COVID-19 and the Online Gaze: Transferring Trauma Informed Practices Online

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Van Brown, Johanna Crocetto This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311185/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract As faculty and students continue to acclimate learning in a post-COVID world, a better understanding of student and faculty experiences during COVID can help inform successful online pedagogies for the future. One emergent debate is whether faculty should require students to turn on their video cameras in a synchronous class as a way of taking attendance and measuring engagement. Some say requiring cameras during class is contrary trauma-informed teaching practices. Others argue that asking students to turn their cameras on is reasonable request. Through an online survey, this exploratory study invited full-time undergraduate students to respond to closed- and open-ended questions regarding their experiences with synchronous classes and video camera use during the pandemic. Findings point to a concept we name the “Online Gaze,” which illustrates power imbalances between students and instructors that can emerge during online synchronous classes. The authors argue that the online gaze warrants the need for trauma-informed practices to be transferred to online classes. COVID-19 Online Teaching and Learning Video Cameras Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic presented significant challenges for the higher education community worldwide. The sudden pivot of previously face-to-face courses to be taught online was just one of the many challenges. Instructors had to prepare and deliver their classes from home, with all the practical and technical challenges, and often without proper technical support or the lack of pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986 ). As we settle into what presumably is post- COVID-19 life, online teaching and learning is likely going to stay with us. While research in online teaching and learning has mushroomed over the past year, there is still much to discover and understand about online learning, particularly around how to consider attendance, participation, and engagement in a trauma-informed way. One emergent debate is whether faculty should require students to turn on their cameras in a synchronous class. Some say requiring cameras during class is contrary to trauma-informed teaching practices. Others argue that asking students to turn their cameras on is reasonable request that helps promote community building and feelings of connectedness during a disconnected time. As faculty wrestle with online pedagogies, and students navigate online learning, a better understanding of student and faculty experiences can help inform successful online pedagogies for all disciplines in higher education moving forward. We disseminated an online survey in the Fall of 2020, soliciting feedback from students about their experiences with online learning since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in March of 2020. Our response rate was above average, and several patterns emerged. We use a combination of literatures to make the case that online synchronous classes during the COVID-19 pandemic created what we are calling an “Online Gaze,” where students experienced a power imbalance between themselves and instructors, and between other students in terms of ‘being seen’ in class. Literature Review COVID-19 continues to cause countless negative impacts, both on the individual and on us collectively. However, there may be opportunities for instructors to adjust their way of being in the classroom (Bartholomay, 2022). Social science curricula include many “hot button” topics, especially in the current social context. Arguably, instructors in the social science and Sociology in particular, have a responsibility to ensure that students are engaging with these topics, and in a meaningful way (Merrill, 2022). If students’ reactions to the subject matter are impeding them from full engagement with the course material, then instructors are not actively encouraging critical thinking around structural inequality (Merrill, 2022). With the prevalence of reported mental health challenges as well as ongoing crises like pandemics, climate change and political upheaval, it is imperative that instructors consider these things. As Merrill (2022) argues, and we agree, it is important that instructors embrace mitigation measures to reduce these negative reactions to complex subject matter to optimize learning. Several recent articles in Teaching Sociology address similar issues around care-informed pedagogy (Hess, et al, 2022). Bartholomay (2022) and Gillis and Krull (2022) provide encouragement to evolve into a new normal by advocating for increased accessibility of interface formats to try and address barriers like increased anxiety, family / personal distractions, and technological access. Because of high levels of anxiety, distraction, and lack of motivation, it is especially important to consider care. While some may argue that instructors too are carrying disproportionate loads and are not receiving nearly the support they need, the fact remains that instructors are the first point of contact for many students. Coleman (2022) points out that Sociology instructors are poised to suggest avenues of response. A trauma-informed approach can help these suggestions be well -received. Furthermore, Coleman (2022) shared best practices for instructors who wish to better support their student’s mental health. These suggested best practices are in line with trauma informed educational practices. Hess, et al (2022) takes us a step closer to trauma informed educational practices by suggesting care informed pedagogy. Their study provided evidence of student and instructor feelings of disconnection and how care-informed pedagogy may help heal these wounds. Practicing empathy, considering how students’ identities and experiences impact learning, and incorporating wisdom in the process of learning are more tangible things instructors can implement. Care informed pedagogy is similar to trauma informed educational practices, though we argue TIEP go further and allow us to provide additional and concrete tools instructors can use in the classroom, both online and in-person. We extend this body of research and knowledge by arguing that trauma-informed educational practices are applicable and additionally useful because these practices explicitly focus on the health of the whole person. One of the key reasons that trauma-informed educational practices are needed is because of what we found in our research, which is that college level students in online, synchronous classes felt what we are calling an “Online Gaze.” Because of the “Online Gaze,” deliberate and neutralizing techniques are paramount, and can lessen the impacts of the “Online Gaze.” We based our concept of the online gaze Laura Mulvey’s concept of the Male Gaze, add to it the concept of the White Gaze, and suggest that trauma-informed educational practices can easily be applied in the classroom to lessen the power imbalance the Online Gaze can produce. Because both the Male and White gaze concepts are rooted in power imbalances, and because contemporary student bodies are carrying significant trauma that COVID only compounded, trauma-informed approaches are, we believe, necessary. Our hope is that this research can lead to a better understanding of how to lessen the impacts of a wide range of traumas, so students are well poised to learn. During the Second Wave Feminist Movement in the 1960s and 1970s, Laura Mulvey ( 1975 ) coined the term “Male Gaze” to refer to the act of depicting women in visual arts and literature from a masculine, heterosexual perspective that presents and represents women as sexual objects that exist for the pleasure of the heterosexual male viewer. In film, the Male Gaze invokes the sexual politics of the gaze and suggests a sexualized way of looking that empowers the watcher. In Mulvey’s 1975 piece, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” psychoanalytic theory is invoked, and as Mulvey argues, “is appropriated here as a political weapon demonstrating the way the unconscious of patriarchal society has structured film form” (p. 57). Mulvey dives much deeper into Freud and psychoanalytic theory in her work, and for the purpose of this study, we stay more general, with a focus on the power imbalance that is at the core of the Male Gaze. The Male Gaze, like the White Gaze, creates feelings of Otherness for the non-dominant group – any group that is not the white, heterosexual male. Woman is “spectacle,” and man is the “bearer of the look.” The pleasure in looking is one-way – the active male and the passive female. In the context of the Male Gaze, women are looked at and displayed. In the context of an online synchronous class, students are expressing things that suggest they feel they are on display, and even though it is not sexual in nature, being seen in this way makes them feel uncomfortable because it feels one-way. Similarly, the “White Gaze” is rooted in a power imbalance around race and ethnicity, as it refers to the assumption that in the context of books or visual arts, the reader or observer is coming from the perspective of someone who identifies as White (Morrison, 1994 ). In other words, the White Gaze sees the world through a White lens, which is the dominant lens in our society. When White people view and frame their culture as the only or correct or good culture, that represents another power imbalance. We believe there is an analogous phenomenon happening in an online class for students – feelings of discomfort from being watched. Both the male and the White person, as dominant social groups, have more power than women or people of color. In the context of an online class, students occupy the minority position. While we are in no way making the argument that instructors are getting any type of sexual pleasure by watching students in an online synchronous class, nor are college instructors’ inherently racist. We do, however, believe that being seen in an online class evokes feelings of discomfort, vulnerability, and otherness because of a power imbalance that may impair learning. There is power through the gaze and through looking, which can be experienced as a threat for those who are looked at or seen, which is what video cameras feel like in an online synchronous class. In any classroom, there is a power imbalance between student and teacher, and then there are other power imbalances among students vis-à-vis social status. We think there is another type of power imbalance between instructor and student where the student is subject to the instructor’s rules and therefore, their consequences. For example, if an instructor requires video cameras to be turned on, a student must do so or face the penalty. Precisely because of these power imbalances - both between students and between instructor and student - we argue that trauma-informed educational practices can help reduce negative feelings and experiences for students taking online synchronous classes. There is an increasing amount of dialogue about, and attention being given to trauma in terms of what it is and its impacts. Individual trauma results from an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that are experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening, and that have lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional or spiritual well-being (SAMSHA, 2014). Trauma is a widespread public health and social problem that does not discriminate. It is widely known that a substantial portion of students in higher education have been impacted by trauma or adversity prior to attending college or during their college years (Anders, et al, 2021; Cusack, et al. 2019 ; Forster et al., 2019 ; Read, et al. 2011 ). These experiences are associated challenges in social, emotional, and mental health, including anxiety, stress, depression, and for some, significant trauma responses (Karatekin, 2018 ; Karatein & Ahluwalia, 2020). The consequences of college students’ experiences and symptoms of trauma and adversity are significant and include a decreased likelihood of attending class, and compromised capacity to concentrate, learn, and participate in classroom activities (Carello & Butler, 2014 ; Carello & Butler, 2015 ). What’s more, COVID-19 brought about an increase in depression, anxiety, and overall stress for college students. Specific stressors were brought on by the pandemic, including fears regarding the health of self and loved ones, worries about academic performance and finances, difficulty concentrating, lack of sleep, and increased social isolation (Changwon, et al., 2020 ; Lee, et al., 2021 ). These pandemic-related stressors compounded the pre-existing experiences of trauma for colleges students globally, complicating the mental health and vulnerability of students. How trauma is addressed contributes to outcomes for survivors. A trauma-informed approach is essential to care and can be applied in the college classroom. Trauma-Informed Educational Practices (TIEP) offer a set of applicable principles and strategies that address the challenges students present inside and outside the classroom. TIEP is based on the same principles of Trauma-Informed Care (TIC), which recognizes that the presentations and behaviors of challenging students are not necessarily character flaws, but instead are likely to be the consequence of having experienced significant adversity or trauma (Institute of Trauma Informed Care, 2015). Being trauma-informed is a switch in perspective, from “what’s wrong with you”, to “what happened to you.” This translates into work within an educational setting, reframing our approach with challenging students, course material and overall course development. TIEP is a pedagogical stance, or in fact a commitment one makes, to continually and intentionally make instructional decisions that prioritize striving for a learning environment that feels safe, collaborative, and empowering. A trauma-informed approach to teaching includes the principles of safety, trust/transparency, peer support, collaboration, choice/voice, and being actively responsive to issues of diversity, difference and oppression (SAMSHA, 2014). Incorporating these principles into instruction and learning is intended to reduce a sense of “re-traumatization” within the class experience without compromising academic or curriculum expectations. This process of bridging academic standards with trauma-informed principles allows for an educational space where both students and instructors feel empowered to take risks in deep, critical engagement and learning. Methods This work is an exploratory study that used a mixed-method online survey, where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected to explore the experiences of undergraduate students in online, synchronous classes during the Fall of 2020. The authors disseminated an online survey to 505 matriculated, full-time undergraduate students in a small, Liberal Arts university in the Mid-Atlantic United States. Included in the email was a link to the online survey via Survey Monkey that first presented the consent form, followed by the survey after consent was given. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and IP address tracking was disabled to support anonymity. University Institutional Review Board reviewed and approved all procedures before data collection began. The online anonymous survey consisted of 10 questions. Basic demographic information was collected, and additional questions surveyed students’ experiences with online synchronous classes regarding students’ thoughts, experiences, and decisions around usage of the camera/video during their online, synchronous classes. The response rate was forty-two percent, or 214 people completed our survey out of the 505. We used conventional content analysis and coded by hand, where codes were derived from data and defined during data analysis. Through our coding process, we combined to use of in vivo coding, using participants’ own language, process coding, using a word or phrase that we believe captures the action being described, and simultaneous coding, where we applied multiple codes to the same text. Clear patterns emerged in our data. Findings The sample included a total of 214 undergraduate students who attended a small, Liberal Arts university in the Mid-Atlantic United States (see Table 1). The sample predominately identified as female (78%), heterosexual or straight (81%) and between the ages of 18-21 (83%). More than half of participants identified as Caucasian (59%), with 26% identifying as Black or African American, 19% as Hispanic or Latino, 2% as Asian or Asian American, and 4% as other. Participants evenly represented the different years in school (24% freshman, 24% sophomore, 22% junior, 29% senior), and participants’ declared majors represented the wide range of disciplines within the liberal arts education. The majority of participants reported currently taking an online synchronous class at the time of participation (96%). [Table 1 about here] We found several versions of what we are calling the “Online Gaze” in our qualitative responses. Arguably, all of these versions illustrate a power imbalance in terms of how students feel they are being seen – either themselves, what they are doing at the time, their environment, or how they are being perceived through the lens of the instructor (the person who occupies the position of power). 1. Gaze: Threat à →choice and comfort The first iteration of the Online Gaze that emerged in the data is related to feeling threatened and therefore uncomfortable if students do not have the choice about using their video cameras during class. In other words, for some students, being required to turn on their video cameras is experienced as a threat, which could have negative impacts on their learning and educational experience. The threat that this requirement can elicit could also exacerbate or activate pre-existing trauma as well. We believe this finding is particularly salient, given what we know about college student’s mental health, and then how the pandemic has amplified and exacerbated it. Certainly, being required to do something when you are in an inferior position can be stress inducing and may be particularly problematic when consequences include a reduced grade for performance. Further supporting the salience of this finding is that mental health concerns emerged throughout our data in this coding category, among others. For example, one student responded, “In a classroom setting, I often aim to be towards the back of the classroom to avoid being watched by my peers as I have some anxiety about the concept of ‘the invisible audience.’” Another said, “if I was sick or having a bad mental health day, and did not want to be on camera,” making it clear that mental health concerns are part of the constellation of variables. We found that much of the language in the qualitative responses pointed to the power imbalance in terms of the lack of choice, and thus feeling threatened in some way or another. For example, one student responded by saying, “I just do not feel the need to. When we are all turning on our cameras, we are basically forced to just stare at one another for an hour and a half. If something happens on someone’s screen, then the focus is on them and not the professors.” In fact, the word forced emerged several times, as another student said, “being forced to turn on a camera makes me feel weird,” or, “being forced makes it even worse.” Some students clearly experienced negative feelings around those who made video camera use mandatory. In other words, when students did not have the choice about their video cameras, it induced negative feelings. Some responses clearly articulated displeasure with the lack of choice: “I pay attention either way so as long as I still interact with class, I don’t see a reason as to why I need it on.” The feeling of threat, which is synonymous with danger and intimidation, also showed up as simply feeling watched. As one respondent said, “I feel as if everyone’s watching me,” or, “the discomfort of potentially being watched,” or, “it is just very uncomfortable to have the camera on.” One student expressed that having their camera on made them fear “open ridicule,” which we believe can be a stress or anxiety provoking experience. And, being seen and having your personal space on camera felt even more drastic for some, as one respondent said, “I feel like my room is my personal space, it’s kind of violating my space.” What may seem like a simple request – turning on a video camera – made some students feel violated. This points to the importance of this study and learning more about student experiences with online learning. Students also expressed a considerable difference between online learning and face to face classes. For some, being seen face to face is a completely different experience than being seen in an online class. As one student articulated, “I feel as though everyone can see me. If we were in a class everyone would not have the opportunity to just look at everyone in the class. Also, you do not know who is looking at you and I find it sort of creepy.” The online camera seems to evoke feelings of being watched, and perhaps not only by the people in the class, but potentially by other people in the seemingly infinite world of the Internet. 2. Gaze: Environment à e → mbarrassed The next Online Gaze category that emerged was around students feeling embarrassed about their home environment being seen. We argue that feeling embarrassed about one’s home environment being seen is also a type of threat, or makes student feel as if they are in danger, so the overlap of our coding categories is evident. For example, one respondent shared, “some students may be embarrassed by the background setting in which they have to take the class,” or, “they may just have something going on they may want to keep private or maybe not want to have their fellow students see their background,” or, “some people may not be in a comfortable situation to share their environment.” The discomfort around students’ home environment being seen was consistently prominent: “some students may have situations at home and don’t feel comfortable to have the camera on,” and “[some] may be self-conscious about their surroundings or some may be afraid that other people are judging them [for their home environment]. Students’ living situations are not something everyone has access to when we are in a face-to-face classroom, so this seemed to strike a particular chord. Several responses had to do with the student not wanting anyone to see or know how many people were in the home. For example, “most of the time there is a lot of people in my home, and they be walking back and forth in front of the camera,” and, “I live in a crowded household with people running in and out, so I prefer my privacy.” Several kept it straightforward by simply saying, “I don’t want to show my household,” or, “my background might not look good.” Others articulated other aspects of their living situation, like, “having to care for my younger siblings, not looking presentable, having a background that isn’t presentable.” We believe that part of the explanation for this is because of the student body at this university, where roughly 50% of students are first-generation. While this is certainly not universal, we do know that first-generation students are at a disadvantage in a number of ways. For example, they are 51% less likely to graduate in four years, more likely to be from low SES families and less likely to have the academic preparation and resources that are available to higher SES students (Wilbur and Roscigno, 2016). Family resources, cultural capital, and parental pressure to attend college explain much of the disadvantage, and it may be that the forced disclosure of the home environment may be especially difficult for these students. While we do not have the data to support this, we can make the argument that first-generation students may feel more self-conscious, insecure, and embarrassed about their home environments if they are living with the systemic disadvantages. 3. Gaze: Environment à → Deviant and Multi-tasking We divided the Gaze - Environment coding category into two tracts: 1. Gaze – Environment: Deviance, and 2. Gaze – Environment: Multi-Tasking. The activities students reported engaging in during an online class, we think, are activities students could not be doing during a face-to-face class. As such, we called the first tract deviant because we believe students chose to engage in these behaviors even though they were aware that they could not engage in these behaviors during a face-to-face class. Labeling these behaviors as deviant clearly places a value judgment on them, however, that is intentional on our part. For example, students shared several responses about how they do not turn their cameras on because they are lying in bed. Some articulated that they know lying in bed during class is inappropriate or unprofessional, so they chose to keep their cameras off so no one sees them. For example, one student said, “I’m usually in bed when I’m in class, and I don’t think it’s appropriate to show my background.” Another articulated, “So I can lay in bed and attend class comfortably or eat during class.” Instead of getting out of bed, the student chose to keep their video cameras off. Several expressed other activities they were doing that caused them to keep their cameras off, “if I’m not at home, in a car driving,” “if I don’t [turn my camera on] then it is because I am doing something, like using the bathroom or talking to a roommate,” or “talking to someone or being on my phone.” All are activities that students could not be doing during a face-to-face class. By no means do we believe all students are devious in this way, or malicious, however, the patterns were striking in our data, and we think worthy of discussion. Arguably, there is a learned deviant behavior, which we think is going to make re-entry in the Fall, presuming we are face-to-face, very difficult. We called the second Gaze – Environment coding category tract multi-tasking because the activity was task-driven, more pragmatic, and less recreational. For example, babysitting a young sibling and caring for a sick grandparent are not what we would consider to be recreational activities. While these also are activities a student could not be doing during a face-to-face class, the practical needs at home were paramount, and the motivation is different. These are students that are not taking care of a sick grandparent because they could, they are doing it because it needs to be done, and likely because of the pandemic. 4. Gaze: Perceived Performance The final Online Gaze category that we found has to do with students’ perceived performance – as perceived by the instructor. While many unequivocally responded “no” to the question, “do you think it’s fair for the instructor to require students to turn their cameras on during this class”, clear patterns emerged related to concern about what we are calling perceived performance. For example, one student said, “I’m uncomfortable showing my face because it looks like I’m not paying attention,” pointing to the concern over how students are being perceived by the instructor, or the person in power. Another student who thinks it is fair for instructors to require video camera us said, “because it will appear that the student is still there on the call,” or, “it helps to let the professor know that you are engaged.” These are students who are thinking about and concerned about how the instructor may be perceiving them and taking action to try and ensure they are being perceived in a positive way and as engaged students. Others expressed their efforts to be seen by the instructor, “most of the instructors I have never had before this semester. I wanted them to put a name to the face. As an education major, I have been on the other side of the camera with no reciprocation, and it can be disheartening/ confusing while teaching.” This respondent made clear efforts to be seen. Others expressed similar sentiments, “so that they could know who I am and what I look like;” “to better participate and engage;” “so the instructor knows I’m listening;” “to be involved in class;” and “I try to put my video on so I can get more attendance/participation points.” The effects of whether or not video camera use was mandatory emerged as well, as some students expressed how they only turn on their cameras if they have to, and so not to earn a grade reduction: “I only turn on my camera when the teacher says it’s required, if it counts as attendance or points. If it's neither, I feel comfortable focusing on the teacher instead of seeing what other students are doing.” Our data show that for many students, how instructors perceive them and particularly their performance is important. Discussion We believe this research project has led to a clearer understanding of the experiences and needs of students in the online synchronous learning modality. These data point to the importance of stakeholders in higher education understanding the personal experiences of students, recognizing the significance of students’ mental health and their physical space in online synchronous learning. The Online Gaze that students experienced, regarding their privacy, their environment, and their performance, illustrates a specific vulnerability for students that is unique to online learning and that the pandemic brought to the surface. One way to reduce this vulnerability that the gaze induces is to offer students the choice of whether to have their camera on during class. Along with this choice, students can be encouraged to initiate and sustain a line of communication with instructors around their choice and demonstrate engagement during class in other ways (utilizing chat, verbal participation, etc.). For instances when the institution mandates instructors to require cameras during synchronous learning, instructors can emphasize and prioritize choice in other areas of their instruction whenever possible. The findings and recommendations presented here stress the need to prioritize safety, choice, and collaboration in the process of teaching online. Trauma-informed care outlines these principles and provides a framework for intentionally addressing the needs of students in online instruction. One key element of TIEP is prioritizing the physical and emotional safety of students (ITTC, 2015; SAMHSA, 2014). Typically, this has been conceptualized by considering the physical space of the classroom and the physical and emotional comfort of the students. Our findings highlight a shift in the concept of safety within online synchronous learning, where students have expressed a distinct need for instructors to consider their home/virtual environment and background, which often presents students with challenges of distraction, shame, and concern. A second key element of TIEP is prioritizing instructional strategies of choice and collaboration into all levels of teaching and engagement (ITTC, 2015; SAMHSA, 2014). Again, these findings underscore a shift in considering students’ need to feel a sense of choice and empowerment within the context of online synchronous learning. Students clearly voiced a need to feel empowered within the online format, wanting choice within classroom policies and procedures. Arguably, there is a clear link between students’ needs in online synchronous learning and TIEP, supporting that TIEP could be a powerfully effective framework to directly address the challenges and needs of students in online synchronous learning. Examples of TIEP include providing audio versus visual options for readings and options for paper topics, collaborating with students to form a plan to address challenges that arise in class, grading with transparency through rubrics and examples, and individualized follow up with students who exhibit difficulties in class (Radis, et al, 2020 ). While specific implementations of TIEP strategies may vary by teacher, school and content, instructors can consider safety, choice, and collaboration whenever possible to empower students to engage in synchronous learning in a way that feels safe and empowering. Cultivation of effective, trauma-informed educational practices is one of the cornerstones of our professional development as educators in higher education, and we believe, Social Justice. Declarations Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Funding: There is no funding source. The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article. Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Acknowledgements: The authors would like to acknowledge their home university IRB and home departments for supporting this study. Availability of data and material : Anonymized data are available upon request Authors Contributions: Both authors conceived of the presented idea, developed the survey instrument, analyzed and coded data, and developed theory. Both authors discussed results and contributed to the final manuscript. Dr. Van Brown provided edits on the final draft. Ethical Statement: This protocol [SOC 20-02] was reviewed and approved by Cabrini University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). I addition, we confirm that all processes were executed in accordance with all applicable rules and guidelines. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects. References Anders, Samatha L., Frazier, Patricia., & Shallcross, Sandra. 2012. Prevalence and effects of life event exposure among undergraduate and community college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology 59(3):449-457. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027753 Carello, Janice., & Butler, Lisa D. 2014. Potentially perilous pedagogies: Teaching trauma is not the same as trauma-informed teaching. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation 15(2):153-168. Carello, Janice., & Butler, Lisa D. 2015. Practicing what we teach: Trauma-informed educational practice. Journal of Teaching in Social Work , 35(3):262-278. 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Adverse Childhood Experiences, ethnicity, and substance use among college students: findings from a two-state sample. Substance Use & Misuse 54(14): 2368-2379. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2019.1650772 Karatekin, Canan. 2018. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), stress and mental health in college students. Stress and Health (34): 36-45. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2761 Karatekin, Canan. and Ahluwalia, Rohini. (2020). Effects of adverse childhood experiences, stress and social support on the health of college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 35(1-2):150-172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516681880 Lee, Jenny., Solomon, Matthew, Stead, Tej, Kwon, Bryan & Ganti, Latha. 2021. Impact of COVID-19 on the mental health of US college students. BMC Psychology, 9(95). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00598-3 Morrison, Toni, & Taylor-Guthrie, Danielle K. 1994. Conversations with Toni Morrison . Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Mulvey, Laura. 1975. "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema." Screen 16(4):6-18. Radis, Brie, Crocetto, Johanna & Beemer, K. 2020. Teaching Note: Incorporating Trauma-Informed Educational Practice (TIEP) into the Baccalaureate Social Work (BSW) Classroom. The Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work 25:31-44. Read, Jennifer, Ouimett, Paige, White, Jacquelyn, Colder, Craig & Farrow, Sherry. 2011. Rates of DSM-IV-TR trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among newly matriculated college students. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 3(2):148-156. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021260 Shulman, Lee S. 1986. Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher 15:4-14. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 2014. A treatment improvement protocol: Trauma-informed care in behavioral health services, Tip 57 . Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2014. Guiding principles of trauma-informed care. SAMHSA News 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/samhsaNewsLetter/Volume_22_Number_2/trauma_tip/guiding_principles.html Wilbur, Tabitha G. & Roscigno, Vincent J. 2016. First-generation Disadvantage and College Enrollment / Completion. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 2:1-11. DOI 10.1177/2378023116664351 Tables Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files COVID19OnlineGazeTable1DiscoverEdu.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5311185","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":378640526,"identity":"847aa6df-9b6c-4b9b-8154-4c97d2d55256","order_by":0,"name":"Bethany L. Van Brown","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACNjBpwN4Aphk3QIUZGwhq4TmApOUAUVokEojUYnD87LHHFRWH88wlnz/88HOPjex29uZnnz8w2MhuOIBDy5m8dMMzZw4XW87OMZbseZZmvLPnmPGMAwxpxri0SDbkmEk2tt1O3HA7h0Ga4cDhxA03EoyBDgMycGnpfwPVcvP4498MB/4nbrj//DNQy3+cWvglYLbcYDAD2nIAyOAB2XIAj5Y35oYNZ/4n7uzJMbPsOZBsvOFMTjHDGYNk45k4tLDx55g9bKhIS9zOfvzxjR8H7GQ3HD++maGiwk62D4cWXMCANOWjYBSMglEwClABAFKIbDRaGeirAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Sacred Heart University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bethany","middleName":"L. Van","lastName":"Brown","suffix":""},{"id":378640527,"identity":"6af31364-de93-4f52-b09c-26745fb2272a","order_by":1,"name":"Johanna Crocetto","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ronald McDonald House Charities","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Johanna","middleName":"","lastName":"Crocetto","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-22 11:08:29","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311185/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311185/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":75968416,"identity":"8515fcc7-f15b-481c-ad3b-b707cf4081c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-11 04:53:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":409476,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5311185/v1/7ffc641b-6854-4567-b2f4-97bae8feeaef.pdf"},{"id":69257724,"identity":"cdd2aaf2-28ef-4cf4-8639-6cffe3d98c19","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 13:08:02","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":15435,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"COVID19OnlineGazeTable1DiscoverEdu.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5311185/v1/f7518dedbf73ee9ae7272e50.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"COVID-19 and the Online Gaze: Transferring Trauma Informed Practices Online","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe COVID-19 pandemic presented significant challenges for the higher education community worldwide. The sudden pivot of previously face-to-face courses to be taught online was just one of the many challenges. Instructors had to prepare and deliver their classes from home, with all the practical and technical challenges, and often without proper technical support or the lack of pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). As we settle into what presumably is post- COVID-19 life, online teaching and learning is likely going to stay with us. While research in online teaching and learning has mushroomed over the past year, there is still much to discover and understand about online learning, particularly around how to consider attendance, participation, and engagement in a trauma-informed way.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne emergent debate is whether faculty should require students to turn on their cameras in a synchronous class. Some say requiring cameras during class is contrary to trauma-informed teaching practices. Others argue that asking students to turn their cameras on is reasonable request that helps promote community building and feelings of connectedness during a disconnected time. As faculty wrestle with online pedagogies, and students navigate online learning, a better understanding of student and faculty experiences can help inform successful online pedagogies for all disciplines in higher education moving forward.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe disseminated an online survey in the Fall of 2020, soliciting feedback from students about their experiences with online learning since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in March of 2020. Our response rate was above average, and several patterns emerged. We use a combination of literatures to make the case that online synchronous classes during the COVID-19 pandemic created what we are calling an “Online Gaze,” where students experienced a power imbalance between themselves and instructors, and between other students in terms of ‘being seen’ in class.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLiterature Review\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOVID-19 continues to cause countless negative impacts, both on the individual and on us collectively. However, there may be opportunities for instructors to adjust their way of being in the classroom (Bartholomay, 2022). Social science curricula include many “hot button” topics, especially in the current social context. Arguably, instructors in the social science and Sociology in particular, have a responsibility to ensure that students are engaging with these topics, and in a meaningful way (Merrill, 2022). If students’ reactions to the subject matter are impeding them from full engagement with the course material, then instructors are not actively encouraging critical thinking around structural inequality (Merrill, 2022). With the prevalence of reported mental health challenges as well as ongoing crises like pandemics, climate change and political upheaval, it is imperative that instructors consider these things. As Merrill (2022) argues, and we agree, it is important that instructors embrace mitigation measures to reduce these negative reactions to complex subject matter to optimize learning. Several recent articles in Teaching Sociology address similar issues around care-informed pedagogy (Hess, et al, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBartholomay (2022) and Gillis and Krull (2022) provide encouragement to evolve into a new normal by advocating for increased accessibility of interface formats to try and address barriers like increased anxiety, family / personal distractions, and technological access. Because of high levels of anxiety, distraction, and lack of motivation, it is especially important to consider care. While some may argue that instructors too are carrying disproportionate loads and are not receiving nearly the support they need, the fact remains that instructors are the first point of contact for many students. Coleman (2022) points out that Sociology instructors are poised to suggest avenues of response. A trauma-informed approach can help these suggestions be well -received. Furthermore, Coleman (2022) shared best practices for instructors who wish to better support their student’s mental health. These suggested best practices are in line with trauma informed educational practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHess, et al (2022) takes us a step closer to trauma informed educational practices by suggesting care informed pedagogy. Their study provided evidence of student and instructor feelings of disconnection and how care-informed pedagogy may help heal these wounds. Practicing empathy, considering how students’ identities and experiences impact learning, and incorporating wisdom in the process of learning are more tangible things instructors can implement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCare informed pedagogy is similar to trauma informed educational practices, though we argue TIEP go further and allow us to provide additional and concrete tools instructors can use in the classroom, both online and in-person. We extend this body of research and knowledge by arguing that trauma-informed educational practices are applicable and additionally useful because these practices explicitly focus on the health of the whole person. One of the key reasons that trauma-informed educational practices are needed is because of what we found in our research, which is that college level students in online, synchronous classes felt what we are calling an “Online Gaze.” Because of the “Online Gaze,” deliberate and neutralizing techniques are paramount, and can lessen the impacts of the “Online Gaze.”\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe based our concept of the online gaze Laura Mulvey’s concept of the Male Gaze, add to it the concept of the White Gaze, and suggest that trauma-informed educational practices can easily be applied in the classroom to lessen the power imbalance the Online Gaze can produce. Because both the Male and White gaze concepts are rooted in power imbalances, and because contemporary student bodies are carrying significant trauma that COVID only compounded, trauma-informed approaches are, we believe, necessary. Our hope is that this research can lead to a better understanding of how to lessen the impacts of a wide range of traumas, so students are well poised to learn.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the Second Wave Feminist Movement in the 1960s and 1970s, Laura Mulvey (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e) coined the term “Male Gaze” to refer to the act of depicting women in visual arts and literature from a masculine, heterosexual perspective that presents and represents women as sexual objects that exist for the pleasure of the heterosexual male viewer. In film, the Male Gaze invokes the sexual politics of the gaze and suggests a sexualized way of looking that empowers the watcher. In Mulvey’s \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e piece, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” psychoanalytic theory is invoked, and as Mulvey argues, “is appropriated here as a political weapon demonstrating the way the unconscious of patriarchal society has structured film form” (p. 57). Mulvey dives much deeper into Freud and psychoanalytic theory in her work, and for the purpose of this study, we stay more general, with a focus on the power imbalance that is at the core of the Male Gaze. The Male Gaze, like the White Gaze, creates feelings of Otherness for the non-dominant group – any group that is not the white, heterosexual male. Woman is “spectacle,” and man is the “bearer of the look.” The pleasure in looking is one-way – the active male and the passive female. In the context of the Male Gaze, women are looked at and displayed. In the context of an online synchronous class, students are expressing things that suggest they feel they are on display, and even though it is not sexual in nature, being seen in this way makes them feel uncomfortable because it feels one-way.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the “White Gaze” is rooted in a power imbalance around race and ethnicity, as it refers to the assumption that in the context of books or visual arts, the reader or observer is coming from the perspective of someone who identifies as White (Morrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). In other words, the White Gaze sees the world through a White lens, which is the dominant lens in our society. When White people view and frame their culture as \u003cem\u003ethe\u003c/em\u003e only or correct or good culture, that represents another power imbalance. We believe there is an analogous phenomenon happening in an online class for students – feelings of discomfort from being watched. Both the male and the White person, as dominant social groups, have more power than women or people of color. In the context of an online class, students occupy the minority position.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile we are in \u003cem\u003eno way\u003c/em\u003e making the argument that instructors are getting any type of sexual pleasure by watching students in an online synchronous class, nor are college instructors’ inherently racist. We do, however, believe that being seen in an online class evokes feelings of discomfort, vulnerability, and otherness because of a power imbalance that may impair learning. There is power through the gaze and through looking, which can be experienced as a threat for those who are looked at or seen, which is what video cameras feel like in an online synchronous class. In any classroom, there is a power imbalance between student and teacher, and then there are other power imbalances among students vis-à-vis social status. We think there is another type of power imbalance between instructor and student where the student is subject to the instructor’s rules and therefore, their consequences. For example, if an instructor requires video cameras to be turned on, a student must do so or face the penalty. Precisely because of these power imbalances - both between students and between instructor and student - we argue that trauma-informed educational practices can help reduce negative feelings and experiences for students taking online synchronous classes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is an increasing amount of dialogue about, and attention being given to trauma in terms of what it is and its impacts. Individual trauma results from an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that are experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening, and that have lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional or spiritual well-being (SAMSHA, 2014). Trauma is a widespread public health and social problem that does not discriminate. It is widely known that a substantial portion of students in higher education have been impacted by trauma or adversity prior to attending college or during their college years (Anders, et al, 2021; Cusack, et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Forster et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Read, et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). These experiences are associated challenges in social, emotional, and mental health, including anxiety, stress, depression, and for some, significant trauma responses (Karatekin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Karatein \u0026amp; Ahluwalia, 2020). The consequences of college students’ experiences and symptoms of trauma and adversity are significant and include a decreased likelihood of attending class, and compromised capacity to concentrate, learn, and participate in classroom activities (Carello \u0026amp; Butler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Carello \u0026amp; Butler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). What’s more, COVID-19 brought about an increase in depression, anxiety, and overall stress for college students. Specific stressors were brought on by the pandemic, including fears regarding the health of self and loved ones, worries about academic performance and finances, difficulty concentrating, lack of sleep, and increased social isolation (Changwon, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lee, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These pandemic-related stressors compounded the pre-existing experiences of trauma for colleges students globally, complicating the mental health and vulnerability of students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow trauma is addressed contributes to outcomes for survivors. A trauma-informed approach is essential to care and can be applied in the college classroom. Trauma-Informed Educational Practices (TIEP) offer a set of applicable principles and strategies that address the challenges students present inside and outside the classroom. TIEP is based on the same principles of Trauma-Informed Care (TIC), which recognizes that the presentations and behaviors of challenging students are not necessarily character flaws, but instead are likely to be the consequence of having experienced significant adversity or trauma (Institute of Trauma Informed Care, 2015). Being trauma-informed is a switch in perspective, from “what’s wrong with you”, to “what happened to you.” This translates into work within an educational setting, reframing our approach with challenging students, course material and overall course development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIEP is a pedagogical stance, or in fact a commitment one makes, to continually and intentionally make instructional decisions that prioritize striving for a learning environment that feels safe, collaborative, and empowering. A trauma-informed approach to teaching includes the principles of safety, trust/transparency, peer support, collaboration, choice/voice, and being actively responsive to issues of diversity, difference and oppression (SAMSHA, 2014). Incorporating these principles into instruction and learning is intended to reduce a sense of “re-traumatization” within the class experience without compromising academic or curriculum expectations. This process of bridging academic standards with trauma-informed principles allows for an educational space where both students and instructors feel empowered to take risks in deep, critical engagement and learning.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work is an exploratory study that used a mixed-method online survey, where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected to explore the experiences of undergraduate students in online, synchronous classes during the Fall of 2020. The authors disseminated an online survey to 505 matriculated, full-time undergraduate students in a small, Liberal Arts university in the Mid-Atlantic United States. Included in the email was a link to the online survey via Survey Monkey that first presented the consent form, followed by the survey after consent was given. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and IP address tracking was disabled to support anonymity. University Institutional Review Board reviewed and approved all procedures before data collection began. The online anonymous survey consisted of 10 questions. Basic demographic information was collected, and additional questions surveyed students’ experiences with online synchronous classes regarding students’ thoughts, experiences, and decisions around usage of the camera/video during their online, synchronous classes. The response rate was forty-two percent, or 214 people completed our survey out of the 505.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe used conventional content analysis and coded by hand, where codes were derived from data and defined during data analysis. Through our coding process, we combined to use of in vivo coding, using participants’ own language, process coding, using a word or phrase that we believe captures the action being described, and simultaneous coding, where we applied multiple codes to the same text. Clear patterns emerged in our data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe sample included a total of 214 undergraduate students who attended a small, Liberal Arts university in the Mid-Atlantic United States (see Table 1). The sample predominately identified as female (78%), heterosexual or straight (81%) and between the ages of 18-21 (83%). More than half of participants identified as Caucasian (59%), with 26% identifying as Black or African American, 19% as Hispanic or Latino, 2% as Asian or Asian American, and 4% as other. \u0026nbsp;Participants evenly represented the different years in school (24% freshman, 24% sophomore, 22% junior, 29% senior), and participants\u0026rsquo; declared majors represented the wide range of disciplines within the liberal arts education. The majority of participants reported currently taking an online synchronous class at the time of participation (96%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Table 1 about here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe found several versions of what we are calling the \u0026ldquo;Online Gaze\u0026rdquo; in our qualitative responses. Arguably, all of these versions illustrate a power imbalance in terms of how students feel they are being seen \u0026ndash; either themselves, what they are doing at the time, their environment, or how they are being perceived through the lens of the instructor (the person who occupies the position of power).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e1. Gaze: Threat\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026agrave;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026rarr;choice and comfort\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first iteration of the Online Gaze that emerged in the data is related to feeling threatened and therefore uncomfortable if students do not have the choice about using their video cameras during class. In other words, for some students, being required to turn on their video cameras is experienced as a threat, which could have negative impacts on their learning and educational experience. The threat that this requirement can elicit could also exacerbate or activate pre-existing trauma as well. We believe this finding is particularly salient, given what we know about college student\u0026rsquo;s mental health, and then how the pandemic has amplified and exacerbated it. Certainly, being required to do something when you are in an inferior position can be stress inducing and may be particularly problematic when consequences include a reduced grade for performance. Further supporting the salience of this finding is that mental health concerns emerged throughout our data in this coding category, among others. For example, one student responded, \u0026ldquo;In a classroom setting, I often aim to be towards the back of the classroom to avoid being watched by my peers as I have some anxiety about the concept of \u0026lsquo;the invisible audience.\u0026rsquo;\u0026rdquo; Another said, \u0026ldquo;if I was sick or having a bad mental health day, and did not want to be on camera,\u0026rdquo; making it clear that mental health concerns are part of the constellation of variables.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe found that much of the language in the qualitative responses pointed to the power imbalance in terms of the lack of choice, and thus feeling threatened in some way or another. For example, one student responded by saying, \u0026ldquo;I just do not feel the need to. When we are all turning on our cameras, we are basically forced to just stare at one another for an hour and a half. If something happens on someone\u0026rsquo;s screen, then the focus is on them and not the professors.\u0026rdquo; In fact, the word forced emerged several times, as another student said, \u0026ldquo;being forced to turn on a camera makes me feel weird,\u0026rdquo; or, \u0026ldquo;being forced makes it even worse.\u0026rdquo; Some students clearly experienced negative feelings around those who made video camera use mandatory. In other words, when students did not have the choice about their video cameras, it induced negative feelings. Some responses clearly articulated displeasure with the lack of choice: \u0026ldquo;I pay attention either way so as long as I still interact with class, I don\u0026rsquo;t see a reason as to why I need it on.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe feeling of threat, which is synonymous with danger and intimidation, also showed up as simply feeling watched. As one respondent said, \u0026ldquo;I feel as if everyone\u0026rsquo;s watching me,\u0026rdquo; or, \u0026ldquo;the discomfort of potentially being watched,\u0026rdquo; or, \u0026ldquo;it is just very uncomfortable to have the camera on.\u0026rdquo; One student expressed that having their camera on made them fear \u0026ldquo;open ridicule,\u0026rdquo; which we believe can be a stress or anxiety provoking experience. And, being seen and having your personal space on camera felt even more drastic for some, as one respondent said, \u0026ldquo;I feel like my room is my personal space, it\u0026rsquo;s kind of violating my space.\u0026rdquo; What may seem like a simple request \u0026ndash; turning on a video camera \u0026ndash; made some students feel violated. This points to the importance of this study and learning more about student experiences with online learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents also expressed a considerable difference between online learning and face to face classes. For some, being seen face to face is a completely different experience than being seen in an online class. As one student articulated, \u0026ldquo;I feel as though everyone can see me. If we were in a class everyone would not have the opportunity to just look at everyone in the class. Also, you do not know who is looking at you and I find it sort of creepy.\u0026rdquo; The online camera seems to evoke feelings of being watched, and perhaps not only by the people in the class, but potentially by other people in the seemingly infinite world of the Internet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2. Gaze: Environment\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026agrave;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ee\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026rarr;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003embarrassed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe next Online Gaze category that emerged was around students feeling embarrassed about their home environment being seen. We argue that feeling embarrassed about one\u0026rsquo;s home environment being seen is also a type of threat, or makes student feel as if they are in danger, so the overlap of our coding categories is evident. For example, one respondent shared, \u0026ldquo;some students may be embarrassed by the background setting in which they have to take the class,\u0026rdquo; or, \u0026ldquo;they may just have something going on they may want to keep private or maybe not want to have their fellow students see their background,\u0026rdquo; or, \u0026ldquo;some people may not be in a comfortable situation to share their environment.\u0026rdquo; The discomfort around students\u0026rsquo; home environment being seen was consistently prominent: \u0026ldquo;some students may have situations at home and don\u0026rsquo;t feel comfortable to have the camera on,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;[some] may be self-conscious about their surroundings or some may be afraid that other people are judging them [for their home environment].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; living situations are not something everyone has access to when we are in a face-to-face classroom, so this seemed to strike a particular chord. Several responses had to do with the student not wanting anyone to see or know how many people were in the home. For example, \u0026ldquo;most of the time there is a lot of people in my home, and they be walking back and forth in front of the camera,\u0026rdquo; and, \u0026ldquo;I live in a crowded household with people running in and out, so I prefer my privacy.\u0026rdquo; \u0026nbsp;Several kept it straightforward by simply saying, \u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t want to show my household,\u0026rdquo; or, \u0026ldquo;my background might not look good.\u0026rdquo; Others articulated other aspects of their living situation, like, \u0026ldquo;having to care for my younger siblings, not looking presentable, having a background that isn\u0026rsquo;t presentable.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe believe that part of the explanation for this is because of the student body at this university, where roughly 50% of students are first-generation. While this is certainly not universal, we do know that first-generation students are at a disadvantage in a number of ways. For example, they are 51% less likely to graduate in four years, more likely to be from low SES families and less likely to have the academic preparation and resources that are available to higher SES students (Wilbur and Roscigno, 2016). Family resources, cultural capital, and parental pressure to attend college explain much of the disadvantage, and it may be that the forced disclosure of the home environment may be especially difficult for these students. While we do not have the data to support this, we can make the argument that first-generation students may feel more self-conscious, insecure, and embarrassed about their home environments if they\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eare living with the systemic disadvantages.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e3. Gaze: Environment\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026agrave;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026rarr;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDeviant and Multi-tasking\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe divided the Gaze - Environment coding category into two tracts:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. Gaze \u0026ndash; Environment: Deviance, and 2. Gaze \u0026ndash; Environment: Multi-Tasking. The activities students reported engaging in during an online class, we think, are activities students could not be doing during a face-to-face class. As such, we called the first tract deviant because we believe students chose to engage in these behaviors even though they were aware that they could not engage in these behaviors during a face-to-face class. Labeling these behaviors as deviant clearly places a value judgment on them, however, that is intentional on our part. For example, students shared several responses about how they do not turn their cameras on because they are lying in bed. Some articulated that they know lying in bed during class is inappropriate or unprofessional, so they chose to keep their cameras off so no one sees them. For example, one student said, \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m usually in bed when I\u0026rsquo;m in class, and I don\u0026rsquo;t think it\u0026rsquo;s appropriate to show my background.\u0026rdquo; Another articulated, \u0026ldquo;So I can lay in bed and attend class comfortably or eat during class.\u0026rdquo; Instead of getting out of bed, the student chose to keep their video cameras off. Several expressed other activities they were doing that caused them to keep their cameras off, \u0026ldquo;if I\u0026rsquo;m not at home, in a car driving,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;if I don\u0026rsquo;t [turn my camera on] then it is because I am doing something, like using the bathroom or talking to a roommate,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;talking to someone or being on my phone.\u0026rdquo; All are activities that students could not be doing during a face-to-face class. By no means do we believe all students are devious in this way, or malicious, however, the patterns were striking in our data, and we think worthy of discussion. Arguably, there is a learned deviant behavior, which we think is going to make re-entry in the Fall, presuming we are face-to-face, very difficult.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe called the second Gaze \u0026ndash; Environment coding category tract multi-tasking because the activity was task-driven, more pragmatic, and less recreational. For example, babysitting a young sibling and caring for a sick grandparent are not what we would consider to be recreational activities. While these also are activities a student could not be doing during a face-to-face class, the practical needs at home were paramount, and the motivation is different. These are students that are not taking care of a sick grandparent because they could, they are doing it because it needs to be done, and likely because of the pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e4. Gaze: Perceived Performance\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe final Online Gaze category that we found has to do with students\u0026rsquo; perceived performance \u0026ndash; as perceived by the instructor. While many unequivocally responded \u0026ldquo;no\u0026rdquo; to the question, \u0026ldquo;do you think it\u0026rsquo;s fair for the instructor to require students to turn their cameras on during this class\u0026rdquo;, clear patterns emerged related to concern about what we are calling perceived performance. For example, one student said, \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m uncomfortable showing my face because it looks like I\u0026rsquo;m not paying attention,\u0026rdquo; pointing to the concern over how students are being perceived by the instructor, or the person in power.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother student who thinks it is fair for instructors to require video camera us said, \u0026ldquo;because it will appear that the student is still there on the call,\u0026rdquo; or, \u0026ldquo;it helps to let the professor know that you are engaged.\u0026rdquo; These are students who are thinking about and concerned about how the instructor may be perceiving them and taking action to try and ensure they are being perceived in a positive way and as engaged students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOthers expressed their efforts to be seen by the instructor, \u0026ldquo;most of the instructors I have never had before this semester. I wanted them to put a name to the face. As an education major, I have been on the other side of the camera with no reciprocation, and it can be disheartening/ confusing while teaching.\u0026rdquo; This respondent made clear efforts to be seen. Others expressed similar sentiments, \u0026ldquo;so that they could know who I am and what I look like;\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;to better participate and engage;\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;so the instructor knows I\u0026rsquo;m listening;\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;to be involved in class;\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;I try to put my video on so I can get more attendance/participation points.\u0026rdquo; The effects of whether or not video camera use was mandatory emerged as well, as some students expressed how they only turn on their cameras if they have to, and so not to earn a grade reduction: \u0026ldquo;I only turn on my camera when the teacher says it\u0026rsquo;s required, if it counts as attendance or points. If it\u0026apos;s neither, I feel comfortable focusing on the teacher instead of seeing what other students are doing.\u0026rdquo; Our data show that for many students, how instructors perceive them and particularly their performance is important.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe believe this research project has led to a clearer understanding of the experiences and needs of students in the online synchronous learning modality. These data point to the importance of stakeholders in higher education understanding the personal experiences of students, recognizing the significance of students\u0026rsquo; mental health and their physical space in online synchronous learning. The Online Gaze that students experienced, regarding their privacy, their environment, and their performance, illustrates a specific vulnerability for students that is unique to online learning and that the pandemic brought to the surface. One way to reduce this vulnerability that the gaze induces is to offer students the choice of whether to have their camera on during class. Along with this choice, students can be encouraged to initiate and sustain a line of communication with instructors around their choice and demonstrate engagement during class in other ways (utilizing chat, verbal participation, etc.). For instances when the institution mandates instructors to require cameras during synchronous learning, instructors can emphasize and prioritize choice in other areas of their instruction whenever possible.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings and recommendations presented here stress the need to prioritize safety, choice, and collaboration in the process of teaching online. Trauma-informed care outlines these principles and provides a framework for intentionally addressing the needs of students in online instruction. One key element of TIEP is prioritizing the physical and emotional safety of students (ITTC, 2015; SAMHSA, 2014). Typically, this has been conceptualized by considering the physical space of the classroom and the physical and emotional comfort of the students. Our findings highlight a shift in the concept of safety within online synchronous learning, where students have expressed a distinct need for instructors to consider their home/virtual environment and background, which often presents students with challenges of distraction, shame, and concern. A second key element of TIEP is prioritizing instructional strategies of choice and collaboration into all levels of teaching and engagement (ITTC, 2015; SAMHSA, 2014). Again, these findings underscore a shift in considering students\u0026rsquo; need to feel a sense of choice and empowerment within the context of online synchronous learning. Students clearly voiced a need to feel empowered within the online format, wanting choice within classroom policies and procedures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eArguably, there is a clear link between students\u0026rsquo; needs in online synchronous learning and TIEP, supporting that TIEP could be a powerfully effective framework to directly address the challenges and needs of students in online synchronous learning. Examples of TIEP include providing audio versus visual options for readings and options for paper topics, collaborating with students to form a plan to address challenges that arise in class, grading with transparency through rubrics and examples, and individualized follow up with students who exhibit difficulties in class (Radis, et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). While specific implementations of TIEP strategies may vary by teacher, school and content, instructors can consider safety, choice, and collaboration whenever possible to empower students to engage in synchronous learning in a way that feels safe and empowering. Cultivation of effective, trauma-informed educational practices is one of the cornerstones of our professional development as educators in higher education, and we believe, Social Justice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e There is no funding source. The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors would like to acknowledge their home university IRB and home departments for supporting this study.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e: Anonymized data are available upon request\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e Both authors conceived of the presented idea, developed the survey instrument, analyzed and coded data, and developed theory. Both authors discussed results and contributed to the final manuscript. Dr. Van Brown provided edits on the final draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e This protocol [SOC 20-02] was reviewed and approved by Cabrini University\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Review Board (IRB). I addition, we confirm that all processes were executed in accordance with all applicable rules and guidelines. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAnders, Samatha L., Frazier, Patricia., \u0026amp; Shallcross, Sandra. 2012. Prevalence and effects of life event exposure among undergraduate and community college students. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Counseling Psychology\u003c/em\u003e 59(3):449-457. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027753\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCarello, Janice., \u0026amp; Butler, Lisa D. 2014. Potentially perilous pedagogies: Teaching trauma is not the same as trauma-informed teaching.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Journal of Trauma and Dissociation\u003c/em\u003e 15(2):153-168. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCarello, Janice., \u0026amp; Butler, Lisa D. 2015. Practicing what we teach: Trauma-informed educational practice.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Journal of Teaching in Social Work\u003c/em\u003e, 35(3):262-278.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCusack, Shannon E., Hicks, Terrell A., Bourdon, Jessica., Sheerin, Christina M., Overstreet, Cassie M., Kendler, Kenneth S., Dick, Danielle M. \u0026amp; Amstadter, Ananda B. 2019. Prevalence and predictors of PTSD among a college sample, \u003cem\u003eJournal of American College Health\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e67(2):123-131. \u0026nbsp;https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1462824\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eChangwon, Son, Hegde, Sudeep, Smith, Alec, Wang, Xiaomei, \u0026amp; Sasangohar, Farzan. 2020. Effects of COVID-19 on college students\u0026rsquo; mental health in the United States: Interview survey study. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Medical Internet Research\u003c/em\u003e 22(9). doi:10.2196/21279.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eInstitute of Trauma Informed Care, University of Buffalo. 2015. \u003cem\u003eWhat is trauma informed care? \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eRetrieved from \u003cu\u003ehttp://socialwork.buffalo.edu/social-research/institutes-centers/institute-on-trauma-andtrauma-informed-care/what-is-trauma-informed-care.html\u003c/u\u003e. Accessed June 20, 2019.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eForster, Myriam, Rogers, Chris J., Benjamin, Stephanie M., Grigsby, Timothy, Lust, Katherine, \u0026amp; Eisenberg, Marla E. 2019. Adverse Childhood Experiences, ethnicity, and substance use among college students: findings from a two-state sample. \u003cem\u003eSubstance Use \u0026amp; Misuse\u003c/em\u003e 54(14): 2368-2379. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2019.1650772\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKaratekin, Canan. 2018. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), stress and mental health in college students. \u003cem\u003eStress and Health (34):\u003c/em\u003e36-45. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2761\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKaratekin, Canan. \u0026nbsp;and Ahluwalia, Rohini. (2020). Effects of adverse childhood experiences, stress and social support on the health of college students. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Interpersonal Violence\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e35(1-2):150-172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516681880\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLee, Jenny., Solomon, Matthew, Stead, Tej, Kwon, Bryan \u0026amp; Ganti, Latha. 2021. Impact of COVID-19 on the mental health of US college students. BMC Psychology, 9(95). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00598-3\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMorrison, Toni, \u0026amp; Taylor-Guthrie, Danielle K. 1994. \u003cem\u003eConversations with Toni Morrison\u003c/em\u003e. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMulvey, Laura. 1975. \u0026quot;Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eScreen\u003c/em\u003e 16(4):6-18.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRadis, Brie, Crocetto, Johanna\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026amp; Beemer, K. 2020. Teaching Note: Incorporating Trauma-Informed Educational Practice (TIEP) into the Baccalaureate Social Work (BSW) Classroom. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e25:31-44.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRead, Jennifer, Ouimett, Paige, White, Jacquelyn, Colder, Craig \u0026amp; Farrow, Sherry. 2011. Rates of DSM-IV-TR trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among newly matriculated college students. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e3(2):148-156.\u0026nbsp;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021260\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eShulman, Lee S. 1986. Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. \u003cem\u003eEducational Researcher\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e15:4-14.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 2014. \u003cem\u003eA treatment improvement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eprotocol: Trauma-informed care in behavioral health services, Tip 57\u003c/em\u003e. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2014. Guiding principles of trauma-informed care. SAMHSA News 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/samhsaNewsLetter/Volume_22_Number_2/trauma_tip/guiding_principles.html\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWilbur, Tabitha G. \u0026amp; Roscigno, Vincent J. 2016. First-generation Disadvantage and College Enrollment / Completion. \u003cem\u003eSocius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World\u003c/em\u003e 2:1-11. DOI 10.1177/2378023116664351\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"COVID-19, Online Teaching and Learning, Video Cameras","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311185/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311185/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"As faculty and students continue to acclimate learning in a post-COVID world, a better understanding of student and faculty experiences during COVID can help inform successful online pedagogies for the future. One emergent debate is whether faculty should require students to turn on their video cameras in a synchronous class as a way of taking attendance and measuring engagement. Some say requiring cameras during class is contrary trauma-informed teaching practices. Others argue that asking students to turn their cameras on is reasonable request. Through an online survey, this exploratory study invited full-time undergraduate students to respond to closed- and open-ended questions regarding their experiences with synchronous classes and video camera use during the pandemic. Findings point to a concept we name the “Online Gaze,” which illustrates power imbalances between students and instructors that can emerge during online synchronous classes. The authors argue that the online gaze warrants the need for trauma-informed practices to be transferred to online classes.","manuscriptTitle":"COVID-19 and the Online Gaze: Transferring Trauma Informed Practices Online","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-18 13:07:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311185/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"bc9a78c9-627b-42e7-b049-091016997183","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 18th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-24T07:08:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-18 13:07:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5311185","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5311185","identity":"rs-5311185","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}