The Impact of Grandparent Involvement on Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems: The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability and the Moderating Role of Family Functioning

The Impact of Grandparent Involvement on Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems: The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability and the Moderating Role of Family Functioning | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The Impact of Grandparent Involvement on Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems: The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability and the Moderating Role of Family Functioning Yanzhen Xu, Xiuting Wen, Yumeng Hao, Huiyan Lin, Yakun Ni This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9361678/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examined whether social adaptability mediates the relationship between grandparent involvement and children’s emotional and behavioral problems, and whether family functioning moderates the link between grandparent involvement and social adaptability. Data were collected from 759 parents of children aged 3–6 years in China across three time points. Participants completed measures of grandparent involvement, family functioning, social adaptability, and emotional and behavioral problems. Moderated mediation analysis revealed that grandparent involvement was positively associated with children’s emotional and behavioral problems, and this relationship was partially mediated by social adaptability. Moreover, family functioning moderated the negative effect of grandparent involvement on social adaptability: the negative association was weaker when family functioning was high and stronger when family functioning was low. These findings suggest that improving family functioning and enhancing children’s social adaptability may mitigate the potential negative impact of grandparent involvement on child development. Health sciences/Health care Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology grandparent involvement social adaptability family functioning emotional and behavioral problems moderated mediation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1 Introduction Against the backdrop of an aging population and social acceleration, grandparent involvement has become an important supplementary form of childcare in Chinese families. It refers to grandparents assuming partial or full responsibility for raising their grandchildren (Fuller-Thomson & Minkler, 2001; Dommaraju & Wong, 2025). While grandparent involvement can alleviate the parenting pressure on young parents and provide more companionship (Buchanan & Rotkirch, 2018), it often leads to problems in children's emotional regulation and behavioral norms due to intergenerational conflicts in educational concepts and the tendency of grandparents toward overprotection or permissiveness. These problems include weak rule awareness and delayed social adaptation (Kaylor-Tapscott & Sullivan, 2024). However, existing research still has deficiencies: first, there is a lack of in-depth exploration into the specific paths through which grandparent involvement affects children's emotional and behavioral problems; second, most studies remain at the level of phenomenon description and consequence identification, with few studies investigating how to mitigate the potential negative impacts of grandparent involvement from the perspective of family functioning. Based on Family Systems Theory, this study aims to address these gaps. This theory posits that individual development is deeply embedded within the dynamic interaction network of the family (Bowen, 1978; Dunst, 2016). As an important subsystem of family structure, grandparent involvement directly affects the cultivation of children's social adaptability by altering core dimensions such as intergenerational role division and interaction rules (Xu et al., 2024). Social adaptability is a key ability for children to cope with interpersonal interactions and social demands; it is both an explicit carrier of family functioning in child development and a core protective factor against emotional and behavioral problems (Bai et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2022). However, existing research has not yet systematically revealed the specific transmission path of grandparent involvement on children's emotional and behavioral problems from this theoretical logic. Therefore, this study incorporates social adaptability into the analytical framework to examine its mediating role. Furthermore, Family Systems Theory emphasizes that the functional state of the family as an organic whole determines the direction and intensity of the impact of external caregiving models on child development (Patterson, 2002). Most existing studies explore the direct consequences of grandparent involvement in isolation, overlooking the key role of family functioning as a “buffer system”. Good family functioning can alleviate structural conflicts brought about by grandparent involvement through intergenerational collaboration and resource integration, whereas dysfunction may amplify its negative effects (Mendoza & Lee, 2023). Accordingly, this study uses family functioning as a moderating variable to test its effect on the relationship between “grandparent involvement and social adaptability”. Therefore, this study proposes a conceptual model (Fig. 1 ) to answer: (1) whether grandparent involvement indirectly affects children’s emotional and behavioral problems through social adaptability; and (2) whether family functioning moderates the relationship between grandparent involvement and social adaptability. 2 Theoretical Basis and Research Hypotheses 2.1 Theoretical Basis This study is based on Family Systems Theory, integrating the mediating role of social adaptability and the moderating role of family functioning. Family Systems Theory, proposed by Bowen (1978), views the family as an organic whole composed of interrelated subsystems that form stable boundaries and functional patterns through interaction (Bowen & Kerr, 2009). For example, grandparents may tend to use overindulgent parenting styles, which limits children's opportunities for autonomous exploration and affects the development of social adaptability (Silverstein & Marenco, 2001). Additionally, differences in parenting concepts between grandparents and parents can cause children to exhibit emotional and behavioral problems due to a lack of stable emotional bonds (Conger & Donnellan, 2007). 2.2 The Impact of Grandparent Involvement on Emotional and Behavioral Problems In grandparent involvement scenarios, the deep intervention of grandparents causes the relationship system of the nuclear family to intersect closely with the broader intergenerational system, prompting a dynamic adjustment of family roles and rules (Bailey et al., 2009). This imbalance easily causes family tension and role confusion (Tang et al., 2026; Landry, 1999), which may affect the development of the child's emotional and behavioral abilities (Zhang et al., 2025). Research shows that grandparents often present extreme parenting tendencies—either overprotection due to compensatory psychology or strict constraints due to traditional views (Hayslip & Kaminski, 2008). These non-adaptive modes weaken children's emotional regulation and increase the likelihood of emotional loss of control or behavioral misconduct (Qiu & Shum, 2022; Wang et al., 2024). Hypothesis 1 Grandparent involvement significantly and positively affects children’s emotional and behavioral problems. 2.3 The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability In grandparent involvement, parents may focus on rules and independence, while grandparents often focus on daily care and immediate gratification (Sun & Jiang, 2017; Lu & Pang, 2022). This inconsistency leads to “double rules”, where children receive contradictory instructions, weakening their ability to judge social situations (Chen et al., 2025; Xu, 2025). Overprotection also limits the accumulation of critical social experiences like peer conflict and cooperation (Goodman & Silverstein, 2006; Smith & Palmieri, 2007). Children with insufficient social adaptability are more likely to form negative attributions about their abilities, leading to low self-efficacy and “learned helplessness”, often expressed through tantrums or crying to avoid difficult situations (Bandura, 1997; Cole et al., 2007). Hypothesis 2 : Social adaptability mediates the relationship between grandparent involvement and emotional and behavioral problems. 2.4 The Moderating Role of Family Functioning When family functioning is good, grandparents and parents form a stable parenting alliance with clear, complementary roles, allowing children to internalize unified social norms (Xu et al., 2024; Essler et al., 2023). Conversely, in low-functioning families, intergenerational systems fall into disorder, and children are exposed to tension, which hinders the internalization of social norms (Krishnakumar & Buehler, 2000). Hypothesis 3 Family functioning moderates the negative impact of grandparent involvement on social adaptability; specifically, the stronger the family functioning, the weaker the negative impact. 3 Research Methods 3.1 Sample and Procedure The data for this study came from a survey of parents of young children in China. To reduce the influence of common method bias, we conducted the survey at three different time points, with an interval of one week between each time point. In the data sample, the respondents were fathers and mothers of young children ( M = 1.79, SD = 0.41 ), of whom mothers accounted for 78.5% and fathers 21.5%. Participants’ education levels were classified into five levels ( M = 2.22, SD = 1.14 ): junior high school or below ( 30.3% ), high school or technical secondary school ( 38.1%) , associate degree ( 17.3% ), bachelor's degree ( 8.3% ), and postgraduate degree or above ( 6.1% ). The children reported by parents were as follows: 381 boys and 378 girls; ages ranged from 7 to 11 years ( M = 8.81, SD = 1.10 ). 3.2 Research Tools We used a five-point Likert scale to assess all items in this study. 1 indicated “very inconsistent” or “never”, and 5 indicated “very consistent” or “always”. Grandparent involvement (T1) : This study used relevant items from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) 2012 data to assess grandparent involvement. There were six items. Higher scores indicated more grandparent caregiving for the child. A sample item is “My child is cared for by my parents or parents-in-law”. In this study, the Cronbach’s α of the Grandparent Involvement Scale was 0.73. Family functioning (T2) : Family functioning was assessed using the General Functioning (GF) subscale of the McMaster Family Assessment Device (FAD). An adapted 12-item version was employed, in which all items were framed to reflect positive family functioning. To ensure that the scale captured the intergenerational dynamics of three-generation households rather than focusing solely on the parental dyad, item wording was modified. Specifically, the pronoun “We” in the original instrument was replaced with “Our family members” (e.g., “Our family members can express feelings to each other”). In this study, the Cronbach’s α of the Family Functioning Scale was 0.94. Social adaptability (T3) : This study used the social competence dimension of the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation (SCBE) developed by LaFreniere and Dumas (1996) to measure preschool children's social adaptability. The Chinese version was revised by Liu et al. (2012) and contains 30 items divided into three dimensions: externalizing problems, social competence, and internalizing problems. This study selected only the items from the social competence dimension to focus more on children’s social adaptability. The social competence dimension consisted of 10 items; higher scores indicated better social adaptability. A sample item is "When conflicts occur with other children, the child can negotiate with them to resolve the conflict." In this study, the Cronbach’s α of the social competence dimension was 0.94. Emotional and behavioral problems (T4) : This study used the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) developed and revised by Goodman (1997), completed by mothers to evaluate children’s daily behaviors. The questionnaire has 25 items; higher scores indicated fewer emotional and behavioral problems. A sample item is “Considerate of other people’s feelings”. In this study, the Cronbach’s α of the SDQ was 0.97. Control variables : Given demographic characteristics, we used respondent gender, respondent education level, child gender, and child age as control variables in the data analysis. 3.3 Data Analysis Methods This study used SPSS 27.0 for descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and reliability testing, and used Model 7 in the SPSS PROCESS 4.0 macro to test the moderated mediation effect. 4 Results 4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Prior to hypotheses testing, we employed a serious of confirmatory factor analysis procedures to assess the discriminant validity of the focal variables in our study. We established a nested set of alternative models to compare with the baseline four-factor model. The results from Mplus 8.3 suggested that the baseline four-factor model ( χ 2 = 3737.074, df = 1218, RMSEA = 0.069, CFI = 0.820, TLI = 0.811, SRMR = 0.080 ) fit the data well, compared with the three-factor model 1 in which we combined intergenerational upbringing and family features into one factor ( χ 2 = 4285.659, df = 1221, RMSEA = 0.076, CFI = 0.781, TLI = 0.771, SRMR = 0.089 ), and the three-factor model 2 in which we combined family function and social adaptability into one factor (χ 2 = 6277.037, df = 1220, RMSEA = 0.098, CFI = 0.638, TLI = 0.622, SRMR = 0.121 ), and the three-factor model 3 in which we combined social adaptability and emotional-behavioral problems into one factor ( χ 2 = 8037.532, df = 1221, RMSEA = 0.114, CFI = 0.512, TLI = 0.491, SRMR = 0.193 ), and the two-factor model in which we combined intergenerational upbringing, family function, and social adaptability into one factor ( χ 2 = 6758.302, df = 1223, RMSEA = 0.103, CFI = 0.604, TLI = 0.587, SRMR = 0.123 ) and the one-factor model in which we combined all items into one common factor ( χ 2 = 11105.526, df = 1224, RMSEA = 0.137, CFI = 0.293, TLI = 0.263, SRMR = 0.217 ). Moreover, the results show that all indicators’ standardized loadings in the four-factor model were significant at the 0.01 level. Thus, the results provided support for construct distinctiveness.The detailed results are shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model χ 2 df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Model1 Four-factor model 3737.074 1218 0.820 0.811 0.069 0.080 Model 2 Three-factor model 1 4285.659 1221 0.781 0.771 0.076 0.089 Model 2 Three-factor model 2 6277.037 1220 0.638 0.622 0.098 0.121 Model 4 Three-factor model 3 8037.532 1221 0.512 0.491 0.114 0.193 Model 5 Two-factor model 6758.302 1223 0.604 0.587 0.103 0.123 Model 6 One-factor model 11105.526 1224 0.293 0.263 0.137 0.217 4.2 Common Method Bias Test This study used a multi-time-point, multi-source survey approach to avoid common method bias. Before data analysis, we conducted Harman's single-factor test. The results showed that the first common factor explained 32.325% of the variance, which is below the critical value of 40%, indicating that serious common method bias was not present in the data. 4.3 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for each variable and the correlations among them. The results showed that grandparent involvement was significantly negatively correlated with children’s social adaptability and significantly positively correlated with children’s emotional and behavioral problems. Children’s social adaptability was significantly negatively correlated with children’s emotional and behavioral problems. Family functioning was significantly negatively correlated with grandparent involvement, significantly positively correlated with children’s social adaptability, and significantly negatively correlated with children’s emotional and behavioral problems. Table 2 Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Coefficient of Variables Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 1.Grandparent involvement 2.34 0.67 - 2.Family functioning 3.26 0.85 -0.14 ** - 3.Social adaptability 3.20 0.95 -0.29 ** 0.26 ** - 4.Emotional and behavioral problems 2.72 0.91 0.30 ** -0.29 ** -0.44 ** - 5.Gender of Participants 1.79 0.41 0.02 0.01 -0.02 -0.05 - 6.Age of Children 8.81 1.11 -0.04 -0.02 -0.002 -0.06 -0.03 0.07 * Note. N = 759. ** p <0.01; * p <0.05. 4.4 Hypothesis Testing We used the PROCESS macro to conduct moderated mediation analysis. Parameter estimation used bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples; a 95% confidence interval that did not include zero indicated significance. First, except for child age, child gender, respondent gender, and education level, we standardized all main study variables. With grandparent involvement as the independent variable, emotional and behavioral problems as the dependent variable, social adaptability as the mediator, and family functioning as the moderator, we tested the moderated mediation model. Results are shown in Table 3 . Hypothesis 1 proposed that grandparent involvement positively affects children’s emotional and behavioral problems. As shown in Table 3 , Model 3 indicated that grandparent involvement was significantly positively correlated with children's emotional and behavioral problems ( B = 0.41, SE = 0.05, t = 8.75, p < 0.001 ), supporting Hypothesis 1 . For Hypothesis 2, we further tested the conditional indirect effect of grandparent involvement on children's emotional and behavioral problems through children’s social adaptability. The mediation model results showed that grandparent involvement was significantly negatively correlated with children’s social adaptability ( B = -0.41, SE = 0.05, t = -8.31, p < 0.001 ), and children's social adaptability was significantly negatively correlated with children's emotional and behavioral problems ( B = -0.37, SE = 0.03, t = -11.46, p < 0.001 ). As shown in Table 4 , because the confidence interval did not contain zero ( B = 0.13, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [0.09, 0.18] ), the indirect effect of grandparent involvement on children's emotional and behavioral problems through children’s social adaptability was significant, supporting Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 3 predicted that family functioning moderates the relationship between grandparent involvement and children’s social adaptability. As shown in Table 3 , Model 2 indicated that the interaction term of family functioning and grandparent involvement positively affected children's social adaptability ( B = 0.12, SE = 0.06, t = 1.98, p < 0.05) . Furthermore, simple slope analysis showed that when family functioning was high, the negative effect of grandparent involvement on children’s social adaptability was weaker ( B = -0.26, SE = 0.07, t = -3.53, p < 0.001 ); when family functioning was low, the negative effect of grandparent involvement on children’s social adaptability was stronger ( B = -0.46, SE = 0.07, t = -6.79, p < 0.001 ). As shown in Fig. 2 , this supports Hypothesis 3 . Table 3 Results of Hypothesis Testing Variable Social Adaptability Emotional and Behavioral Problems Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Grandparent involvement -0.41(0.05) *** -0.36(0.05) *** 0.41(0.05) *** 0.26(0.05) *** Family functioning 0.23(0.04) *** Grandparent involvement × Family functioning 0.12(0.06) * Social adaptability -0.37(0.03) *** F 69.11 39.69 76.52 110.52 R 2 0.08 0.14 0.09 0.23 Note. N = 759. ** p < 0.001; p < 0.05. Table 4 The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability Between Grandparent Involvement and Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems Indirect effect Moderator condition Effect BootSE 95%CI Grandparent involvement→Social adaptability→Emotional and behavioral problems eff1(M-1SD) 0.17 0.03 [0.11, 0.22] eff2(M) 0.13 0.02 [0.09, 0.18] eff3(M+1SD) 0.09 0.03 [0.03, 0.16] 5 Discussion and Implications 5.1 Discussion This study found a significant positive association between grandparent involvement and children’s emotional and behavioral problems. This finding is consistent with several previous empirical studies (Bramlett & Blumberg, 2007; Xu et al., 2022), indicating that under the family parenting model of grandparent involvement, the probability of children experiencing emotional distress and behavioral dysregulation increases significantly. From the perspective of family systems theory, the deep involvement of grandparents changes the original intergenerational role divisions and interaction rules of the nuclear family (Bowen, 1978). When grandparents and parents lack consistent parenting philosophies or have blurred role boundaries, children are easily exposed to contradictory behavioral expectations and emotional responses. This systemic dysregulation weakens children’s ability to regulate their own emotions, making it difficult for them to internalize appropriate behavioral norms, thereby increasing the risk of emotional dysregulation or behavioral deviance (Chen, 2025; Zhao, 2025). It should be noted that this association is not necessarily causal but rather a statistical pattern observed based on cross-sectional data; when interpreting the findings, the specific quality of family interactions should be considered to avoid equating grandparent involvement directly with negative outcomes. Second, this study found that social adaptability mediates the relationship between grandparent involvement and children’s emotional and behavioral problems. Specifically, grandparent involvement exacerbates children’s emotional and behavioral problems by reducing their social adaptability. This pathway reveals the key mechanism through which internal family dynamics are transmitted to children’s external behavioral manifestations. Previous studies have mostly focused on the direct effects of grandparent involvement on cognitive development or academic achievement, or have explained the relationship through single perspectives such as parent-child relationships or intergenerational conflict (Jampaklay, 2006). This study, however, identified social adaptability as a core mediating variable, finding that the common practices in grandparent involvement, such as overprotection, indulgence, or educational philosophy conflicts, restrict children’s accumulation of key social skills including autonomous exploration, peer interaction, and conflict resolution (Goodman & Silverstein, 2006; Smith & Palmieri, 2007). When children lack sufficient social adaptability, they are more likely to experience adaptive difficulties when facing interpersonal stress or environmental changes, which in turn manifests as internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression) or externalizing (e.g., aggression, oppositional) problem behaviors (Compas et al., 2001). This finding connects parenting styles within the family system to children's social performance in the external world, providing empirical support for social adaptability as a “protective psychological resource”. Third, this study found that family functioning significantly moderates the relationship between grandparent involvement and social adaptability. Specifically, the stronger the family functioning, the weaker the negative impact of grandparent involvement on social adaptability; conversely, the weaker the family functioning, the stronger this negative impact. This moderating pattern indicates that the functional state of the family as a whole system can amplify or buffer the impact of grandparent involvement on child development. This collaborative mechanism helps children gradually internalize social norms by observing consistent adult interactions, thereby attenuating the potential social adaptability delays caused by grandparent involvement. In low-functioning families, intergenerational parenting conflicts, role ambiguity, and poor communication exacerbate children’s difficulties in internalizing contradictory rules, significantly increasing the risk of adaptation problems (Bai et al., 2023). Although the statistical significance level of the interaction effect was p < 0.05 , with a relatively limited effect size, this conditional pattern still has theoretical and practical significance, indicating that family functioning does not eliminate the negative effects of grandparent involvement but rather moderates its intensity, making it a feasible intervention entry point. 5.2 Theoretical Implications This study has three main theoretical implications. First, this study systematically applied family systems theory to the context of grandparent involvement and empirically tested the theoretical pathways. Previous studies have mostly discussed the consequences of grandparent involvement or the main effects of family functioning in isolation, rarely integrating both into a single theoretical model. By testing the moderating role of family functioning, this study revealed how the overall functional state of the family changes the direction and intensity of the impact of grandparent involvement on children's social adaptability, thereby expanding the explanatory boundaries of family systems theory in the field of intergenerational co-parenting. Second, this study introduced social adaptability as a mediating variable, deepening the process-based understanding of how grandparent involvement affects children's emotional and behavioral problems. Unlike previous studies that focused mainly on direct predictions of cognition or behavioral habits, this study identified the indirect transmission pathway of “grandparent involvement → social adaptability → emotional and behavioral problems”. This finding connects parenting styles within the family to children’s adaptive performance in the external social environment, enriching the theoretical connotation of the effects of grandparent involvement and responding to calls in the literature to examine mediating mechanisms. Third, by testing the moderating role of family functioning, this study broke through the simplistic interpretation of the effects of grandparent involvement. The results show that grandparent involvement is not always negative; its impact depends on the overall functional level of the family system. This finding provides empirical support for the core proposition of context dependence in family systems theory and offers a theoretical framework for future research to shift from asking “whether there is an effect” to “when and how the effect occurs”. 5.3 Practical Implications Based on the findings of this study, we propose the following two targeted practical suggestions, aiming to provide actionable intervention ideas for families with grandparent involvement. First, we recommend that community, kindergarten, and school-based psychological service agencies establish a “family-functioning-based tiered intervention” system. Specifically, brief standardized assessment tools (e.g., the Family Functioning Scale) should be used to quickly identify the level of family functioning. For grandparent-involved families with good family functioning, the focus of intervention can be on prevention and consolidation, such as organizing intergenerational communication workshops to help grandparents and parents clarify role divisions and negotiate consistent parenting rules, avoiding hidden conflicts arising from differences in philosophy. For grandparent-involved families with poor family functioning, simple parenting lectures are often of limited effectiveness; such families should be referred to more systematic family therapy or intergenerational mediation services, focusing on addressing blurred role boundaries, educational philosophy conflicts, and daily communication barriers between grandparents and parents. The goal is to improve family interaction patterns at the systemic level, rather than merely providing scattered parenting tips to grandparents. Second, we recommend that children’s social adaptability be set as a core intervention target in support services for grandparent-involved families. Given that social adaptability is a key mediating variable linking grandparent involvement to emotional and behavioral problems, enhancing children’s social skills can directly block the risk transmission pathway. Specific measures include: providing group-based social skills training for children in grandparent-involved families during kindergarten or early elementary school years—for example, using role-playing games to practice specific skills such as “how to initiate peer interaction”, “how to resolve conflicts”, and “how to express emotions”; simultaneously, encouraging parents (especially grandparents) to consciously reduce overprotection in daily parenting, creating opportunities for children to make independent decisions, take on small tasks, and participate in family discussions. Educators can provide grandparents with simple “behavioral cue cards”, such as “let your child do one thing by themselves today” or “when the child cries, wait 30 seconds before responding”, embedding the cultivation of social adaptability into daily life scenarios rather than relying on abstract preaching. 5.4 Limitations and Future Research Although this study offers some valuable theoretical contributions and practical implications, it has certain limitations. Future research can be further deepened in the following aspects: First, this study used cross-sectional data. Although multi-time-point data collection alleviated common method bias, it is still difficult to rigorously infer causal relationships among variables. Future research could adopt longitudinal designs to further examine the causal pathways among grandparent involvement, social adaptability, and emotional and behavioral problems. Second, the sample of this study was mainly drawn from Chinese families. The generalizability of the conclusions to other cultural contexts needs to be tested. Future cross-cultural comparative studies could explore the moderating role of cultural factors in the mechanisms of grandparent involvement. Finally, this study did not distinguish different types of grandparent involvement (e.g., full-time vs. part-time involvement) or their intensity differences. Future research could further refine the operational definition of grandparent involvement and explore the heterogeneous effects of different parenting patterns on child development. Declarations Ethical approval and informed consent statements This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Educational Science, Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University. The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki.Written informed consent was obtained from all participants; specifically, a detailed description of the research purpose and confidentiality principles was provided at the beginning of the online questionnaire, and participants were required to confirm their consent before proceeding to the survey items. All participants voluntarily agreed to participate and consented to the use of their data for academic research purposes. Author Contribution Author Contributions StatementY.X. designed the study, performed the formal analysis, and wrote the original draft. X.W. curated the data, conducted the software analysis, validated the results, and revised the manuscript. Y.H. contributed to methodology, software, formal analysis, and manuscript review. H.L. assisted with investigation, data curation, validation, and initial drafting. Y.N. (corresponding author) supervised the study, and reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement This work was supported by Guangdong Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project (GD25CJY13). Data Availability The datasets generated and analysed during the current study, as well as the survey instrument (questionnaire), are available as supplementary files with this manuscript. The raw and processed data have also been uploaded as supporting information for review purposes. All materials can be accessed from the journal’s submission system. References Fuller-Thomson, E., & Minkler, M. (2001). American grandparents providing extensive child care to their grandchildren: Prevalence and profile. The Gerontologist, 41(2), 201–209. Dommaraju, P., & Wong, S. (2025). Grandparenthood and grandparenting in Asia. In Handbook of aging, health and public policy: Perspectives from Asia (pp. 2509–2520). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. 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Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 180. Sun, Y., & Jiang, N. (2017). The effect of grandparents’ co-parenting on young children’s personality and adaptation: Chinese three-generation families. Asian Social Science, 13(5), 7–15. Lu, Y., Pei, Y., & Pang, W. (2022). A comparison of the differences in the way parents and grandparents interact with children and their effects on children’s creative performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1066524. Chen, J., Chen, M., & Fu, Y. (2025). Harsh versus supportive (grand) parenting practices and child behaviour problems in urban chinese families: Does multigenerational coresidence make a difference?. Child & Family Social Work, 30(4), 750–764. Goodman, C. C., & Silverstein, M. (2006). Grandmothers raising grandchildren: Ethnic and racial differences in well-being among custodial and coparenting families. Journal of Family Issues, 27(11), 1605–1626. Smith, G. C., & Palmieri, P. A. (2007). Risk of psychological difficulties among children raised by custodial grandparents. Psychiatric services, 58(10), 1303–1310. Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and psychopathology, 22(3), 491–495. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Calhoun, C. (2011). "It‘s All My Fault!": How Does a Self-Blaming Attribution for Peer Conflict Relate to Child Adjustment? University of South Florida Research Symposium. Wichmann, C., Coplan, R. J., & Daniels, T. (2004). The social cognitions of socially withdrawn children. Social Development, 13(3), 377–392. Cole, D. A., Warren, D. E., Dallaire, D. H., Lagrange, B., Travis, R., & Ciesla, J. A. (2007). Early predictors of helpless thoughts and behaviors in children: developmental precursors to depressive cognitions. Clinical child psychology and psychiatry, 12(2), 295–312. Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 87–127. Dunifon, R. E., Near, C. E., & Ziol-Guest, K. M. (2018). Backup parents, playmates, friends: Grandparents’ time with grandchildren. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(3), 752–767. Essler, S., Christner, N., Becher, T., & Paulus, M. (2023). The ontogenetic emergence of normativity: how action imitation relates to infants’ norm enforcement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 227, 105591. Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Family relations, 49(1), 25–44. Byles, J., Byrne, C., Boyle, M. H., & Offord, D. R. (1988). Ontario Child Health Study: reliability and validity of the general functioning subscale of the McMaster Family Assessment Device. Family process, 27(1), 97–104. Xie, Y., & Hu, J. (2014). An introduction to the China family panel studies (CFPS). Chinese sociological review, 47(1), 3–29. LaFreniere, P. J., & Dumas, J. E. (1996). Social competence and behavior evaluation in children ages 3 to 6 years: The short form (SCBE-30). Psychological assessment, 8(4), 369. Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 38(5), 581–586. Bramlett, M. D., & Blumberg, S. J. (2007). Family structure and children’s physical and mental health. Health affairs, 26(2), 549–558. Xu, X., Song, L., Li, X., & Li, Y. (2022). The impact of mothers’perceived unsupportive intergenerational co-parenting on children’s social competence: evidence from china. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 427. Chen, J., Chen, M., & Fu, Y. (2025). Harsh versus supportive (grand)parenting practices and child behaviour problems in urban Chinese families: does multigenerational coresidence make a difference? Child and Family Social Work, 30(4), 750–764. Jampaklay, A. (2006). Parental absence and children’s school enrolment: Evidence from a longitudinal study in Kanchanaburi, Thailand. Asian P opulation Studies, 2(1), 93–110. Bai, X., Chen, M., He, R., & Xu, T. (2023). Toward an integrative framework of intergenerational coparenting within family systems: A scoping review. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 15(1), 78–117. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9361678","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":634515299,"identity":"7ed79e2c-cc5a-48dc-b5d5-cabdcfe086e1","order_by":0,"name":"Yanzhen Xu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yanzhen","middleName":"","lastName":"Xu","suffix":""},{"id":634515300,"identity":"3f94988b-667b-4b47-bb3f-9416ec8778f2","order_by":1,"name":"Xiuting Wen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiuting","middleName":"","lastName":"Wen","suffix":""},{"id":634515302,"identity":"5a8d28ed-f7af-4f8a-b93b-f6840d61dcd1","order_by":2,"name":"Yumeng Hao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yumeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Hao","suffix":""},{"id":634515303,"identity":"ed9213cb-01da-422d-8a16-a6dc9b32563c","order_by":3,"name":"Huiyan Lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guangdong University of Finance","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Huiyan","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""},{"id":634515304,"identity":"5bfa0a65-6ae1-4f7f-9b69-081256594de1","order_by":4,"name":"Yakun Ni","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZgYGxgYGBjkGhgSGD2AusVqMgVoYZxCnhQGiJbGBaC3m7DyGH2e23Umf755j2MBQYZ3YwH72AF4tls08xpIb257lbjzzBqjlTHpiA09eAl4tBod5DCQfth3O3Tgjx/wBY9vhxAYJHgNCWox/ArWkG84AOozxH3FazIAOO5wgLwHS0kCUFrYyyxnnDhtu4HlW2JBwLN24jSeHgJbzhzff7Ck7LC/fnryx4UONtWw/+xn8WhgYOCAKDA4wgBIAAwMbAfVAwP4ATMk3EFY6CkbBKBgFIxQAAHp4Sjf+nf1HAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Guangdong University of Finance","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yakun","middleName":"","lastName":"Ni","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-09 00:53:25","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9361678/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9361678/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108950213,"identity":"48b48b43-475a-420b-9233-27afe905b59b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-11 07:04:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17669,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual model of this study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9361678/v1/261b470c3365609c20fb3e72.png"},{"id":108950214,"identity":"4e02c8c1-c4d9-47b0-87b2-1250b3f78022","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-11 07:04:22","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Moderating Effect of Family Functioning on the Relationship Between Grandparent Involvement and Children's Social Adaptability\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9361678/v1/3bdfb26e77bbcf2218db873d.png"},{"id":108977843,"identity":"8ed00c63-57e3-4937-8aad-738a45d5173c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-11 11:33:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":411490,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9361678/v1/1e5bdeb6-0e51-4d54-a20c-a7725b699648.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Impact of Grandparent Involvement on Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems: The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability and the Moderating Role of Family Functioning","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgainst the backdrop of an aging population and social acceleration, grandparent involvement has become an important supplementary form of childcare in Chinese families. It refers to grandparents assuming partial or full responsibility for raising their grandchildren (Fuller-Thomson \u0026amp; Minkler, 2001; Dommaraju \u0026amp; Wong, 2025). While grandparent involvement can alleviate the parenting pressure on young parents and provide more companionship (Buchanan \u0026amp; Rotkirch, 2018), it often leads to problems in children's emotional regulation and behavioral norms due to intergenerational conflicts in educational concepts and the tendency of grandparents toward overprotection or permissiveness. These problems include weak rule awareness and delayed social adaptation (Kaylor-Tapscott \u0026amp; Sullivan, 2024). However, existing research still has deficiencies: first, there is a lack of in-depth exploration into the specific paths through which grandparent involvement affects children's emotional and behavioral problems; second, most studies remain at the level of phenomenon description and consequence identification, with few studies investigating how to mitigate the potential negative impacts of grandparent involvement from the perspective of family functioning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on Family Systems Theory, this study aims to address these gaps. This theory posits that individual development is deeply embedded within the dynamic interaction network of the family (Bowen, 1978; Dunst, 2016). As an important subsystem of family structure, grandparent involvement directly affects the cultivation of children's social adaptability by altering core dimensions such as intergenerational role division and interaction rules (Xu et al., 2024). Social adaptability is a key ability for children to cope with interpersonal interactions and social demands; it is both an explicit carrier of family functioning in child development and a core protective factor against emotional and behavioral problems (Bai et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2022). However, existing research has not yet systematically revealed the specific transmission path of grandparent involvement on children's emotional and behavioral problems from this theoretical logic. Therefore, this study incorporates social adaptability into the analytical framework to examine its mediating role.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, Family Systems Theory emphasizes that the functional state of the family as an organic whole determines the direction and intensity of the impact of external caregiving models on child development (Patterson, 2002). Most existing studies explore the direct consequences of grandparent involvement in isolation, overlooking the key role of family functioning as a \u0026ldquo;buffer system\u0026rdquo;. Good family functioning can alleviate structural conflicts brought about by grandparent involvement through intergenerational collaboration and resource integration, whereas dysfunction may amplify its negative effects (Mendoza \u0026amp; Lee, 2023). Accordingly, this study uses family functioning as a moderating variable to test its effect on the relationship between \u0026ldquo;grandparent involvement and social adaptability\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, this study proposes a conceptual model (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) to answer: (1) whether grandparent involvement indirectly affects children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems through social adaptability; and (2) whether family functioning moderates the relationship between grandparent involvement and social adaptability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Theoretical Basis and Research Hypotheses","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Theoretical Basis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is based on Family Systems Theory, integrating the mediating role of social adaptability and the moderating role of family functioning. Family Systems Theory, proposed by Bowen (1978), views the family as an organic whole composed of interrelated subsystems that form stable boundaries and functional patterns through interaction (Bowen \u0026amp; Kerr, 2009). For example, grandparents may tend to use overindulgent parenting styles, which limits children's opportunities for autonomous exploration and affects the development of social adaptability (Silverstein \u0026amp; Marenco, 2001). Additionally, differences in parenting concepts between grandparents and parents can cause children to exhibit emotional and behavioral problems due to a lack of stable emotional bonds (Conger \u0026amp; Donnellan, 2007).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 The Impact of Grandparent Involvement on Emotional and Behavioral Problems\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn grandparent involvement scenarios, the deep intervention of grandparents causes the relationship system of the nuclear family to intersect closely with the broader intergenerational system, prompting a dynamic adjustment of family roles and rules (Bailey et al., 2009). This imbalance easily causes family tension and role confusion (Tang et al., 2026; Landry, 1999), which may affect the development of the child's emotional and behavioral abilities (Zhang et al., 2025). Research shows that grandparents often present extreme parenting tendencies\u0026mdash;either overprotection due to compensatory psychology or strict constraints due to traditional views (Hayslip \u0026amp; Kaminski, 2008). These non-adaptive modes weaken children's emotional regulation and increase the likelihood of emotional loss of control or behavioral misconduct (Qiu \u0026amp; Shum, 2022; Wang et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 1\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrandparent involvement significantly and positively affects children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn grandparent involvement, parents may focus on rules and independence, while grandparents often focus on daily care and immediate gratification (Sun \u0026amp; Jiang, 2017; Lu \u0026amp; Pang, 2022). This inconsistency leads to \u0026ldquo;double rules\u0026rdquo;, where children receive contradictory instructions, weakening their ability to judge social situations (Chen et al., 2025; Xu, 2025). Overprotection also limits the accumulation of critical social experiences like peer conflict and cooperation (Goodman \u0026amp; Silverstein, 2006; Smith \u0026amp; Palmieri, 2007). Children with insufficient social adaptability are more likely to form negative attributions about their abilities, leading to low self-efficacy and \u0026ldquo;learned helplessness\u0026rdquo;, often expressed through tantrums or crying to avoid difficult situations (Bandura, 1997; Cole et al., 2007). \u003cb\u003eHypothesis 2\u003c/b\u003e: Social adaptability mediates the relationship between grandparent involvement and emotional and behavioral problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 The Moderating Role of Family Functioning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen family functioning is good, grandparents and parents form a stable parenting alliance with clear, complementary roles, allowing children to internalize unified social norms (Xu et al., 2024; Essler et al., 2023). Conversely, in low-functioning families, intergenerational systems fall into disorder, and children are exposed to tension, which hinders the internalization of social norms (Krishnakumar \u0026amp; Buehler, 2000).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 3\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily functioning moderates the negative impact of grandparent involvement on social adaptability; specifically, the stronger the family functioning, the weaker the negative impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Research Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Sample and Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data for this study came from a survey of parents of young children in China. To reduce the influence of common method bias, we conducted the survey at three different time points, with an interval of one week between each time point.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the data sample, the respondents were fathers and mothers of young children (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.79, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/em\u003e), of whom mothers accounted for \u003cem\u003e78.5%\u003c/em\u003e and fathers \u003cem\u003e21.5%.\u003c/em\u003e Participants\u0026rsquo; education levels were classified into five levels (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.22, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.14\u003c/em\u003e): junior high school or below (\u003cem\u003e30.3%\u003c/em\u003e), high school or technical secondary school (\u003cem\u003e38.1%)\u003c/em\u003e, associate degree (\u003cem\u003e17.3%\u003c/em\u003e), bachelor's degree (\u003cem\u003e8.3%\u003c/em\u003e), and postgraduate degree or above (\u003cem\u003e6.1%\u003c/em\u003e). The children reported by parents were as follows: 381 boys and 378 girls; ages ranged from 7 to 11 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.81, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.10\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Research Tools\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used a five-point Likert scale to assess all items in this study. 1 indicated \u0026ldquo;very inconsistent\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;never\u0026rdquo;, and 5 indicated \u0026ldquo;very consistent\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;always\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrandparent involvement (T1)\u003c/b\u003e: This study used relevant items from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) 2012 data to assess grandparent involvement. There were six items. Higher scores indicated more grandparent caregiving for the child. A sample item is \u0026ldquo;My child is cared for by my parents or parents-in-law\u0026rdquo;. In this study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α of the Grandparent Involvement Scale was 0.73.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFamily functioning (T2)\u003c/b\u003e: Family functioning was assessed using the General Functioning (GF) subscale of the McMaster Family Assessment Device (FAD). An adapted 12-item version was employed, in which all items were framed to reflect positive family functioning. To ensure that the scale captured the intergenerational dynamics of three-generation households rather than focusing solely on the parental dyad, item wording was modified. Specifically, the pronoun \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rdquo; in the original instrument was replaced with \u0026ldquo;Our family members\u0026rdquo; (e.g., \u0026ldquo;Our family members can express feelings to each other\u0026rdquo;). In this study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α of the Family Functioning Scale was 0.94.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSocial adaptability (T3)\u003c/b\u003e: This study used the social competence dimension of the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation (SCBE) developed by LaFreniere and Dumas (1996) to measure preschool children's social adaptability. The Chinese version was revised by Liu et al. (2012) and contains 30 items divided into three dimensions: externalizing problems, social competence, and internalizing problems. This study selected only the items from the social competence dimension to focus more on children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability. The social competence dimension consisted of 10 items; higher scores indicated better social adaptability. A sample item is \"When conflicts occur with other children, the child can negotiate with them to resolve the conflict.\" In this study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α of the social competence dimension was 0.94.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEmotional and behavioral problems (T4)\u003c/b\u003e: This study used the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) developed and revised by Goodman (1997), completed by mothers to evaluate children\u0026rsquo;s daily behaviors. The questionnaire has 25 items; higher scores indicated fewer emotional and behavioral problems. A sample item is \u0026ldquo;Considerate of other people\u0026rsquo;s feelings\u0026rdquo;. In this study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α of the SDQ was 0.97.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eControl variables\u003c/b\u003e: Given demographic characteristics, we used respondent gender, respondent education level, child gender, and child age as control variables in the data analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Data Analysis Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study used SPSS 27.0 for descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and reliability testing, and used Model 7 in the SPSS PROCESS 4.0 macro to test the moderated mediation effect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to hypotheses testing, we employed a serious of confirmatory factor analysis procedures to assess the discriminant validity of the focal variables in our study. We established a nested set of alternative models to compare with the baseline four-factor model. The results from Mplus 8.3 suggested that the baseline four-factor model (\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u0026thinsp;3737.074, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1218, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.069, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.820, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.811, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.080\u003c/em\u003e) fit the data well, compared with the three-factor model 1 in which we combined intergenerational upbringing and family features into one factor (\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u0026thinsp;4285.659, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1221, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.076, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.781, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.771, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.089\u003c/em\u003e), and the three-factor model 2 in which we combined family function and social adaptability into one factor \u003cem\u003e(χ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u0026thinsp;6277.037, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1220, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.098, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.638, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.622, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003c/em\u003e), and the three-factor model 3 in which we combined social adaptability and emotional-behavioral problems into one factor (\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u0026thinsp;8037.532, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1221, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.114, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.512, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.491, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.193\u003c/em\u003e), and the two-factor model in which we combined intergenerational upbringing, family function, and social adaptability into one factor (\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u0026thinsp;6758.302, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1223, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.103, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.604, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.587, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.123\u003c/em\u003e) and the one-factor model in which we combined all items into one common factor (\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u0026thinsp;11105.526, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1224, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.137, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.293, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.263, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.217\u003c/em\u003e). Moreover, the results show that all indicators\u0026rsquo; standardized loadings in the four-factor model were significant at the 0.01 level. Thus, the results provided support for construct distinctiveness.The detailed results are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of Confirmatory Factor Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTLI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour-factor model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3737.074\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.820\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.811\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.069\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.080\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree-factor model 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4285.659\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1221\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.781\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.771\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.076\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree-factor model 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6277.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.638\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.622\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree-factor model 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8037.532\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1221\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.491\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.193\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo-factor model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6758.302\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.604\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne-factor model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11105.526\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.293\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.263\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Common Method Bias Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study used a multi-time-point, multi-source survey approach to avoid common method bias. Before data analysis, we conducted Harman's single-factor test. The results showed that the first common factor explained 32.325% of the variance, which is below the critical value of 40%, indicating that serious common method bias was not present in the data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the descriptive statistics for each variable and the correlations among them. The results showed that grandparent involvement was significantly negatively correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability and significantly positively correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems. Children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability was significantly negatively correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems. Family functioning was significantly negatively correlated with grandparent involvement, significantly positively correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability, and significantly negatively correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Coefficient of Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.Grandparent involvement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.Family functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.Social adaptability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.Emotional and behavioral problems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.44\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.Gender of Participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.Age of Children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eNote.\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;759.\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01;\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Hypothesis Testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used the PROCESS macro to conduct moderated mediation analysis. Parameter estimation used bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples; a 95% confidence interval that did not include zero indicated significance. First, except for child age, child gender, respondent gender, and education level, we standardized all main study variables. With grandparent involvement as the independent variable, emotional and behavioral problems as the dependent variable, social adaptability as the mediator, and family functioning as the moderator, we tested the moderated mediation model. Results are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 1\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eproposed that grandparent involvement positively affects children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Model 3 indicated that grandparent involvement was significantly positively correlated with children's emotional and behavioral problems (\u003cem\u003eB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.75, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/em\u003e), supporting Hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor Hypothesis 2, we further tested the conditional indirect effect of grandparent involvement on children's emotional and behavioral problems through children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability. The mediation model results showed that grandparent involvement was significantly negatively correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability (\u003cem\u003eB = -0.41, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05, t = -8.31, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/em\u003e), and children's social adaptability was significantly negatively correlated with children's emotional and behavioral problems (\u003cem\u003eB = -0.37, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03, t = -11.46, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/em\u003e). As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, because the confidence interval did not contain zero (\u003cem\u003eB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.13, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02, 95% CI [0.09, 0.18]\u003c/em\u003e), the indirect effect of grandparent involvement on children's emotional and behavioral problems through children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability was significant, supporting Hypothesis 2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 3\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003epredicted that family functioning moderates the relationship between grandparent involvement and children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Model 2 indicated that the interaction term of family functioning and grandparent involvement positively affected children's social adaptability (\u003cem\u003eB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.12, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.06, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.98, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/em\u003e. Furthermore, simple slope analysis showed that when family functioning was high, the negative effect of grandparent involvement on children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability was weaker (\u003cem\u003eB = -0.26, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07, t = -3.53, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/em\u003e); when family functioning was low, the negative effect of grandparent involvement on children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability was stronger (\u003cem\u003eB = -0.46, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07, t = -6.79, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/em\u003e). As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, this supports Hypothesis \u003cspan refid=\"FPar2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of Hypothesis Testing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial Adaptability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional and Behavioral Problems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrandparent involvement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.41(0.05)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.36(0.05)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41(0.05)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26(0.05)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23(0.04)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrandparent involvement \u0026times; Family functioning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12(0.06)\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial adaptability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.37(0.03)\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote. \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;759. \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Mediating Role of Social Adaptability Between Grandparent Involvement and Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerator condition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBootSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrandparent involvement\u0026rarr;Social adaptability\u0026rarr;Emotional and behavioral problems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eeff1(M-1SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.11, 0.22]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eeff2(M)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.09, 0.18]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eeff3(M+1SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.03, 0.16]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Discussion and Implications","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Discussion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study found a significant positive association between grandparent involvement and children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems. This finding is consistent with several previous empirical studies (Bramlett \u0026amp; Blumberg, 2007; Xu et al., 2022), indicating that under the family parenting model of grandparent involvement, the probability of children experiencing emotional distress and behavioral dysregulation increases significantly. From the perspective of family systems theory, the deep involvement of grandparents changes the original intergenerational role divisions and interaction rules of the nuclear family (Bowen, 1978). When grandparents and parents lack consistent parenting philosophies or have blurred role boundaries, children are easily exposed to contradictory behavioral expectations and emotional responses. This systemic dysregulation weakens children\u0026rsquo;s ability to regulate their own emotions, making it difficult for them to internalize appropriate behavioral norms, thereby increasing the risk of emotional dysregulation or behavioral deviance (Chen, 2025; Zhao, 2025). It should be noted that this association is not necessarily causal but rather a statistical pattern observed based on cross-sectional data; when interpreting the findings, the specific quality of family interactions should be considered to avoid equating grandparent involvement directly with negative outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, this study found that social adaptability mediates the relationship between grandparent involvement and children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems. Specifically, grandparent involvement exacerbates children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems by reducing their social adaptability. This pathway reveals the key mechanism through which internal family dynamics are transmitted to children\u0026rsquo;s external behavioral manifestations. Previous studies have mostly focused on the direct effects of grandparent involvement on cognitive development or academic achievement, or have explained the relationship through single perspectives such as parent-child relationships or intergenerational conflict (Jampaklay, 2006). This study, however, identified social adaptability as a core mediating variable, finding that the common practices in grandparent involvement, such as overprotection, indulgence, or educational philosophy conflicts, restrict children\u0026rsquo;s accumulation of key social skills including autonomous exploration, peer interaction, and conflict resolution (Goodman \u0026amp; Silverstein, 2006; Smith \u0026amp; Palmieri, 2007). When children lack sufficient social adaptability, they are more likely to experience adaptive difficulties when facing interpersonal stress or environmental changes, which in turn manifests as internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression) or externalizing (e.g., aggression, oppositional) problem behaviors (Compas et al., 2001). This finding connects parenting styles within the family system to children's social performance in the external world, providing empirical support for social adaptability as a \u0026ldquo;protective psychological resource\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, this study found that family functioning significantly moderates the relationship between grandparent involvement and social adaptability. Specifically, the stronger the family functioning, the weaker the negative impact of grandparent involvement on social adaptability; conversely, the weaker the family functioning, the stronger this negative impact. This moderating pattern indicates that the functional state of the family as a whole system can amplify or buffer the impact of grandparent involvement on child development. This collaborative mechanism helps children gradually internalize social norms by observing consistent adult interactions, thereby attenuating the potential social adaptability delays caused by grandparent involvement. In low-functioning families, intergenerational parenting conflicts, role ambiguity, and poor communication exacerbate children\u0026rsquo;s difficulties in internalizing contradictory rules, significantly increasing the risk of adaptation problems (Bai et al., 2023). Although the statistical significance level of the interaction effect was \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e, with a relatively limited effect size, this conditional pattern still has theoretical and practical significance, indicating that family functioning does not eliminate the negative effects of grandparent involvement but rather moderates its intensity, making it a feasible intervention entry point.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Theoretical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has three main theoretical implications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, this study systematically applied family systems theory to the context of grandparent involvement and empirically tested the theoretical pathways. Previous studies have mostly discussed the consequences of grandparent involvement or the main effects of family functioning in isolation, rarely integrating both into a single theoretical model. By testing the moderating role of family functioning, this study revealed how the overall functional state of the family changes the direction and intensity of the impact of grandparent involvement on children's social adaptability, thereby expanding the explanatory boundaries of family systems theory in the field of intergenerational co-parenting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, this study introduced social adaptability as a mediating variable, deepening the process-based understanding of how grandparent involvement affects children's emotional and behavioral problems. Unlike previous studies that focused mainly on direct predictions of cognition or behavioral habits, this study identified the indirect transmission pathway of \u0026ldquo;grandparent involvement \u0026rarr; social adaptability \u0026rarr; emotional and behavioral problems\u0026rdquo;. This finding connects parenting styles within the family to children\u0026rsquo;s adaptive performance in the external social environment, enriching the theoretical connotation of the effects of grandparent involvement and responding to calls in the literature to examine mediating mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, by testing the moderating role of family functioning, this study broke through the simplistic interpretation of the effects of grandparent involvement. The results show that grandparent involvement is not always negative; its impact depends on the overall functional level of the family system. This finding provides empirical support for the core proposition of context dependence in family systems theory and offers a theoretical framework for future research to shift from asking \u0026ldquo;whether there is an effect\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;when and how the effect occurs\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Practical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the findings of this study, we propose the following two targeted practical suggestions, aiming to provide actionable intervention ideas for families with grandparent involvement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, we recommend that community, kindergarten, and school-based psychological service agencies establish a \u0026ldquo;family-functioning-based tiered intervention\u0026rdquo; system. Specifically, brief standardized assessment tools (e.g., the Family Functioning Scale) should be used to quickly identify the level of family functioning. For grandparent-involved families with good family functioning, the focus of intervention can be on prevention and consolidation, such as organizing intergenerational communication workshops to help grandparents and parents clarify role divisions and negotiate consistent parenting rules, avoiding hidden conflicts arising from differences in philosophy. For grandparent-involved families with poor family functioning, simple parenting lectures are often of limited effectiveness; such families should be referred to more systematic family therapy or intergenerational mediation services, focusing on addressing blurred role boundaries, educational philosophy conflicts, and daily communication barriers between grandparents and parents. The goal is to improve family interaction patterns at the systemic level, rather than merely providing scattered parenting tips to grandparents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, we recommend that children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability be set as a core intervention target in support services for grandparent-involved families. Given that social adaptability is a key mediating variable linking grandparent involvement to emotional and behavioral problems, enhancing children\u0026rsquo;s social skills can directly block the risk transmission pathway. Specific measures include: providing group-based social skills training for children in grandparent-involved families during kindergarten or early elementary school years\u0026mdash;for example, using role-playing games to practice specific skills such as \u0026ldquo;how to initiate peer interaction\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;how to resolve conflicts\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;how to express emotions\u0026rdquo;; simultaneously, encouraging parents (especially grandparents) to consciously reduce overprotection in daily parenting, creating opportunities for children to make independent decisions, take on small tasks, and participate in family discussions. Educators can provide grandparents with simple \u0026ldquo;behavioral cue cards\u0026rdquo;, such as \u0026ldquo;let your child do one thing by themselves today\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;when the child cries, wait 30 seconds before responding\u0026rdquo;, embedding the cultivation of social adaptability into daily life scenarios rather than relying on abstract preaching.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.4 Limitations and Future Research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this study offers some valuable theoretical contributions and practical implications, it has certain limitations. Future research can be further deepened in the following aspects:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, this study used cross-sectional data. Although multi-time-point data collection alleviated common method bias, it is still difficult to rigorously infer causal relationships among variables. Future research could adopt longitudinal designs to further examine the causal pathways among grandparent involvement, social adaptability, and emotional and behavioral problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the sample of this study was mainly drawn from Chinese families. The generalizability of the conclusions to other cultural contexts needs to be tested. Future cross-cultural comparative studies could explore the moderating role of cultural factors in the mechanisms of grandparent involvement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, this study did not distinguish different types of grandparent involvement (e.g., full-time vs. part-time involvement) or their intensity differences. Future research could further refine the operational definition of grandparent involvement and explore the heterogeneous effects of different parenting patterns on child development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eand informed consent statements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Educational Science, Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University. The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki.Written informed consent was obtained from all participants; specifically, a detailed description of the research purpose and confidentiality principles was provided at the beginning of the online questionnaire, and participants were required to confirm their consent before proceeding to the survey items. All participants voluntarily agreed to participate and consented to the use of their data for academic research purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions StatementY.X. designed the study, performed the formal analysis, and wrote the original draft. X.W. curated the data, conducted the software analysis, validated the results, and revised the manuscript. Y.H. contributed to methodology, software, formal analysis, and manuscript review. H.L. assisted with investigation, data curation, validation, and initial drafting. Y.N. (corresponding author) supervised the study, and reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by Guangdong Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project (GD25CJY13).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study, as well as the survey instrument (questionnaire), are available as supplementary files with this manuscript. The raw and processed data have also been uploaded as supporting information for review purposes. All materials can be accessed from the journal\u0026rsquo;s submission system.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFuller-Thomson, E., \u0026amp; Minkler, M. (2001). American grandparents providing extensive child care to their grandchildren: Prevalence and profile. The Gerontologist, 41(2), 201\u0026ndash;209.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDommaraju, P., \u0026amp; Wong, S. (2025). Grandparenthood and grandparenting in Asia. In Handbook of aging, health and public policy: Perspectives from Asia (pp. 2509\u0026ndash;2520). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBuchanan, A., \u0026amp; Rotkirch, A. (2018). Twenty-first century grandparents: Global perspectives on changing roles and consequences. Contemporary social science, 13(2), 131\u0026ndash;144.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKaylor-Tapscott, M. L., \u0026amp; Sullivan, M. A. (2024). Caregiver stress, parenting, and child outcomes among grandfamilies. Children and Youth Services Review, 157, 107406.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. 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Journal of Family Theory \u0026amp; Review, 15(1), 78\u0026ndash;117.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"grandparent involvement, social adaptability, family functioning, emotional and behavioral problems, moderated mediation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9361678/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9361678/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined whether social adaptability mediates the relationship between grandparent involvement and children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems, and whether family functioning moderates the link between grandparent involvement and social adaptability. Data were collected from 759 parents of children aged 3\u0026ndash;6 years in China across three time points. Participants completed measures of grandparent involvement, family functioning, social adaptability, and emotional and behavioral problems. Moderated mediation analysis revealed that grandparent involvement was positively associated with children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral problems, and this relationship was partially mediated by social adaptability. Moreover, family functioning moderated the negative effect of grandparent involvement on social adaptability: the negative association was weaker when family functioning was high and stronger when family functioning was low. These findings suggest that improving family functioning and enhancing children\u0026rsquo;s social adaptability may mitigate the potential negative impact of grandparent involvement on child development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Impact of Grandparent Involvement on Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems: The Mediating Role of Social Adaptability and the Moderating Role of Family Functioning","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-11 07:04:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9361678/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-12T02:21:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"255033062092973083859945495146025942494","date":"2026-05-05T02:38:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"74826262992768399198789535215852965641","date":"2026-04-28T16:07:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-28T04:56:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-28T04:41:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-27T11:00:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-24T01:13:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2026-04-24T01:08:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"94dc9933-d0fb-4b2f-bb66-2418b405a84c","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 11th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-12T02:21:38+00:00","index":26,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"255033062092973083859945495146025942494","date":"2026-05-05T02:38:07+00:00","index":25,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":67524086,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":67524087,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":67524088,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-11T07:04:06+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-11 07:04:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9361678","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9361678","identity":"rs-9361678","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}