuse-derived fuel in industrial applications: Insights from Uttar Pradesh, India. Heliyon. 2025;11(1). Sari PH, Zahra NF. Cost and benefit analysis of waste management at Rawa Kucing landfill with the refuse-derived fuel (RDF) method. J Entrep Econ. 2025;2(1):30–48. Kristanto GA, Rachmansyah E. The application of Refuse Derived Fuel (FDR) from commercial solid wastes to reduce CO2 emissions in the cement industry: a preliminary study. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. IOP Publishing; 2020. p. 12014. Shehata N, Obaideen K, Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Mahmoud MS, El-Salamony A-HR, et al. Role of refuse-derived fuel in circular economy and sustainable development goals. Process Saf Environ Prot. 2022;163:558–73. Hasib A, Elkacmi R, Ouigmane A, Boudouch O, Bouzaid M, Berkani M. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Morocco: Co-Incineration of RDF as an Alternative Fuel in Cement Kilns. In: Saleh HM, editor. London: IntechOpen; 2020. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93936 Prihandoko D, Purnomo CW, Widyaputra PK. Application of Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) Plant in Piyungan Landfill Municipal Solid Waste Management. ASEAN J Chem Eng. 2022;22(2). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9303969","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":641605348,"identity":"0da04c0d-971c-4d38-8de8-57e47b5d0f68","order_by":0,"name":"Rapepat Sumethchotimetha","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rapepat","middleName":"","lastName":"Sumethchotimetha","suffix":""},{"id":641605351,"identity":"dff5e1b1-ab8e-4dd8-9fb3-957ef488dfdf","order_by":1,"name":"Kanokporn Sompornpailin","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACCSBmbIDxPhxg4GFgh7ATiNLCOAOohYcZzDYgTgszzwEGBoJaJNvPHnw4c4dNvjkD+8PHNme2ydgzMzB++MHwJw+XFmmevGTDjWfSLHc28Bgb59y4DXIYs2QPg0ExLi1yDDlmkg/bDhsYHOBhk875ANbCIA10WGIDLi38b2Ba2J9JW0C0MP/Gp0VaAmjLRrAWBjNpBojD2PDaIjnjjbHhzDNpBgaHeYwNe84AtRxmbLPsMTDGqUXifI7hw94dNgYGx9sfPvhx7LY9e3vz4Rs/KuRwagEDcMQwo3AN8KlnQE4xo2AUjIJRMAqwAABPLFFbMUNBowAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kanokporn","middleName":"","lastName":"Sompornpailin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-02 13:53:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9303969/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9303969/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":109799558,"identity":"1da93deb-9209-4cba-bfb1-31e8a9f9172d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-22 15:31:21","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":286308,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDesign the operational flow of a waste-to-energy (RDF) plant, specifying the equipment and their production capacity.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9303969/v1/2db6604e3843072726159cf8.png"},{"id":109459466,"identity":"c22cf6d7-3fe1-4e38-9f46-a97c940d9c63","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-18 10:43:14","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":170108,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe compositions of solid municipal wastes and solid landfill wastes in central Thailand analyzed at RDF plants.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9303969/v1/969875a12b6a672963c6d40d.png"},{"id":109759761,"identity":"b63b33b8-9f78-4443-b7ea-e45f347237bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-22 07:27:39","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":331066,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIndustrial RDF process and output productivity of RDF2.5, RDF3 and RDF3.5.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9303969/v1/cb91940113d0d5c89afbfbf0.png"},{"id":109459469,"identity":"63e1e8bf-f8cf-4a73-b4db-3a4ebb023e6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-18 10:43:14","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":172244,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRaw material input (a) and RDF outputs: RDF 2.5 (b), RDF 3 (c) and RDF 3.5 (d) from RDF production process.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9303969/v1/06b27257589ca14605f05e22.png"},{"id":109907065,"identity":"de81b1d6-c983-4be7-b670-aff5d87ed010","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-25 06:41:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1204584,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9303969/v1/4238a13e-2339-43b6-a422-2c79e1638075.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Integrated Industrial Process Management for Sustainable Conversion of Solid Waste into Economically Valuable Refuse-Derived Fuel.","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe amount of waste generated has increased dramatically, becoming a major problem in every corner of the world over the past year, and is expected to increase even more in the future. This is due to a variety of variables including growing populations, urbanization, and economic expansion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Every year, the world generates approximately 2.01\u0026nbsp;billion tons of waste. According to the World Bank, East Asia and the Pacific are the main waste producers, accounting for 23 percent (468\u0026nbsp;million tons) of the world's per year waste generation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Future waste generation predictions indicate that the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) is expected to rise by nearly 70 percent (to 3.4\u0026nbsp;billion metric tons) annually by 2050 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The five most waste-producing countries in Southeast Asia are Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, and Malaysia. The overall composition of waste varies between countries; therefore, each country manages waste, from its generation to disposal, using different methods. Waste composition and infrastructure conditions are important factors in determining the appropriate waste management system for each country [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSW is the majority of waste gets generated in a municipality without segregation and may either be dangerous or harmless. It is independent of the source of MSW, but its influence on the ecosystem and various living forms affects pollution of air, water, and soil, depending on the disposal technique [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Nearly 30% of total MSW generated is not collected, and the majority of what is collected does not get processed in accordance with current standards regarding environmental management. Furthermore, nearly 42% of MSW is dumped in the open or burned uncontrollably. Plastic waste is a growing global concern because it persists for extended periods of time and is absorbed by organisms, providing health effects across the food chain, potentially including people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, effective MSW management also has a positive impact on environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn many countries around the world, there is growing concern about urban waste management, so choosing sustainable solutions that address both environmental and economic dimensions is a shared priority for policymakers and countries around the world [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The excellent waste management practices are frequently incorporated in the generation, collection, storage, processing, recovery, transportation, and disposal steps. However, rather than disposal, waste prevention, recycling, and other recovery operations are instances of sustainable waste management, which is the most environmentally beneficial process [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11 CR12\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Of all the components in solid waste, plastics, paper, glass and metals have the highest recycling potential. The overall recycling rate has approximately 50 percent of total solid waste, while plastic waste only accounts for 6 percent, however, plastic waste should be reused rather than being thrown into landfills [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite increasing investments in waste management plans, there is still a large amount of residual material requiring treatment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Managing large volumes of municipal waste requires a more integrated approach, including recycling, composting, pyrolysis, incineration, landfilling and energy recovery, depending on the facilities and management options available in the area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The majority of developed countries adopt advanced waste management technologies in combination with improved regulations, local government involvement, and public awareness, all of which play essential roles in sustainable waste management introduced to reduce solid waste [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. In developing countries, open dumping and open burning are the most common waste management and disposal procedures due to the lack of the technological infrastructure essential for controlling solid waste [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, uncontrolled disposal can result in critical heavy metal pollution, whereas open burning can emit CO, CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, SO, NO, particulate matter (PM) and other pollutant emissions that are harmful to the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. These challenges could become opportunities if they change their perspective on waste as a resource, coupled with increasing waste recycling rates and waste-to-energy (WTE) technologies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), anaerobic digestion, composting and landfill gas recovery processes are the most commonly used WTE technology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy recovery by WTE conversion is an effective approach to reducing volumes of solid waste, therefore this conversion process is one of the methods gaining attention for decreasing the requirement for landfill sites, generating value from waste and fulfilling the growing demand for low-cost energy sources [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25 CR26 CR27\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. WTE technologies represent a great opportunity to initiate the use of renewable energy sources for large-scale power generation and WTE heat generation to replace fossil fuels which produces greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMSW has a low initial calorific value due to its high moisture content from its main organic component [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Improving the quality of MSW for use as RDF can be achieved by several RDF process. Under RDF production process, waste is physically modified through processes of shredding, drying and compacting to resulting in RDF with different qualities and properties which can be used as a substitute for natural gas and coal in various industries, including the cement industry, power producers and industrial boilers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. However, this production process was depended on solid waste input and RDF users\u0026rsquo; requirement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. According to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], RDF can be classified into 7 categories depending on the final waste management process, characteristics and form of RDF. RDF1 represents discarded MSW. RDF2 or Coarse RDF is waste managed to coarse particle size with or without ferrous metal separation. Meanwhile, RDF3, or Fluff RDF, is waste managed to separate glass, metal, and inorganic materials and shredded. RDF4 or Powder RDF refers to combustible waste that has been managed into powder form. RDF5 or Densified RDF is combustible waste that has been densified into pellets, slugs, cubes, or briquettes. RDF6, referred to as RDF slurry is combustible waste that has been managed into liquid fuel. Finally, RDF7 or RDF syngas is a gaseous fuel produced from combustible waste. Each type of RDF was shown different properties and calorific values. RDF demand has dramatically gone up in recent years, with the global RDF market valued at 4.91\u0026nbsp;billion US dollars in 2023 and forecasted to reach 10.60\u0026nbsp;billion US dollars at the end of 2033 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Over 10 years ago, Thailand's government, represented by the Ministry of Energy, expressed interest in and supported energy from waste. The government's plan aimed at boosting the proportion of alternative energy use of total usage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid waste compositions are important on waste management because they assess possible material recovery, identify component sources, and estimate the physical, chemical, and thermal properties of wastes which affects the quality of the produced RDF. The waste composition is variable due to season, lifestyle, demographic, regional, and local legislation factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the composition of solid wastes from municipal and landfill before it enters the process of being converted into RDF through industrial-scale management. This plant was designed and developed to handle solid wastes in the central region of Thailand. The industrial-scale waste management process and the quantity and quality of RDF output were analyzed, to meet the requirements of Thai industry.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Material and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Solid waste collection and classification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid wastes from municipal and landfill were collected from the central region of Thailand. Two waste samples resulting from local waste management, differ in terms of processing time and waste characteristics. MSW disposed of was transported to a temporary area and air-dried under sunlight exposure to reduce odor; this process takes approximately ten days. Waste from landfills had a lifespan of three to five years. Waste samples from the two sources were separately transported by truck to an industrial-scale RDF processing plant. Waste arriving at the industrial plant was sampled for preliminary waste quality assessments (moisture and contaminants) based on domestic industrial methodologies, as described [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter satisfying the inspection criteria, waste from each source was piled separately and randomly sampled at a depth of 30 cm of the pile in the amount of 5 kg for 10 times. The wastes from the sampling were categorized according to the proposed method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Waste sample compositions were manually classified into eight categorizing types according to the material characteristics: plastic bags, mixed plastics, wood and leaves, clothes and textiles, foam, paper, electronic waste and metal, and glass. The percentage of each category's sample weight relative to total weight was calculated. The obtained data were statistically analyzed to determine significant differences between sample groups using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT) to assess the mean of the data, with a significance threshold of \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Designing process of RDF plant\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall equipment cooperated in RDF process employed for this plant is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. This process is separated into 3 group: 1) Reduction process has function on waste separation, reduction and size screening, 2) Drying process: composed of moisture reduction, 3) Final process: Size reduction and screening of fine-sized materials. RDF plant sized 64000 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e located at Huai Haeng Subdistrict, Kaeng Khoi District, Saraburi Province, which is approximately 120 kilometers northeast of Bangkok, Thailand. This plant was established in 2023 and has an installed production capacity of 300,000 tons per year.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Production process of RDF\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid wastes derived from municipal and landfill site were mixed together and feed into RDF production process using TMC grab crane from GC Grab (Thailand). In the industrial-scale RDF production process, the machinery layout and RDF output location are shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The RDF production process is divided into three groups of machinery: reduction process, drying process, and final process, which are systematically separated into two production lines. These production lines can be operated depending on the waste characteristics and the quality of RDF required. Each production line within the RDF manufacturing process is equipped with operating machines to input solid waste with a capacity of 30 tons per hour. Reduction process of RDF production line comprises a solid waste reduction system which includes a pre-shredder, magnetic separation, air separation, and disc screening. The mixed wastes were pre-shredded into small pieces (less than 100 mm) using M\u0026amp;J 4000s pre shredder (Metso, Finland). This pre shredder composed of a cutting platform equipped rotating blades that have forward and backward cutting and the gap presents between each set of cutting blades on the cutting platform. Pre shredder is connected with magnetic belt (TZE Co., Ltd., Thailand) and the subsequent unit is an air separator (TZE Co., Ltd., Thailand).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly samples from first production line were derived to the double-stage disc screening machine, Hextra model (Ecostar, Italy) for the screening process. This disc screen machine can separate material sizes smaller than 50- and 100-mm. Waste fractions larger than 100 mm were sorted using a drum feeder and then were suddenly transferred to drying process using a rotary drum dryer system assembled by Excellence Technology Thailand (ECT). Material derived from the air separation process of secondary production line also entered the same drying process step. This step encompassed of heating component (horizontal furnace, cyclone fire retardance) and drying component (rotary drum dryer and cyclone dryer). The rotary drum dryer was consisted of a 20-meter-long cyclical steel plate with a diameter of 340 cm. This drum dryer was utilized to diminish the moisture content at 140\u0026deg;C for a duration of 25\u0026ndash;30 minutes. The specimens were sorted once more by the drum feeder to ensure a uniform flow rate of sized waste entering the final process of the RDF production system. These specimens underwent size screening steps via the disc screen with sieve diameters of 20 and 40 mm (Metso, Finland). Oversized materials were subjected to further size reduction utilizing the M\u0026amp;J 240e fine shredder to comply with RDF specifications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proportion of each RDF product and their productivity concerning raw materials were ascertained. The productivity of raw materials within a production process was calculated employing the following formula: total output/total input. The ratio of the amount produced and amount of raw material used in production, which measures the quantity of products able to be produced in a specific timeframe.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 RDF quality analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe RDF releasing samples were analyzed in process below and compared to the RDF quality requirements of Thailand's local cement industry (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quality of RDF in the market and the standards for RDF distribution in Thailand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRDF type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle size (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLHV (MJ/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChloride content (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u0026ndash;500 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;100 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Not Available\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eMoisture content analysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTen replicate RDF samples from various locations were sampled and visually screened for contamination. These samples were blended and reduced to 0.6 mm using a Retsch SM 300 cutting mill (Germany). A 100-gram sample was used to measure the moisture content using the industry standard drying method (Reeb \u0026amp; Milota, 1999). The percentage was then calculated using the following formula.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%) = [(Wet weight - Dry weight)/Wet weight] *100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eChlorine content analysis\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chlorine content in RDF product was converted into a water-soluble chloride form which was quantitated by titrimetric methods using Metrohm Eco Titrator (Switzerland).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCalorific value analysis\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bomb calorimeter method was used for measuring the energy available from RDF solid forms sample. This technique is following the ASTM E711-87 standard method. The mixed RDF sample was reduced the size into 0.4 mm using ball mill (Retsch model PM 100, Germany). These sample were measured the calorific value by isoperibolic calorimeter (LECO AC-500, USA). Analytical sample was placed in combustion vessel and then introduced to the calorimeter. The calorimeter was calibrated by the combustion of a reactive standard (benzoic acid) and provided higher heating value (HHV) or gross calorific value (GCV).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 The composition of MSW raw materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreliminary examination revealed that the waste samples contained moisture content and contaminants (heavy fractions and soil) ranging from 22.4\u0026ndash;41.5% and 3.2\u0026ndash;6.6%, respectively, showing no statistically significant differences between both sources. These wastes were classified into eight categories based on material properties and calculated by weight percentage (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.). Solid wastes derived from both waste managements, presents high proportion of plastic wastes (plastics bag and mixed plastics) especially plastic bags, that composed more than 50% of the general categorizing types (about 60% and 54% in wastes derived from municipalities and from landfills, respectively). Waste from these management processes presented average plastic portion higher the result of the plastics waste fraction from landfill waste at the Nonthaburi solid waste disposal site [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], municipal solid waste from On-nut composting plant in Bangkok (24.6% to 44.8%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], but is similar to the municipal and landfill solid waste collected from eastern Thailand using similar management processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMunicipal waste was composed of 16% clothes and textiles, 14% wood and leaves, 6% foam, 3% paper, and 1% electronics waste and metal. While, long-term accumulation of landfill waste consists of 13% clothing and textiles, 10% wood and leaves, and 2% paper. This landfill site had a small amount of electronics waste and metal, glass and foam (about 2\u0026ndash;5%), However, this percentage is higher than the sample from municipal areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on this research finding, two different waste management found less organic waste differs from the other regions (municipal or urban zones) in Thailand, which are most comprised of organic waste [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. This solid wastes from household site had undergone processes to reduce moisture and organic matter contents in order to minimize odor according to the plant's initial material acceptance criteria. Waste with low organic matter content results in improved original moisture content of the material [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. However, this solid waste from municipal site had moisture contents and the proportion of organics waste higher than solid wastes from landfill site, while landfill waste contains a higher proportion of small waste than household waste. The reduction of waste size in landfills is a result of long-term microbiological decomposition processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. These solid wastes consist of a high proportion of the combustible wastes (plastics, clothes and textile, wood and leaves, and paper) approximately 80\u0026ndash;90%. Especially plastic waste, which is a suitable resource for converting to usefulness as an alternative fuel in RDF form [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Rahotharn \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] found that waste older than two years and ten days derived from landfill sites had little effect on the production of energy, however waste older than ten years produced a lot of energy and had the most potential to be used as RDF. Plastic waste can take a long time to breakdown or decomposition in landfills (about 10\u0026ndash;100 years) due to many of factors, including their unique biochemical properties and surroundings or climate conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 RDF production\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter passing quality testing upon arrival, samples of solid waste from each management method were then mixed together before being sent to RDF production process to ensure the continuous production of the industrial system. These wastes had moisture content of 40\u0026ndash;45%, contained 4\u0026ndash;7% contaminants, and could be classified as RDF 1 or RDF2 depending on its quality. One production line has a production capacity of approximately 630 tons per day and 4,410 tons per week. The additional production lines receiving raw materials can increase production capacity to 1,260 tons per day and 8,820 tons per week. The industrial-scale production process and output of RDF products are shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrist and secondary production lines have parallel reduction process of the pre-shedder machine, combined with magnetic separation, following with air separator (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Each production line achieved its maximum production capacity, capable of conveying 30 tons of material per hour. After the waste material (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea) was initially fed into the pre-shedder machine, a cutting platform reduced the size of the waste material. Approximately 3% of contaminants such as sand, soil, gravel, and small metal components pass through the gap in the cutting platform of this machine. The remaining waste material was then sent to a metal detector to remove ferrous metals, and large fractions were removed by a magnetic conveyor belt. While the light fraction materials were then passed through an air separator and heavy fragments, approximately 25\u0026ndash;35% of contaminants such as soil, gravel, metals, and organic matters, were removed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight fragments of the first production line were subjected to size screening by disc screen for further separation. Approximately 70% of these light fragments were double-screening with different sieve sizes., resulting in an RDF2.5 value of 17.25% (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;100 mm fractional size) and an RDF3 value of 19.84% (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50 mm fractional size) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb and c). While the secondary production line operated faster than the first because, after the air separation step, the light fraction materials directly sent to the drying and final processes to produce RDF3.5, bypassing the RDF2.5 and RDF3 production steps. These parallel processes have high potential for separating high-quality waste materials, results in various types of RDF products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight fragments with sizes larger than 100 millimeters from first production lines and all light fragment from second production lines were conveyed to a drum feeder and entered the RDF3.5 production process. These fractions then underwent a drying process to reduce the moisture content to the optimal level. The final step, the dry material fractions were performed disc screening. This material fractions with particle sizes smaller than 40 mm were collected as RDF3.5, while larger particles were reduced in size and dust removed before being collected as RDF3.5. The resulting RDF3.5 yield of 31.83% was the highest among all RDF types produced in this study (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first line in RDF production was reducing the amount of solid material by adding economic value to material resources. This is a key method for material flow reduction, efficient resource utilization and decreasing energy consumption, widely used by companies that convert waste into energy. The waste can be minimally processed in order to produce fuel suitable for specific applications for as by removing organic fractions or metals and glass. On the other hand, that material has been improved, which are used as fuel in part of high graded RDF [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. The production process significantly impacts the quality and grade of RDF. High-quality RDF requires multiple steps and separation processes to achieve consistency and high calorific value, while the drying process is crucial for controlling the moisture content to the optimal level of the RDF product [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the quality of raw materials fed into the production process can determine the production efficiency and output over a given period. In one day, two production lines could convert raw materials into different types of RDF as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Every ton of waste raw material fed in produces 0.18 tons of RDF2.5, 0.20 tons of RDF3, and 0.32 tons of RDF3.5. Finally, approximately 30% of the original raw materials are lost during the production process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 RDF properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe properties of RDF from this process, expressed as average values ​​of moisture content, chlorine content, and heat energy of samples, are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Moisture content is a key parameter in RDF compaction. The results vary depending on the RDF type and are related to the RDF quality requirements. Moisture content of RDF from these production lines ranged from 9.75% to 33.39%. RDF2.5 had the highest average moisture content (31.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.47%), and moisture content decreases as the RDF quality or processing mechanism meets higher requirements. RDF3 and RDF3.5 had the second lowest average moisture content (23.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29%) and the third lowest (11.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.62%), with statically difference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics and energy content of RDF-releasing samples from industrial process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRDF type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChloride content (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHHV/GCV (MJ/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRDF2.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.47\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRDF3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRDF3.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.62\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.93\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe difference letters indicate significant differences at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 compared within the same parameter (moisture content, chloride content or HHV/GV).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average chlorine content (%) in the RDF production process ranged from 0.06% to 0.69%, with average values ​​of 0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09%, 0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07%, and 0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17% for RDF2.5, RDF3, and RDF3.5, respectively. RDF3 and RDF3.5 had similar chloride content, with statistically significant differences compared to RDF2.5. All RDF types produced using this studied process exhibited optimal chlorine content, conforming to the requirements of the cement kiln industry in Thailand and other regions, such as European countries (generally less than 0.8%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeating value ​​of individual RDF sources were measured and presented as the high heating value (HHV) or gross calorific value (GCV) in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The average HHV of RDF varied from 18.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20-29.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.93 MJ/kg depending on the type of RDF. The highest HHV was found in RDF3.5 29.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.93 MJ/kg, followed by RDF3 and RDF2.5, which had HHVs of 20.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49 and18.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20 MJ/kg, respectively. The energy content of RDF3 and RDF2.5, respectively, varies among several factors, including morphological composition and production technology, can influence the energy content of different RDF varieties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. However, industrial process management plays a crucial role in ensuring that energy from waste fuel meets quality standards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reason for designing a 2-line system is to produce high-quality RDF that meets the needs of energy users. Furthermore, it ensures efficient energy use and safe operation. High RDF quality need to meet general requirements that include, optimal calorific value, low chlorine content, less impurities and specified grain size [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. RDF from this Industrial process presents the average moisture content, chlorine content, and caloric values, which indicates that the produced RDF satisfies the RDF quality requirements of Thailand's local cement and power plant industries. Dianda et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] found that increasing the quantity of organic waste led to an escalation in moisture content. The different moisture contents of distinct RDF types are influenced by the mechanical operations (size reduction and drying) in RDF production and RDF moisture content diminishes as the particle size reduces [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChlorine emission was correlated to the source of raw materials derived from waste and the operational temperature within the manufacturing procedure. Polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) utilized in packaging serve as the primary source of chlorine and generate the largest quantity of organochlorine compounds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Diminished concentrations of deleterious components, encompassing heavy metals and chlorine, are fundamental characteristics for appropriate recycled fuel (RDF). Industrial RDF consumers have established benchmarks or thresholds concerning the percentage of chlorine in RDF. Excessive chlorine concentrations can induce corrosion, disrupt engine functionality, and emit pollutants during RDF incineration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis investigation revealed that all RDF fuel generated from a composite of municipal and landfill solid wastes possessed a higher average calorific value than RDF fuel produced from a mixture of municipal solid waste and landfill waste (15.80 MJ/kg) utilizing an industrial production methodology in Brazil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. A mathematical model has been developed to predict the high calorific value (HHV) of municipal solid waste, and analysis of the HHV of municipal solid waste in Bangkok, considering its physical composition, revealed a value of 22.52 MJ/kg sample [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The elevated calorific value of the RDF releasing samples has been demonstrated to be influenced by the optimal ratio of plastic compositions to organic waste [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Mohanlal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e] reported that plastic exhibited the highest calorific value (26.67 MJ/kg) in comparison to other waste constituents, similar to the findings of Ibikunle et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e], which indicated plastics to have high calorific values ranging from 37.26 to 39.33 MJ/kg. This phenomenon is attributable to the stable chemical bond structure and low oxygen content inherent in plastic waste, leading to a higher heat of combustion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, calorific value is associated with moisture content; that is, diminishing moisture content enhances calorific value, consequently, moisture content can be utilized as one of the parameters in ascertaining calorific value [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge-scale RDF businesses are sensitive and require careful attention to the receiving and inspection of incoming raw materials. Highly contaminated and high-moisture raw materials entering the plant can significantly impact the cost of RDF production. After the production process, the finished RDF product, compared to the initial raw materials, is reduced by 30\u0026ndash;40% as a result of removing contaminated and moisture-free materials. The composition of raw material wastes directly impacts the final characteristics of RDF products. Therefore, proper waste separation before entering the production process is crucial and can result in a product of equivalent quality using fewer production processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRDF quality based on its preparation process and physical characteristics, commonly RDF type generated in Asian country are RDF1, RDF2 and RDF3. These RDF types have relatively low calorific value, so it is necessary to reduce the moisture content in RDF-3 to maximize its calorific value for efficient use, this will have a positive economic impact by reducing costs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e], Although RDF3.5 is not broadly defined, it refers to RDF3, which may require further drying process. This RDF3.5 is well-known locally in the cement and power plant industries. Although the high calorific value (HHV) of RDF3.5 is approximately 1.4 times higher than that of RDF3, the local market price of RDF3.5 is twice that of RDF3. 85% and 15% of the RDF produced from this process are sent to cement kilns and private power plants, respectively. These industrial plants are increasingly to switch to use RDF as it is approximately one time cheaper than coal and also promotes environmental sustainability. However, RDF producer often faces stricter regulations when used in cement production and other industries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cement industry is a high-energy and carbon-emitting industry. The high calorific value of RDF allows it to efficiently replace coal and other fossil fuels in cement kilns, not only reducing production costs but also supporting the industry's sustainability efforts by decreasing overall carbon emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. The versatility of RDF allows it to be customized to meet specific energy needs, making it suitable for various industrial applications. Integrating RDF into various processes not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions but also lowers fuel costs and enhances energy security [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the use of RDF promotes the circular economy by transforming waste into valuable resources, which not only reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills but also generates significant environmental benefits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e]. The reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by up to 2,155.3\u0026nbsp;million tons per year underscores the role of RDF in mitigating the impacts of climate change [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the heat recovery of 2 to 5.5 gigacalories per ton makes RDF an efficient energy source, while the estimated fuel savings of 15%, equivalent to 4.92 tons per hour, represent a significant economic advantage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e]. Cost savings of approximately US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e486 per hour from diminished Petro coke consumption, alongside net savings of US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e389 per hour when accounting for carbon dioxide emissions, illustrate the dual advantages of employing RDF: financial and environmental benefits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis RDF management aims not only to utilize the fuel's calorific value to replace primary solid fossil fuels but also has the potential to address waste management issues while also creating environmental benefits such as reducing landfill space and supporting clean energy solutions as RDF significantly reduces carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and global warming compared to conventional fuels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMunicipal solid waste mainly derived from household and landfill solid waste from central area of Thailand transferred to RDF plant had similar waste components. The waste that has been accumulated consists mostly of plastics. Waste age was not found to be significant in the main waste composition. The high percentage of plastics (54\u0026ndash;60%) in waste indicates that RDF products can be produced from plastic fractions. The production process was able to convert MSW raw material to three forms of RDF at approximately 70%, however at approximately 30% of the original raw material was lost. The results show that MSW raw materials have a sufficient calorific value for energy production. Various RDFs produced in this study, including RDF2.5, RDF3, and RDF3.5, have good physical and chemical properties. RDF3.5 showed the highest product quantity (31.83%) and quality (10.16% moisture content, 0.33% chloride content, and 29.13 MJ/kg HHV content). While RDF3 (23.95% moisture content, 0.37% chloride content, and 20.06 MJ/kg HHV content) and RDF2.5 (31.08% moisture content, 0.15% chloride content, and 18.50 MJ/kg HHV content) were second and third in terms of product quantity and quality, respectively. The characteristics of all RDF types in the study process indicated that they were suitable for use as an alternative fuel in Thailand's local cement kiln industry.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank N15 Technology Co. Ltd. for providing the materials, industrial processes, and equipment for research and analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSumethchotimetha, R - Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Resources, Software, Project administration.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSompornpailin, K -\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWriting \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, Visualization, Formal analysis, Conceptualization,\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMethodology, Supervision, Validation\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work has not been supported by external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be available on request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003econsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStatista Research Department. 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Effic. 2014. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbd Alqader A, Hamad J. Municipal solid waste composition determination supporting the integrated solid waste management in Gaza strip. Int J Environ Sci Dev. 2012;3(2):172. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSumethchotimetha R, Sompornpailin K. Sustainable Waste Management Improves the Quality of Industrial RDF Production and Benefits the Environments. Curr Appl Sci Technol. 2025;e0265123\u0026ndash;e0265123. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTerashima Y, Urabe S, Yoshikawa K. Optimum sampling of municipal solid wastes. Conserv Recycl. 1984;7(2\u0026ndash;4):295\u0026ndash;308. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChiemchaisri C, Charnnok B, Visvanathan C. Recovery of plastic wastes from dumpsite as refuse-derived fuel and its utilization in small gasification system. Bioresour Technol. 2010;101(5):1522\u0026ndash;7. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahothan U, Khemkhao M, Kaewpengkrow PR. 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J Inotera. 2023;8(1):73\u0026ndash;81. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEvode N, Qamar SA, Bilal M, Barcel\u0026oacute; D, Iqbal HMN. Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021;4:100142. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKlinghoffer NB, Castaldi MJ. Gasification and pyrolysis of municipal solid waste (MSW). Waste to Energy Convers Technol. Elsevier; 2013. pp. 146\u0026ndash;76. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eInfiesta LR, Ferreira CRN, Trov\u0026oacute; AG, Borges VL, Carvalho SR. Design of an industrial solid waste processing line to produce refuse-derived fuel. J Environ Manage. 2019;236:715\u0026ndash;9. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRecari J, Berrueco C, Puy N, Alier S, Bartrol\u0026iacute; J, Farriol X. Torrefaction of a solid recovered fuel (SRF) to improve the fuel properties for gasification processes. Appl Energy. 2017;203:177\u0026ndash;88. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEuropean Investment Bank. 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Charecterizarion of refuse derived fuel (RDF) for waste to energy generation and impact analysis. Master Thesis; 2021. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIbikunle RA, Titiladunayo IF, Akinnuli BO, Dahunsi SO, Olayanju TMA. Estimation of power generation from municipal solid wastes: A case Study of Ilorin metropolis, Nigeria. Energy Reports. 2019;5:126\u0026ndash;35. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSalamanca AV. Thermal characterization of MSW for purpose of its gasification and pyrolysis. Universidad Polit\u0026eacute;cnica de Catalu\u0026ntilde;a; 2013. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePurnamaa I, Sarib SP, Kuncoroc H. Comparative study of waste moisture content drying method between hot air blowing method and boiling method in a heated room. IJST. 2022;1(3). \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarpan B, Raman AAA, Aroua MKT. Waste-to-energy: Coal-like refuse derived fuel from hazardous waste and biomass mixture. 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The application of Refuse Derived Fuel (FDR) from commercial solid wastes to reduce CO2 emissions in the cement industry: a preliminary study. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. IOP Publishing; 2020. p. 12014. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShehata N, Obaideen K, Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Mahmoud MS, El-Salamony A-HR, et al. Role of refuse-derived fuel in circular economy and sustainable development goals. Process Saf Environ Prot. 2022;163:558\u0026ndash;73. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHasib A, Elkacmi R, Ouigmane A, Boudouch O, Bouzaid M, Berkani M. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Morocco: Co-Incineration of RDF as an Alternative Fuel in Cement Kilns. In: Saleh HM, editor. London: IntechOpen; 2020. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93936\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrihandoko D, Purnomo CW, Widyaputra PK. Application of Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) Plant in Piyungan Landfill Municipal Solid Waste Management. ASEAN J Chem Eng. 2022;22(2). \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Waste management, RDF, industrial process, landfill solid waste, municipal solid waste, sustainable energy, renewable sources","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9303969/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9303969/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSolid wastes from household areas and landfill recovery from central region of Thailand were distinctly transported and examined for their composition. The waste acquired from both managements exhibited a substantial proportion of diverse categories of plastic in both household and landfill wastes (60% and 54%, respectively), succeeded by textile and plant-based waste. Wastes from both origins were mixed and fed into a reduction step of RDF process, wherein the waste materials were diminished in size and contaminants were eliminated. In the first production line, the processed material was classified utilizing a dish screen. Materials screened with sizes less than 50- and 100-mm yielded RDF3 and RDF2.5, representing 19.84% and 17.50%, correspondingly. The screened material, characterized by particle sizes exceeding 100 mm, was integrated with the material from the air separator in the second production line. These materials were subsequently subjected to a drying process, and thereafter underwent final processes of disc screening and fine shredding, culminating in an RDF3.5 of 31.83%. The mean moisture content of RDF3.5 was 11.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.62%, significantly lower than that of RDF2.5 and RDF3, which were recorded at 31.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.47% and 23.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92%, respectively. While the chloride contents of RDF3 and RDF3.5 were analogous, this content in both RDF types was significantly elevated in comparison to RDF2.5. The HHV of RDF3.5 was 40\u0026ndash;50% superior to that of RDF2.5 and RDF3. Managing waste from both sources into the industrial RDF production process can yield high-calorific value RDF, thereby contributing favorably to the circular economy and sustainable waste management.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Integrated Industrial Process Management for Sustainable Conversion of Solid Waste into Economically Valuable Refuse-Derived Fuel.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-18 10:40:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9303969/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-23T09:35:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"142596108889892662445123599579345235510","date":"2026-05-22T09:46:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-11T12:49:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"293092126385445991441462198731088769618","date":"2026-05-11T11:10:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"103118908879883274649622054518624382879","date":"2026-05-11T07:45:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"53464135197418281942046579281098559168","date":"2026-05-11T07:39:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"160059714541691582431124236222476061242","date":"2026-05-10T18:23:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"230962672004923142410605663423446635057","date":"2026-05-09T16:43:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"58444811291946403026327589186845228565","date":"2026-05-07T19:38:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-05-07T18:18:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-22T11:59:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-15T15:04:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Sustainability","date":"2026-04-15T14:45:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9a7cf1f0-7df9-49eb-8588-da1bb8f8cf62","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 18th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-23T09:35:39+00:00","index":69,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"142596108889892662445123599579345235510","date":"2026-05-22T09:46:31+00:00","index":68,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-11T12:49:10+00:00","index":56,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"293092126385445991441462198731088769618","date":"2026-05-11T11:10:28+00:00","index":55,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"103118908879883274649622054518624382879","date":"2026-05-11T07:45:46+00:00","index":54,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"53464135197418281942046579281098559168","date":"2026-05-11T07:39:22+00:00","index":53,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"160059714541691582431124236222476061242","date":"2026-05-10T18:23:28+00:00","index":51,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"230962672004923142410605663423446635057","date":"2026-05-09T16:43:29+00:00","index":31,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"58444811291946403026327589186845228565","date":"2026-05-07T19:38:01+00:00","index":28,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"40","date":"2026-05-07T18:18:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-18T10:40:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-18 10:40:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9303969","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9303969","identity":"rs-9303969","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}