Frontal Lobe Dysfunction in Incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents

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Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in two correction institutions in Cairo where 50 admitted juvenile delinquents (25 males & 25 females) were assessed and compared to 25 age matched healthy adolescents. Personal, socio-demographic and criminal histories were collected. Participants were subjected to Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised. Results: Juvenile delinquents differed significantly from healthy adolescents: they exhibited executive dysfunction as they had higher scores in all items of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and lower scores in Wechsler subscales. They had lower verbal IQ scores than performance ones. Conclusion Delinquent adolescents admitted to correctional institutions had poorer cognitive functioning compared to apparently normal adolescents. JDs had lower verbal IQ than performance IQ scores. Education, occupation and socioeconomic status remained influential environmental factors. frontal lobe juvenile delinquents executive dysfunction correction institutions Introduction The frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex (PFC), is essential for higher cognitive functions, including impulse control, decision-making, moral judgment, and regulation of social behavior. Dysfunction in the PFC is associated with impaired executive functions, such as difficulties in behavioral inhibition, planning, and risk assessment. These impairments may contribute to delinquency and antisocial behavior, potentially initiating criminal conduct (Lansing et al., 2016). Executive functions comprise three primary components: inhibition, defined as the ability to control automatic responses; working memory, the capacity to retain and manipulate information; and cognitive flexibility, the ability to adapt to novel situations. Impairments in executive function, including poor self-control and delayed gratification, increase susceptibility to deviant behavior (Coenen et al., 2021). The term 'children in conflict with the law' refers to any person under 18 years of age who comes into contact with the legal system due to suspicion of, or involvement in, an offence (UNICEF, 2009). In contrast, 'children at risk' are those exposed to circumstances that threaten their sound upbringing. In Egypt, 37 care institutions accommodate these populations; however, only 19 house children in conflict with the law, and there are few correctional institutions for juvenile offenders aged 10 to 18 years (AbulQasem, 2015 ). Juvenile delinquency is defined as criminal offenses committed by individuals under the age of criminal majority (Young et al., 2017 ). Antisocial and felonious behaviors among juveniles represent a significant public concern globally, necessitating intervention by policymakers and communities (Redding et al., 2005 ). Criminological theories have established strong associations between deviant behavior in youth and a range of biopsychosocial factors, including impulsivity, low intelligence, poor judgment, temperament, extroversion, psychiatric disorders, parental criminality, family disturbance, abuse, academic failure, and association with delinquent peer groups (Jurma et al., 2014 ). Youth with a history of cumulative trauma exhibit impairments in frontal lobe functions, including poor inhibitory control, reduced cognitive flexibility, and deficits in working memory and problem-solving skills. These impairments contribute to poor emotional regulation, engagement in risky behaviors, and diminished adherence to social norms, underscoring the influence of environmental stressors on frontal lobe neurodevelopment (Saho et al., 2021). Furthermore, studies have identified a relationship between reduced frontal lobe volumes and experiences of child neglect and disrupted mother-child relationships (Demers et al., 2019). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of juvenile offenders have demonstrated structural abnormalities in the frontal lobes, including reductions in cortical thickness, decreased gray matter volume, and altered cortical folding patterns (Zhang et al., 2019 ). Resting-state functional MRI has also revealed disrupted connectivity within fronto-cingulo-striatal and frontolimbic networks among juvenile delinquents, resulting in deficits in inhibitory control, error monitoring, and emotional regulation (Hart et al., 2018 ). Executive impairment and other cognitive dysfunctions, such as lower intelligence quotient (IQ) and verbal deficits, are among the most significant factors associated with persistent antisocial and delinquent behavior from childhood into adulthood (Muscatello et al., 2014 ). Early neuropsychological deficits, through brain–environment interactions, can foster impulsive behavioral styles that negatively impact interpersonal adaptation throughout life (Calkins & Keane, 2009 ). Deficits in frontal lobe functioning, language abilities, verbal IQ, and executive functions have been linked to antisocial behavior (Séguin, 2004 ). Cognitive deficits also hinder youths’ ability to participate successfully in traditional educational and occupational pathways (Welsh et al., 2008 ). Hypothesis The main hypothesis of this study is that cognitive functioning in adolescents with delinquent behavior is less than normal adolescents. Aim of work : This study aimed to assess frontal lobe dysfunction in incarcerated juvenile delinquents (JDs). Subjects and Methods This was an observational analytic cross-sectional study that was carried out in two correction institutions in Cairo, one for boys, and the other for girls under the supervision of The Ministry of Social Affairs, over a period of 7 months. These JDs were admitted after being convicted by court, following their criminal or delinquent acts. Fifty JDs (25 boys and 25 girls) were recruited in a convenient sample according to their ages (from 15–18 years) where they were accused by a heterogeneous group of crimes. Their personal, socio-demographic, and criminal history were collected from the institution documents and from interviewing the participants, the supervisors and the social workers. Twenty-five age-matched volunteer students were recruited from the High School of Nursing at Kasr Al Ainy Hospital in Cairo as a comparative group. Each JD signed an assent form after the permission of the head of the correction institution. Each adolescent from the comparative group signed an assent after the consent of his / her caregiver. All participants were subjected to the following measures: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) (Heaton et al., 1993 ): it is a tool for recognizing frontal cortical dysfunction. It consists of 64 cards and 4 meaningless stimulus cards. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised (WAIS-R) (Arabic version) (Melika, 1996 ) was administered using total, verbal and performance scores. Statistical methods: Data was computerized and analyzed using software package SPSS (Version 20) (IBM, 2011) Frequency distribution (expressed by number [n] and percentage [%]) was used to describe the included subjects by their qualitative parameters. Mean scores of WCST and WAIS-R tests were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (M ± SD). Differences between JD and healthy adolescent groups were analyzed using T-test. Correlations between quantitative variables were done using Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to test differences in the mean scores of WAIS-R in relation to the duration of confinement. Levels of significance in all statistical tests were considered at P < 0.05. Results Total number of JD group was 50 where 25 were males (50%) and 25 were females (50%), while the comparative group were 25 normal adolescents, 15 were males (60%), and 10 were females (40%). Both groups were age matched, with no statistically significant difference (p= 0.418) between the mean age of JDs (16.02 + 2.58 years) and that of the healthy adolescents (16.44 + 1.04 years). The mean duration of admission of JDs in correctional institute was 2.05 ± 1.659 years. Table (1) shows other socio-demographic and legal characteristics of JD. JDs had statistically significant higher scores in most items of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test than those of the comparative group (table 2). In addition, they had significantly lower mean scores on all items and subscales of WAIS-R (total, verbal, performance and its 11 subscales) than those of the comparative group (table 3). Total, verbal and performance IQ were associated with the duration of confinement (table 4). Table 1. Socio-demographic and legal characteristics of Juvenile Delinquents C Characteristics: Number (Total = 50) Percentage Residence: -Urban -Rural Enrollment in Education: -Illiterate -Primary school -Preparatory -Secondary -University Occupation: -Not working -Student -Unskilled manual worker Socioeconomic status: -Very poor -Below average -Average -Above average 38 12 9 14 20 6 1 12 11 27 23 17 9 1 76 24 18 28 40 12 2 24 22 54 46 34 18 2 Duration of confinement: - ( 5) years 13 14 23 26 28 46 Type of Accusation: -Nonviolent -Violent -Drug use or selling -Homeless 19 14 5 12 38 28 10 24 Description of crime: -Planned -Impulsive -Homeless 12 18 20 24 36 40 Group / individual crime: -Solitary -Group 24 26 48 52 Table 2. Comparing Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in Juvenile Delinquents and Healthy Adolescents Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Juvenile Delinquents (n=50) Healthy Adolescents (n=25) P- value Mean ± SD Mean ± SD No. of trial administered 121.3 + 13.66 100.28±23.01 0.000* No. of categories completed 3.84 ± 1.77 5.4 ± 0.96 0.000* Total number of correct responses 73.74 ±12.78 75.88 ±11.44 0.482 Total number of errors 49.38 ± 19.10 29.48 ±17.95 0.000* % errors 39.76 ± 13.73 25.08 ± 11.16 0.001* Perseverative responses 27.80 ±23.78 9.16 ± 9.92 0.000* % Perseverative responses 22.48 ± 19.11 8.88 ± 10.47 0.001* Perseverative errors 25.82 ± 16.55 17.68 ±10.59 0.028* % Perseverative errors 20.60 ± 12.61 10.76 ± 6.53 0.000* Non perseverative errors 23.16 ± 8.39 12.36 ± 8.66 0.000* % Non perseverative errors 18.82 ± 5.96 10.56 ± 6.44 0.000* Conceptual level response 54.36 ± 15.70 65.80 ± 10.38 0.002* % Conceptual level response 46.20 ± 17.27 67.60 ± 14.34 0.000* Trial to complete the 1 st set 17.48 ± 10.61 15.40 ± 9.13 0.406 Failure to maintain set 1.06 ± 1.42 0.84 ± 1.21 0.510 *p<0.05: significant; n: number Table 3. Comparing IQ by Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised in Juvenile Delinquents and Healthy Adolescents Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised Juvenile Delinquents (n=50) Healthy Adolescents (n=25) P- valu e Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Total score 75.94 ±10.53 102 ± 3.35 <0.001* Verbal IQ 72.68 ± 9.81 99 ± 5.52 <0.001* Performance IQ 81.80 ±12.46 102.4 ± 2.19 <0.001* Verbal Skills: -Information 4.34 ± 1.57 10.8 ± 1.19 0.000* -Comprehension 8.08 ±2.899 12.2 ±1.35 0.000* -Arithmetic 4.98 ± 2.511 8.8 ± 1.50 0.000* -Similarities 6.40 ± 2.157 11.4 ± 1.04 0.000* -Digit Span 7.00 ± 3.057 10.4 ± 1.66 0.000* -Vocabulary 6.40 ± 2.36 10.2 ± 0.76 0.000* Performance Skills: -Picture Completion 8.32 ± 2.24 13.0 ± 0.65 0.000* -Block Design 6.70 ± 2.42 9.2 ± 0.41 <0.001* -Picture Arrangement 8.02 ± 2.42 11.2 ± 1.19 0.000* -Object Assembly 7.24 ± 2.77 10 ± 1.2 <0.001* -Digit Symbol 8.34 ± 2.61 11 ± 0.91 <0.001* *p<0.05: significant; n: number IQ: intelligence quotient Table 4. Association between the IQ by Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised and the duration of confinement in Juvenile Delinquents Duration of Confinement Juvenile Delinquents (n=50) P-value Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised n Mean ± SD 5 years 13 14 23 Total IQ 71.62 ± 4.538 70.50 ± 13.86 81.26 ± 7.87 0.002* 5 years 13 14 23 Verbal IQ 68.15 ± 4.60 68.84 ±10.10 77.83 ± 9.56 0.002* 5 years 13 14 23 Performance IQ 74.64 ± 16.61 80.15 ± 7.057 87.10 ± 9.60 0.009* *p<0.05: significant; n: number of juvenile delinquents IQ: intelligence quotient Discussion The study demonstrated that delinquent adolescents admitted to correctional facilities exhibited significantly poorer cognitive functions compared to their non-delinquent peers. Marked impairment in performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) among juvenile delinquents (JDs) indicated frontal cortical dysfunction, characterized by inflexibility and diminished response inhibition, particularly in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Reddy et al. ( 2018 ) suggested that such dysfunction leads to impaired decision-making, resulting in frustration and subsequent hostility. These deficits correspond to behaviors observed in JDs, such as impulsive and stereotyped actions. Additionally, ventral frontal lobe impairment contributes to misidentification of emotional expressions, both facial and vocal, which leads to socially inappropriate behavior. Therefore, the integrity of frontal regions is critical for executive functions, including thought organization, imaginative programming, problem-solving, and adaptation. Elevated error scores (total, perseverative, and non-perseverative) on the WCST may also reflect poor selective attention among JDs in this study. A highly significant difference was observed between JDs and the comparison group in total, verbal, and performance IQ during clinical assessment. Poor educational and intellectual abilities among these adolescents appear to impact their intelligence, particularly their verbal abilities, more than their performance abilities. Loeber et al. ( 1998 ) found that, even after accounting for individual intelligence and attention problems, academic performance remains a predictor of delinquency. In contrast, Vermeiren et al. ( 2002 ) emphasized that low IQ is associated with poor scholastic achievement. The extent of cognitive impairment in this sample suggests an ongoing risk of adverse academic, occupational, and health outcomes. The observation that JDs exhibited lower verbal IQ than performance IQ supports the concept of a verbal IQ/performance IQ discrepancy in delinquency. This discrepancy may be explained by the close association between self-control, a component of executive function located in the prefrontal cortex, and verbal intelligence. Since language functions are predominantly left-hemisphere-dominant, the verbal/performance deficit may indicate left-hemisphere dysfunction. This interpretation aligns with Yun and Lee's (2013) assertion that deficits in verbal capacity, rather than performance, are linked to impairments in executive function. Consequently, impulsive violent offenders frequently demonstrate both deficient executive functions and low verbal IQ scores. To address the needs of juvenile delinquents, analysis of the verbal dimension of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) was emphasized. Low scores on the information subscale, which assesses general knowledge, indicated limited mental abilities and awareness of the external environment. Similarly, low scores on the comprehension and similarities subscales reflected impaired social and moral reasoning and judgment, which may contribute to impulsive and violent behaviors. Deficits in vocabulary and arithmetic subscales further confirmed that poor verbal and arithmetic skills, as well as overall cognitive abilities, were influenced by educational background and socioeconomic status. In this sample, 46% of JDs were illiterate or had academic delays, and 80% were from low socioeconomic backgrounds, factors likely affecting their interests and motivation. Irrespective of environmental factors, the JD group demonstrated significantly lower scores on both forward and backward digit span subscales, indicating reduced attentional capacity, increased distractibility, and impaired immediate memory. This finding is consistent with Hoaken et al. ( 2007 ), who reported that offenders exhibited significantly poorer working memory performance than control subjects. Similarly, Alejo et al. ( 2025 ) conducted a cross-sectional study comparing 125 institutionalized delinquent male adolescents (aged 14–17 years) with a convenience sample of 153 male secondary school students. Using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Trail Making Test, Tower of London, and Go/NoGo test to assess executive function, they found that delinquent groups exhibited significant deficits in executive functions, specifically in working memory, inhibitory control, and planning, compared to non-delinquent peers. Joseph and Waschbusch ( 2025 ) investigated the relationship between psychopathic traits and executive function (EF) using the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL-YV) and the Stroop Color-Word Test. Their findings indicated that lower EF, in conjunction with psychopathic traits, contributes to violent and property offenses, significant antisocial behavior, and further deterioration of executive function over time. Juvenile delinquents scored significantly lower than healthy adolescents on the performance subscales of the WAIS, indicating multiple deficits in perception, processing speed, accuracy, and visuoconstructive abilities. These deficits negatively affected their ability to assess the consequences of their actions, resulting in poor moral and social reasoning. However, the study also observed that higher IQ was associated with more serious offenses, as reflected by the correlation between high IQ and longer detention durations (Table 4 ). Education, occupation, and socioeconomic status emerged as significant influencing factors in this study. These are widely recognized as primary challenges for youth in developing countries. In Egypt, over 10 million children experience multiple deprivations due to limited access to essential services and support mechanisms (UNICEF, 2017 ). Such conditions may be exacerbated among delinquent populations. The study's finding that educational difficulties are prevalent among incarcerated JDs aligns with previous research, including Faied ( 2002 ), who reported an inverse correlation between education and violence or crime, and other studies (Hodges & Kim, 2000 ; Fernández-Suárez et al., 2016 ) that identified poor scholastic achievement, learning problems, and high dropout rates among JDs. Poor educational achievement and learning difficulties are likely not coincidental but may represent underlying pathologies contributing to delinquent behavior. It has been suggested that many children with learning disabilities may experience co-morbid delinquency, or that delinquency may result from learning disabilities. Despite ongoing debate regarding causality, substantial evidence indicates that poor school performance, truancy, and early school leaving are associated with juvenile delinquency (Zamora, 2005 ). The finding that 54% of JDs were unskilled manual workers is likely attributable to school dropout resulting from deviant behavior, which compels many to seek low-skilled employment. Conversely, children from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds who are required to work early are exposed to increased stressors, physical and sexual abuse, and early substance use, heightening their risk of delinquency. Additionally, 80% of JDs in this study had below-average socioeconomic resources, a result consistent with previous research demonstrating that poverty and low socioeconomic status in childhood are significant risk factors for substance abuse, crime, and delinquency (Galloway and Skardhamar, 2010 ; Shong et al., 2018 ). The observation that 40% of JDs in the study were homeless highlights homelessness as a critical factor in the psychopathology of delinquency. Youth lacking stable and safe housing are at increased risk of involvement with law enforcement through various pathways. Certain municipal laws criminalize presence in public spaces at specific times, leaving homeless youth vulnerable to legal consequences. Some may be expelled from their homes or flee unsafe environments. Consequently, homeless youth may engage in 'survival crimes,' such as theft or robbery to obtain food, or physical altercations for self-protection while living on the streets (Coalition for Juvenile Justice, 2016 ). Conclusion Delinquent adolescents admitted to correctional institutions had poorer cognitive functioning and frontal dysfunction compared to apparently normal adolescents. JDs had lower verbal IQ than performance IQ scores. Education, occupation and socioeconomic status remained influential environmental factors. Limitations The sample may not be representative of juvenile delinquents as it included adolescents from 2 correctional, institutions only. We could not include more institutions due to logistic causes. However, these sites would best represent youth in many urban detention centers possessing similar demographic characteristics, especially that both genders were represented in the sample. Finding a completely matching comparative group was another limitation as JDs’ characteristics would never match with any healthy adolescents in many aspects e.g. their socio-economic status, familial background, intelligence, education and level of hostility. Thus, this increased the difficulty designing the study. Youth's “optimal” performance during assessment might be affected by the influential effect of detention and this could be another limitation. Declarations Ethical Approval and consent to participate Study methods and consent forms were approved by the Ethical and Scientific Committees of the Psychiatry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University. Each juvenile delinquent signed an assent form after permission from the head of the correction institution. Adolescents in the comparative group signed assent after caregiver consent. Consent for publication This manuscript contains no identifiable information about human participants, such as individual case details, photographs, or personal data. All results are presented in fully anonymized, aggregate form, so consent for publication first name not applicable. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest Funding This research received no grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Acknowledgement Not applicable Author Contribution All authors approved the final manuscript. References UNICEF (2006) Child Protection Information Sheet: Children in Conflict with the Law. http://www.unicef.org/chinese/protection/files/Conflict_with_the_Law.pdf AbulQasem M (2015) Towards a child-centered juvenile justice system in Egypt: a situation analysis of law and application. Unpublished thesis in American University in Cairo. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 29 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Middle East Current Psychiatry → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 16 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 14 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 13 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Mar, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 26 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 25 Feb, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8907493","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":600636343,"identity":"71af3a18-358a-49c8-88a8-e5a6a35f94ba","order_by":0,"name":"Mohamed Nasreldin Sadek","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Cairo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohamed","middleName":"Nasreldin","lastName":"Sadek","suffix":""},{"id":600636345,"identity":"3d7b99e5-f4b4-4935-a8b8-020e672609a7","order_by":1,"name":"Suaad Sayed Moussa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Cairo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Suaad","middleName":"Sayed","lastName":"Moussa","suffix":""},{"id":600636346,"identity":"67755d6d-bc0f-4a1b-8c44-71d6afc6f61d","order_by":2,"name":"Mohamed Abdel Fattah Khalil","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Cairo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohamed","middleName":"Abdel Fattah","lastName":"Khalil","suffix":""},{"id":600636347,"identity":"e7326723-e2aa-4953-bd94-3cf418597878","order_by":3,"name":"Dina Taher Kattari","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Cairo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dina","middleName":"Taher","lastName":"Kattari","suffix":""},{"id":600636348,"identity":"5eef6986-9d57-41a8-8a93-30008eb49e37","order_by":4,"name":"Nagwan Mohamed Madbouly","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Cairo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nagwan","middleName":"Mohamed","lastName":"Madbouly","suffix":""},{"id":600636349,"identity":"a2e91fbc-474e-4d39-a1b8-f3bab72f7f9d","order_by":5,"name":"Maged Aladrousy Gomaa","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Cairo University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maged","middleName":"Aladrousy","lastName":"Gomaa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-18 08:53:56","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8907493/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8907493/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-026-00636-z","type":"published","date":"2026-04-29T15:57:37+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108442259,"identity":"9966c5b5-62d4-468f-92c6-99673a43b600","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 17:04:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":317879,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8907493/v1/a01fb381-8ad0-470a-9eb2-82dbeb21dfd7.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Frontal Lobe Dysfunction in Incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex (PFC), is essential for higher cognitive functions, including impulse control, decision-making, moral judgment, and regulation of social behavior. Dysfunction in the PFC is associated with impaired executive functions, such as difficulties in behavioral inhibition, planning, and risk assessment. These impairments may contribute to delinquency and antisocial behavior, potentially initiating criminal conduct (Lansing et al., 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExecutive functions comprise three primary components: inhibition, defined as the ability to control automatic responses; working memory, the capacity to retain and manipulate information; and cognitive flexibility, the ability to adapt to novel situations. Impairments in executive function, including poor self-control and delayed gratification, increase susceptibility to deviant behavior (Coenen et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe term 'children in conflict with the law' refers to any person under 18 years of age who comes into contact with the legal system due to suspicion of, or involvement in, an offence (UNICEF, 2009). In contrast, 'children at risk' are those exposed to circumstances that threaten their sound upbringing. In Egypt, 37 care institutions accommodate these populations; however, only 19 house children in conflict with the law, and there are few correctional institutions for juvenile offenders aged 10 to 18 years (AbulQasem, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuvenile delinquency is defined as criminal offenses committed by individuals under the age of criminal majority (Young et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Antisocial and felonious behaviors among juveniles represent a significant public concern globally, necessitating intervention by policymakers and communities (Redding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Criminological theories have established strong associations between deviant behavior in youth and a range of biopsychosocial factors, including impulsivity, low intelligence, poor judgment, temperament, extroversion, psychiatric disorders, parental criminality, family disturbance, abuse, academic failure, and association with delinquent peer groups (Jurma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth with a history of cumulative trauma exhibit impairments in frontal lobe functions, including poor inhibitory control, reduced cognitive flexibility, and deficits in working memory and problem-solving skills. These impairments contribute to poor emotional regulation, engagement in risky behaviors, and diminished adherence to social norms, underscoring the influence of environmental stressors on frontal lobe neurodevelopment (Saho et al., 2021). Furthermore, studies have identified a relationship between reduced frontal lobe volumes and experiences of child neglect and disrupted mother-child relationships (Demers et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of juvenile offenders have demonstrated structural abnormalities in the frontal lobes, including reductions in cortical thickness, decreased gray matter volume, and altered cortical folding patterns (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Resting-state functional MRI has also revealed disrupted connectivity within fronto-cingulo-striatal and frontolimbic networks among juvenile delinquents, resulting in deficits in inhibitory control, error monitoring, and emotional regulation (Hart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExecutive impairment and other cognitive dysfunctions, such as lower intelligence quotient (IQ) and verbal deficits, are among the most significant factors associated with persistent antisocial and delinquent behavior from childhood into adulthood (Muscatello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Early neuropsychological deficits, through brain\u0026ndash;environment interactions, can foster impulsive behavioral styles that negatively impact interpersonal adaptation throughout life (Calkins \u0026amp; Keane, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Deficits in frontal lobe functioning, language abilities, verbal IQ, and executive functions have been linked to antisocial behavior (S\u0026eacute;guin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Cognitive deficits also hinder youths\u0026rsquo; ability to participate successfully in traditional educational and occupational pathways (Welsh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHypothesis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main hypothesis of this study is that cognitive functioning in adolescents with delinquent behavior is less than normal adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003eAim of work\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to assess frontal lobe dysfunction in incarcerated juvenile delinquents (JDs).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Subjects and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis was an observational analytic cross-sectional study that was carried out in two correction institutions in Cairo, one for boys, and the other for girls under the supervision of The Ministry of Social Affairs, over a period of 7 months. These JDs were admitted after being convicted by court, following their criminal or delinquent acts. Fifty JDs (25 boys and 25 girls) were recruited in a convenient sample according to their ages (from 15\u0026ndash;18 years) where they were accused by a heterogeneous group of crimes. Their personal, socio-demographic, and criminal history were collected from the institution documents and from interviewing the participants, the supervisors and the social workers. Twenty-five age-matched volunteer students were recruited from the High School of Nursing at Kasr Al Ainy Hospital in Cairo as a comparative group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach JD signed an assent form after the permission of the head of the correction institution. Each adolescent from the comparative group signed an assent after the consent of his / her caregiver.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll participants were subjected to the following measures: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) (Heaton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e): it is a tool for recognizing frontal cortical dysfunction. It consists of 64 cards and 4 meaningless stimulus cards. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale \u0026ndash; Revised (WAIS-R) (Arabic version) (Melika, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) was administered using total, verbal and performance scores.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatistical methods:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData was computerized and analyzed using software package SPSS (Version 20) (IBM, 2011) Frequency distribution (expressed by number [n] and percentage [%]) was used to describe the included subjects by their qualitative parameters. Mean scores of WCST and WAIS-R tests were expressed as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation (M\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD). Differences between JD and healthy adolescent groups were analyzed using T-test. Correlations between quantitative variables were done using Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation coefficient (r). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to test differences in the mean scores of WAIS-R in relation to the duration of confinement. Levels of significance in all statistical tests were considered at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eTotal number of JD group was 50 where 25 were males (50%) and 25 were females (50%), while the comparative group were 25 normal adolescents, 15 were males (60%), and 10 were females (40%). Both groups were age matched, with no statistically significant difference (p= 0.418) between the mean age of JDs (16.02 + 2.58 years) and that of the healthy adolescents (16.44 + 1.04 years). The mean duration of admission of JDs in correctional institute was 2.05 \u0026plusmn; 1.659 years. Table (1) shows other socio-demographic and legal characteristics of JD.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJDs had statistically significant higher scores in most items of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test than those of the comparative group (table 2). In addition, they had significantly lower mean scores on all items and subscales of WAIS-R (total, verbal, performance and its 11 subscales) than those of the comparative group (table 3). Total, verbal and performance IQ were associated with the duration of confinement (table 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Socio-demographic and legal characteristics of Juvenile Delinquents\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"510\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Characteristics:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Number (Total = 50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Percentage\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResidence:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Urban\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Rural\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnrollment in Education:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Illiterate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Primary school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Preparatory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Secondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-University\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOccupation:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Not working\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Student\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Unskilled manual worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocioeconomic status:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Very poor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Below average\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Average\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Above average\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 54\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;2 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuration of confinement:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- (\u0026lt; 2) years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- (2-5) years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- (\u0026gt; 5) years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of Accusation:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Nonviolent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Violent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Drug use or selling \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Homeless\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescription of crime:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Planned\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Impulsive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Homeless\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroup / individual crime:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Solitary\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Group\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2. Comparing Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in Juvenile Delinquents and Healthy Adolescents\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"654\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ch4\u003eWisconsin Card Sorting Test\u003c/h4\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJuvenile Delinquents (n=50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHealthy Adolescents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n=25)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP- value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003ch5\u003eNo. of trial administered\u003c/h5\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e121.3 + 13.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.28\u0026plusmn;23.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo. of categories completed\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.84 \u0026plusmn; 1.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.4 \u0026plusmn; 0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal number of correct responses\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.74 \u0026plusmn;12.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.88 \u0026plusmn;11.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.482\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal number of errors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.38 \u0026plusmn; 19.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.48 \u0026plusmn;17.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e% errors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.76 \u0026plusmn; 13.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.08 \u0026plusmn; 11.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerseverative responses\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.80 \u0026plusmn;23.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.16 \u0026plusmn; 9.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e% Perseverative responses\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.48 \u0026plusmn; 19.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.88 \u0026plusmn; 10.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerseverative errors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.82 \u0026plusmn; 16.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.68 \u0026plusmn;10.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e% Perseverative errors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.60 \u0026plusmn; 12.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.76 \u0026plusmn; 6.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon perseverative errors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;23.16 \u0026plusmn; 8.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 12.36 \u0026plusmn; 8.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e% Non perseverative errors\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.82 \u0026plusmn; 5.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.56 \u0026plusmn; 6.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConceptual level response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.36 \u0026plusmn; 15.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.80 \u0026plusmn; 10.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e% Conceptual level response\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.20 \u0026plusmn; 17.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.60 \u0026plusmn; 14.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrial to complete the 1\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e set\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.48 \u0026plusmn; 10.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.40 \u0026plusmn; 9.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.406\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFailure to maintain set\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.06 \u0026plusmn; 1.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84 \u0026plusmn; 1.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.510\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e*p\u0026lt;0.05: significant; n: number\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3. Comparing IQ by Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale \u0026ndash; Revised in Juvenile Delinquents and Healthy Adolescents\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWechsler Adult Intelligence Scale \u0026ndash; Revised \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJuvenile Delinquents (n=50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHealthy Adolescents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(n=25)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003eP- valu\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003ee\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.94 \u0026plusmn;10.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e102 \u0026plusmn; 3.35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026lt;0.001*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVerbal IQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.68 \u0026plusmn; 9.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e99 \u0026plusmn; 5.52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026lt;0.001*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerformance IQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.80 \u0026plusmn;12.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e102.4 \u0026plusmn; 2.19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026lt;0.001*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVerbal Skills:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Information\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.34 \u0026plusmn; 1.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.8 \u0026plusmn; 1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Comprehension\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.08 \u0026plusmn;2.899\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.2 \u0026plusmn;1.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Arithmetic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.98 \u0026plusmn; 2.511\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e8.8 \u0026plusmn; 1.50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Similarities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40 \u0026plusmn; 2.157\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.4 \u0026plusmn; 1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Digit Span\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.00 \u0026plusmn; 3.057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.4 \u0026plusmn; 1.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Vocabulary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40 \u0026plusmn; 2.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10.2 \u0026plusmn; 0.76\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerformance Skills:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Picture Completion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.32 \u0026plusmn; 2.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.0 \u0026plusmn; 0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Block Design\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.70 \u0026plusmn; 2.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.2 \u0026plusmn; 0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026lt;0.001*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Picture Arrangement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.02 \u0026plusmn; 2.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e11.2 \u0026plusmn; 1.19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Object Assembly\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.24 \u0026plusmn; 2.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10 \u0026plusmn; 1.2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026lt;0.001*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 216px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-Digit Symbol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.34 \u0026plusmn; 2.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e11 \u0026plusmn; 0.91\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026lt;0.001*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;*p\u0026lt;0.05: significant; n: number\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; IQ: intelligence quotient\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4. Association between the IQ by Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale \u0026ndash; Revised and the duration of confinement in Juvenile Delinquents\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"528\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuration of Confinement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 260px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJuvenile Delinquents (n=50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 260px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWechsler Adult Intelligence Scale \u0026ndash; Revised\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003en \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 210px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 2 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003col start=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eyears\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;5 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 210px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal IQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.62 \u0026plusmn; 4.538\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.50 \u0026plusmn; 13.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.26 \u0026plusmn; 7.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 2 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2-5years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;5 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 210px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVerbal IQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.15 \u0026plusmn; 4.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.84 \u0026plusmn;10.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.83 \u0026plusmn; 9.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 2 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2-5years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;5 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 210px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerformance IQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.64 \u0026plusmn; 16.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.15 \u0026plusmn; 7.057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.10 \u0026plusmn; 9.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 198px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 210px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;*p\u0026lt;0.05: significant; n: number of juvenile delinquents\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; IQ: intelligence quotient\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study demonstrated that delinquent adolescents admitted to correctional facilities exhibited significantly poorer cognitive functions compared to their non-delinquent peers. Marked impairment in performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) among juvenile delinquents (JDs) indicated frontal cortical dysfunction, characterized by inflexibility and diminished response inhibition, particularly in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Reddy et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that such dysfunction leads to impaired decision-making, resulting in frustration and subsequent hostility. These deficits correspond to behaviors observed in JDs, such as impulsive and stereotyped actions. Additionally, ventral frontal lobe impairment contributes to misidentification of emotional expressions, both facial and vocal, which leads to socially inappropriate behavior. Therefore, the integrity of frontal regions is critical for executive functions, including thought organization, imaginative programming, problem-solving, and adaptation. Elevated error scores (total, perseverative, and non-perseverative) on the WCST may also reflect poor selective attention among JDs in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e A highly significant difference was observed between JDs and the comparison group in total, verbal, and performance IQ during clinical assessment. Poor educational and intellectual abilities among these adolescents appear to impact their intelligence, particularly their verbal abilities, more than their performance abilities. Loeber et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) found that, even after accounting for individual intelligence and attention problems, academic performance remains a predictor of delinquency. In contrast, Vermeiren et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized that low IQ is associated with poor scholastic achievement. The extent of cognitive impairment in this sample suggests an ongoing risk of adverse academic, occupational, and health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observation that JDs exhibited lower verbal IQ than performance IQ supports the concept of a verbal IQ/performance IQ discrepancy in delinquency. This discrepancy may be explained by the close association between self-control, a component of executive function located in the prefrontal cortex, and verbal intelligence. Since language functions are predominantly left-hemisphere-dominant, the verbal/performance deficit may indicate left-hemisphere dysfunction. This interpretation aligns with Yun and Lee's (2013) assertion that deficits in verbal capacity, rather than performance, are linked to impairments in executive function. Consequently, impulsive violent offenders frequently demonstrate both deficient executive functions and low verbal IQ scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address the needs of juvenile delinquents, analysis of the verbal dimension of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) was emphasized. Low scores on the information subscale, which assesses general knowledge, indicated limited mental abilities and awareness of the external environment. Similarly, low scores on the comprehension and similarities subscales reflected impaired social and moral reasoning and judgment, which may contribute to impulsive and violent behaviors. Deficits in vocabulary and arithmetic subscales further confirmed that poor verbal and arithmetic skills, as well as overall cognitive abilities, were influenced by educational background and socioeconomic status. In this sample, 46% of JDs were illiterate or had academic delays, and 80% were from low socioeconomic backgrounds, factors likely affecting their interests and motivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIrrespective of environmental factors, the JD group demonstrated significantly lower scores on both forward and backward digit span subscales, indicating reduced attentional capacity, increased distractibility, and impaired immediate memory. This finding is consistent with Hoaken et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that offenders exhibited significantly poorer working memory performance than control subjects. Similarly, Alejo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a cross-sectional study comparing 125 institutionalized delinquent male adolescents (aged 14\u0026ndash;17 years) with a convenience sample of 153 male secondary school students. Using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Trail Making Test, Tower of London, and Go/NoGo test to assess executive function, they found that delinquent groups exhibited significant deficits in executive functions, specifically in working memory, inhibitory control, and planning, compared to non-delinquent peers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoseph and Waschbusch (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the relationship between psychopathic traits and executive function (EF) using the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL-YV) and the Stroop Color-Word Test. Their findings indicated that lower EF, in conjunction with psychopathic traits, contributes to violent and property offenses, significant antisocial behavior, and further deterioration of executive function over time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuvenile delinquents scored significantly lower than healthy adolescents on the performance subscales of the WAIS, indicating multiple deficits in perception, processing speed, accuracy, and visuoconstructive abilities. These deficits negatively affected their ability to assess the consequences of their actions, resulting in poor moral and social reasoning. However, the study also observed that higher IQ was associated with more serious offenses, as reflected by the correlation between high IQ and longer detention durations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation, occupation, and socioeconomic status emerged as significant influencing factors in this study. These are widely recognized as primary challenges for youth in developing countries. In Egypt, over 10\u0026nbsp;million children experience multiple deprivations due to limited access to essential services and support mechanisms (UNICEF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Such conditions may be exacerbated among delinquent populations. The study's finding that educational difficulties are prevalent among incarcerated JDs aligns with previous research, including Faied (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), who reported an inverse correlation between education and violence or crime, and other studies (Hodges \u0026amp; Kim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Su\u0026aacute;rez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) that identified poor scholastic achievement, learning problems, and high dropout rates among JDs. Poor educational achievement and learning difficulties are likely not coincidental but may represent underlying pathologies contributing to delinquent behavior. It has been suggested that many children with learning disabilities may experience co-morbid delinquency, or that delinquency may result from learning disabilities. Despite ongoing debate regarding causality, substantial evidence indicates that poor school performance, truancy, and early school leaving are associated with juvenile delinquency (Zamora, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe finding that 54% of JDs were unskilled manual workers is likely attributable to school dropout resulting from deviant behavior, which compels many to seek low-skilled employment. Conversely, children from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds who are required to work early are exposed to increased stressors, physical and sexual abuse, and early substance use, heightening their risk of delinquency. Additionally, 80% of JDs in this study had below-average socioeconomic resources, a result consistent with previous research demonstrating that poverty and low socioeconomic status in childhood are significant risk factors for substance abuse, crime, and delinquency (Galloway and Skardhamar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Shong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observation that 40% of JDs in the study were homeless highlights homelessness as a critical factor in the psychopathology of delinquency. Youth lacking stable and safe housing are at increased risk of involvement with law enforcement through various pathways. Certain municipal laws criminalize presence in public spaces at specific times, leaving homeless youth vulnerable to legal consequences. Some may be expelled from their homes or flee unsafe environments. Consequently, homeless youth may engage in 'survival crimes,' such as theft or robbery to obtain food, or physical altercations for self-protection while living on the streets (Coalition for Juvenile Justice, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDelinquent adolescents admitted to correctional institutions had poorer cognitive functioning and frontal dysfunction compared to apparently normal adolescents. JDs had lower verbal IQ than performance IQ scores. Education, occupation and socioeconomic status remained influential environmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe sample may not be representative of juvenile delinquents as it included adolescents from 2 correctional, institutions only. We could not include more institutions due to logistic causes. However, these sites would best represent youth in many urban detention centers possessing similar demographic characteristics, especially that both genders were represented in the sample. Finding a completely matching comparative group was another limitation as JDs\u0026rsquo; characteristics would never match with any healthy adolescents in many aspects e.g. their socio-economic status, familial background, intelligence, education and level of hostility. Thus, this increased the difficulty designing the study. Youth's \u0026ldquo;optimal\u0026rdquo; performance during assessment might be affected by the influential effect of detention and this could be another limitation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudy methods and consent forms were approved by the Ethical and Scientific Committees of the Psychiatry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University. Each juvenile delinquent signed an assent form after permission from the head of the correction institution. Adolescents in the comparative group signed assent after caregiver consent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis manuscript contains no identifiable information about human participants, such as individual case details, photographs, or personal data. All results are presented in fully anonymized, aggregate form, so consent for publication first name not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNICEF (2006) Child Protection Information Sheet: Children in Conflict with the Law. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.unicef.org/chinese/protection/files/Conflict_with_the_Law.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.unicef.org/chinese/protection/files/Conflict_with_the_Law.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbulQasem M (2015) Towards a child-centered juvenile justice system in Egypt: a situation analysis of law and application. 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[email protected], Website\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"middle-east-current-psychiatry","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"mecp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Middle East Current Psychiatry](http://mecp.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"43045","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/43045/3","title":"Middle East Current Psychiatry","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Open","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"frontal lobe, juvenile delinquents, executive dysfunction, correction institutions","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8907493/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8907493/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess frontal lobe dysfunction in incarcerated juvenile delinquents.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMethods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in two correction institutions in Cairo where 50 admitted juvenile delinquents (25 males \u0026amp; 25 females) were assessed and compared to 25 age matched healthy adolescents. Personal, socio-demographic and criminal histories were collected. Participants were subjected to Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults: Juvenile delinquents differed significantly from healthy adolescents: they exhibited executive dysfunction as they had higher scores in all items of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and lower scores in Wechsler subscales. They had lower verbal IQ scores than performance ones.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConclusion Delinquent adolescents admitted to correctional institutions had poorer cognitive functioning compared to apparently normal adolescents. JDs had lower verbal IQ than performance IQ scores. Education, occupation and socioeconomic status remained influential environmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Frontal Lobe Dysfunction in Incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-05 10:36:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8907493/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-16T11:42:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-14T13:50:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-14T00:14:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"196973754274943940552227743213985995725","date":"2026-03-04T12:39:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"162333194915601537609051733284337216356","date":"2026-03-02T09:22:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-27T11:53:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-26T14:26:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Middle East Current Psychiatry","date":"2026-02-25T20:18:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"middle-east-current-psychiatry","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"mecp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Middle East Current Psychiatry](http://mecp.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"43045","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/43045/3","title":"Middle East Current Psychiatry","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Open","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"60602187-55bf-4e2a-8b30-e7ba3f2c9c23","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 5th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-04T17:04:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-8907493","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-026-00636-z","journal":{"identity":"middle-east-current-psychiatry","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Middle East Current Psychiatry"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-29 15:57:37","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 29th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-05 10:36:53","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s43045-026-00636-z","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-026-00636-z","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8907493","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8907493","identity":"rs-8907493","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}