Mediating Role of Goal Achievement on the Teacher TPACK and Student Engagement among Chinese College Students in Physical Education

Mediating Role of Goal Achievement on the Teacher TPACK and Student Engagement among Chinese College Students in Physical Education | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Mediating Role of Goal Achievement on the Teacher TPACK and Student Engagement among Chinese College Students in Physical Education Wang Jianxun, Shamsulariffin Bin Samsudin, Riyan Hidayat This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8832066/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 32 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Student engagement is a key way to measure quality in Physical Education (PE). However, there is little research on how this relates to a teacher’s digital skills in Chinese higher education. This study examines the relationships among three key factors, teachers Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), student goal achievement, and student engagement. We used Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulated Learning theory as a guide. A cross-sectional design was employed, involving 872 undergraduate students from four universities in Guangdong, China. Data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with Smart PLS 4. The results showed that teacher TPACK has a positive effect on both student engagement and goal achievement. Goal achievement served as a partial mediator between teacher TPACK and student engagement. These findings indicated that teachers’ digital competence not only directly promoted student engagement but also exerted an indirect effect by supporting students’ goal attainment. The study underscores the necessity of professional development focused on TPACK to enhance student self-regulation and participation in PE. Social science/Education Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology College Students Goal Achievement Physical Education Student Engagement TPACK Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Student engagement is a key indicator of the quality of education and is very important for students’ academic and general well-being (Wong & Liem, 2022 ). However, student engagement in physical education (PE) has been noted to be at a lower level than in other subjects, which adversely impacts the quality and effectiveness of PE teaching (Hastie et al., 2022 ). Therefore, it becomes imperative to look for the most effective teaching strategies to boost engagement in University physical education classes. Teachers’ teaching competence and pedagogical approach are foundational elements in promoting student engagement (Xiong, 2025 ). More specifically, the TPACK framework provides a promising context in which teachers can integrate technology, subject matter knowledge, and pedagogical strategies in teaching with digital media (Koehler et al., 2014 ). To illustrate this, in a successful TPACK-based teaching model, Zahroh, 2025 , improved student engagement and learning outcomes. On the one hand, teacher TPACK has been found to predict classroom engagement and disciplinarily relevant instructional quality (Maimanah et al., 2025 ; Attard & Holmes, 2020 ). On the other hand, there is limited research into this within the context of PE. More importantly, there is a significant leading question regarding how teacher TPACK predicts student engagement. Most research views students' behavioral and attitudinal outcomes as a consequence of the psychological processes mediating the teachers’ pedagogical competence. For this reason, it is very sketchy how teachers’ technological integration competence leads to student engagement. This paper proposes that goal achievement was missed in establishing a theoretical connection. While inapplicable to theoretical disciplines, physical education involves goal attainment in an embodied performance-PE-as a prominent source of motivation for students. This study explored the following questions. 1. What are the correlations between teacher TPACK, goal achievement and student engagement? 2. Does goal achievement mediate the relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement? Literature Review Teacher TPACK and Student Engagement Teacher competence has long been viewed as one of the most crucial factors in determining student engagement. Recent literature empirically validates that high teacher competence results in high student engagement and high academic performance (Hanaysha et al., 2023 ). In light of this fast development in digital education, digital competence has emerged as a fundamental dimension in defining teachers’ professional capability (Basilotta-Gómez-Pablos et al., 2022 ). Similarly, information and communication technology has been acknowledged as a fundamental lever for enhancing the quality of instruction (Chen et al., 2019 ). Hence, the TPACK framework has come to represent a holistic model providing guidance around the effective integration of technology into teaching practice (Saubern et al., 2020 ). Growing evidence has discussed that TPACK would act as the antecedent of student engagement and improved learning outcomes. The SEM studies established several positive relationships between students’ behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement and teachers’ continuous development of TPACK, as indicated by Zhou et al. ( 2023 ). Intervention studies go further by testing whether TPACK-oriented instructional models and learning media improve student engagement and academic achievement in various subjects, as Putri et al. ( 2024 ), Zahroh ( 2025 ), and Maimanah (2025) demonstrated. Furthermore, large-scale reviews found that estuary technology use, particularly when embedded or reinforced with professional development, produces greater student learning and engagement, according to Hamid and Ahmad ( 2024 ). Despite this evidence, the specific effects of TPACK on student engagement in physical education have not been well explored, thus requiring further empirical studies. Hypotheses 1: There is a significant positive relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement. Teacher TPACK and Goal Achievement Teachers' TPACK is increasingly seen as one of the important precursors to student self-regulated learning (SRL) viewed as a key psychological mechanism in goal attainment. Recently, increasing evidence from empirical studies has provided evidence in general terms that teacher TPACK bears a positive relationship with SRL-related student outcomes. Taken together, mixed-methods and quantitative research has revealed that high teacher TPACK is associated with high levels of student self-efficacy, learning motivation, and self-regulation skills, leading to better academic performance (Jang, 2025 ; Ladrillo, 2024 ; Thohir et al., 2025 ; Sulistiani et al., 2024 ). Further research has gone as far as indicating that technology-basted learning environments become a substantial mechanism through which TPACK influences SRL. TPACK-aligned learning environments also provide features to assist feedback, monitoring, and cognitive scaffolding, all of which contribute significantly to the nurturing of self-regulated learning. Sui et al. ( 2023 , 2024 ), Reginald ( 2023 ), Ren and Wu ( 2025 ) corroborate this idea. Cumulatively, it has also been extensively verified that SRL is a very good determinant of goal-setting and goal-attaining behavior in a wide range of educational contexts, including physical education, online learning, and higher education. This was proved by Kolovelonis et al. ( 2022 ), Liu et al. ( 2020 ), Zhang et al. ( 2022 ), and Cheng et al. ( 2025 ). Overall, although direct empirical evidence linking teacher TPACK to student goal achievement remains limited, existing findings support an indirect pathway in which teacher TPACK promotes technology-rich learning environments that strengthen students’ self-regulated learning, thereby facilitating goal achievement. Hypotheses 2: There is a significant positive relationship between teacher TPACK and goal achievement. Goal Achievement and Student Engagement Goal setting have been widely identified as important determinants of engagement. Growth-oriented goals and personal-best goals have been shown to enhance cognitive and behavioral engagement through the guidance of attention and the regulation of effort (Meece et al., 1988 ; Martin et al., 2022 ). This relationship has been further supported by longitudinal intervention studies. For example, sustained engagement over time has been associated with systematic goal setting (Moeller et al., 2012 ). Improved goal attainment has been shown to lead to higher levels of classroom participation in PE (Kolovelonis et al., 2022 ). However, the regulatory process of goal setting is often conflated with the performance outcome of goal achievement, and the distinct motivational effects of actual attainment have yet to be fully examined. Therefore, it is still unclear how goal achievement influences student engagement in sports-based learning. This study is designed to address that gap. Hypotheses 3: There is a significant positive relationship between goal achievement and student engagement. The Mediating role of Goal Achievement between Teacher TPACK and Student Engagement There was a significant correlation between goal achievement and student engagement in PE. Students who successfully attain their learning goals have been found to display higher levels of classroom engagement and more positive emotional experiences (Vasconcellos et al., 2020 ). In addition, goal achievement has been shown to contribute to psychological development. Students’ self-regulation learning competency have been reinforced, which helps sustain learning engagement over time (Zimmerman, 2012 ). Teacher instructional practices have also been identified as critical in supporting this process. When goal achievement is supported through well-structured instructional design and timely feedback, a stronger sense of competence and accomplishment is fostered (Bardach et al., 2020 ). This perceived competence has been shown to support the maintenance of student engagement in PE learning. Hypothesis 4 Goal achievement plays a mediating role between teacher TPACK and student engagement. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is the overarching theoretical framework for this study. Bandura 1986 posits that triadic reciprocal determinism is the model in which personal, behavioral, and environmental factors interact to govern human functioning. Triadic reciprocal determinism models one of the major differences from classical one-way determinism: it unites all those elements in a single causal structure and explains how people modulate their behavior within social contexts (Chai & Ye, 2024 ). The current research offers a theoretical structural model in which teacher TPACK is an environmental factor, students goal achievement is a personal factor, and students engagement is a behavioral factor. This theoretical anchorage offers clear pathways that may explain how the instructional environment shapes internal engagements that lead to behavioral outcomes. Self-Regulation Learning Theory (SRL) Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) Theory is the guiding light of this study, wherein the learner is considered an active agent who goes through three cyclical phases: forethought, performance, and self-reflection (Zimmerman, 2000 ). Indeed, this sets a logical bridge to the proposed model. Teacher TPACK would serve as an external scaffold in the forethought phase and activate the regulatory cycle in strategic planning. The students goal achievement will then manifest itself in the performance phase as the effective achievement of any targeted goal. From the self-reflective phase, student engagement will then emerge from successful accomplishment, leading to a positive reinforcement process maintaining the students’ efforts over time. Teacher competence is conceptualized as a key driver of learners’ internal regulatory processes that facilitate goal achievement and sustained engagement in the SRL theory (Dignath & Veenman, 2021 ). Theoretical Framework This study is based on the SCT or Bandura’s ( 1986 ) triadic reciprocal determinism model that conceptualizes dynamic interactions among environmental, personal, and behavioral factors. Teacher TPACK is an environment factor that provides the instructional context. Goal achievement is a personal factor as it represents internal cognition, while student engagement is a behavioral factor. SRL theory (Zimmerman, 2000 ) acts as the explanation between these domains. It explains how environmental scaffolding via TPACK activates internal regulatory processes to achieve goals, reinforcing motivation and driving further behavioral engagement. This integrated framework explains the causal pathways in which teacher competence translates into student participation (Fig. 1 ). Research Methodology Research Design This study employed a cross-sectional survey design. Since multiple variables are tested at one point in time, causation cannot be confirmed (Curtis et al., 2016 ; Creswell, 2015 ). Because data collection from participants only occurs once, the relationships among variables are based on the results. Participants and Procedure This study was conducted in four universities in Guangdong Province, China. The four were selected to represent the different levels of the Chinese higher education system, according to the QS rankings. The research subjects are undergraduate students provided by the university. Apon proportional stratified random sampling was employed, with the university as the stratification variable. The total accessible population was approximately 113,375 students across the four universities. To specify the sample size, two methods were applied. First was an a priori power analysis using G*Power, which postulated a minimum of 77 participants necessary based on the complexity of the model. Then, Cochran’s formula was applied to reflect the population size better, using a 95% confidence level (t = 1.96) and a 3% margin of error (d = 0.15 on a 5-point scale). This made the required sample size 266. The target sample size was increased by about 50% to account for non-responses and invalid data, as suggested by Salkind ( 1997 ). Therefore, 400 questionnaires were distributed in total. The sample size was effectively doubled by including both male and female participants in the analysis. The total sample size has been increased to 800. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Guangzhou University of science and technology. Before data collection, permission was obtained to use the measurement scales, and informed consent was collected from all participants. Questionnaires were distributed using stratified random sampling. The number of participants from each university was determined based on its proportion of the total student population. Classes within each university were randomly selected, and the questionnaires were administered in person. In total, 900 questionnaires were distributed. Among them, 880 questionnaires were returned, which resulted in a return rate of 97.78%. After data screening in SPSS 29, 8 questionnaires were removed because of incomplete answers or logical errors. The final sample included 872 valid questionnaires. The results of the Table 1 showed that in terms of gender, there were 439 females (50.34%) and 433 males (49.66%), indicating a more balanced gender distribution of the sample; In the age structure, there were a higher concentration between 20 and 21 years old, 18.58% and 18.81% respectively, with a cumulative percentage of 69.72%, and the cumulative percentage of the 18 to 22 years old age group is 83.03%, indicating that the sample is the group of undergraduate students; Regarding the distribution of majors, the humanities and social sciences were 452, or 51.83%, and the natural sciences were 420, or 48.17%, indicating that the sample’s professional background was relatively even; In the distribution of colleges and universities, University 1 has the highest share of 35.32%, while University 3 and University 4 are close, with 26.83% and 27.52% respectively, University 4 has the lowest percentage of 10.33%, and the four universities have a balanced and representative distribution. In summary, the sample is diverse and representative of gender, age, major, and college background. Table 1 Demographic Information Name Items Frequency percentage (%) Cumulative percentage (%) Gender Female 439 50.34 50.34 Male 433 49.66 100.00 Age 18.0 138 15.83 15.83 19.0 144 16.51 32.34 20.0 162 18.58 50.92 21.0 164 18.81 69.72 22.0 116 13.30 83.03 23.0 92 10.55 93.58 24.0 41 4.70 98.28 25.0 15 1.72 100.00 Major Humanities and Social Sciences 452 51.83 51.83 Natural Sciences 420 48.17 100.00 College University 1 308 35.32 35.32 University 2 90 10.33 45.64 University 3 234 26.83 72.48 University 4 240 27.52 100.00 Instruments This research instrument consists of 4 parts with 57 questions. Part A is demographic information. Part B is teachers TPACK. Part C is the student engagement scale. Part D is the students goal achievement. The researcher adjusted the existing questionnaire to guarantee the data’s accuracy and ensure that the questionnaire can answer all the research questions. Teacher Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge To assess the TPACK competence of university PE teachers, this study will use the Pre-service Teacher TPACK.xs scale (Schmid et al., 2020 ). Given the differences in the target population and subject background, this scale will be modified to ensure its applicability to the purpose of this study. Specifically, the target research subjects of this study are college students, who are not the direct research objects of TPACK construction, but are evaluated indirectly through students’ learning experiences. To determine the validity of the questionnaire content, the revised questionnaire was sent to two experts in the field of PE for further verification. These two experts (professors specializing in sports humanities and social sciences from Guangdong Province) provided detailed feedback. The scale consists of 28 items and uses a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Student Goal Achievement To investigate the goal achievement of college students in PE courses, this study will construct the student goal achievement scale in PE courses through the goal attainment scaling (GAS). GAS is a method that uses a form of a 5-point Likert scale (+ 2 to − 2) that portrays several outcomes for a given goal (Chapleau & Harrison, 2015 ). In the process of constructing the scale, this study constructs the GAS based on the student goal setting of physical fitness. The student goal setting is based on National Student Physical Fitness Standards (NSPFS) (Ministry of education of the people’s republic of China, 2014). Based on the goals, this study contains 7 items. In most empirical studies applying goal achievement scaling in the fields of education, rehabilitation, and sports, factor validity analysis is typically not conducted. Student Engagement Student engagement was assessed across behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions. Behavioral and emotional engagement were measured using 10 items adapted from the Engagement vs. Disaffection with Learning Survey (Skinner et al., 2008 ), while cognitive engagement was evaluated using 8 items from Wolters’ ( 2004 ) Metacognitive Strategies Questionnaire. Both instruments have been previously validated in PE settings (Otundo & Garn, 2019 ; Shen et al., 2012). All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Minor wording adjustments were made to ensure cultural and contextual relevance for undergraduate PE students in China, preserving the original structural validity. Results Convergent Validity and Reliability Table 2 showed the results for validity and reliability. We used Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Cronbach’s alpha, and Composite Reliability (CR) to check this. All AVE values were higher than the 0.50 limit, ranging from 0.636 to 0.758. This means the constructs explain most of the variance instead of error. Also, Cronbach’s alpha values were between 0.866 and 0.940, and CR values were between 0.909 and 0.950. These numbers are above the suggested 0.70 level. This shows that the items in each group measure the right concepts consistently. Table 2 Convergent Validity and Reliability of Constructs. Factor Items Loading Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE CK CK1 0.836 0.866 0.909 0.713 CK2 0.826 CK3 0.865 CK4 0.849 PCK PCK1 0.863 0.894 0.926 0.758 PCK2 0.885 PCK3 0.868 PCK4 0.867 PK PK1 0.857 0.875 0.914 0.727 PK2 0.848 PK3 0.844 PK4 0.861 TCK TCK1 0.866 0.884 0.92 0.743 TCK2 0.863 TCK3 0.85 TCK4 0.868 TK TK1 0.876 0.884 0.92 0.741 TK2 0.841 TK3 0.853 TK4 0.873 TPCK TPCK1 0.867 0.883 0.919 0.74 TPCK2 0.849 TPCK3 0.861 TPCK4 0.864 TPK TPK1 0.846 0.884 0.92 0.742 TPK2 0.864 TPK3 0.863 TPK4 0.872 BE BE1 0.841 0.917 0.935 0.706 BE2 0.831 BE3 0.839 BE4 0.85 BE5 0.835 BE6 0.846 CE CE1 0.867 0.940 0.95 0.703 CE2 0.833 CE3 0.838 CE4 0.834 CE5 0.836 CE6 0.839 CE7 0.824 CE8 0.838 EE EE1 0.863 0.887 0.922 0.747 EE2 0.859 EE3 0.863 EE4 0.872 GA GA1 0.815 0.905 0.924 0.636 GA2 0.807 GA3 0.780 GA4 0.804 GA5 0.782 GA6 0.816 GA7 0.777 Discriminant Validity The heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations further establishes discriminant validity in Table 3 . Heterotrait-Monotrait values range from 0.407 to 0.535, below the conservative boundary of 0.85 (Kline, 2015 ) gives and quite far from the maximum limit suggested by (Henseler et al., 2015 ), at 0.90. Hence, the constructs are empirically different. Table 3 Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio BE CE CK EE GA PCK PK TCK TK TPCK TPK BE CE 0.506 CK 0.472 0.485 EE 0.528 0.515 0.461 GA 0.531 0.533 0.481 0.477 PCK 0.493 0.517 0.451 0.502 0.461 PK 0.493 0.535 0.494 0.47 0.451 0.466 TCK 0.524 0.507 0.441 0.465 0.427 0.467 0.455 TK 0.492 0.512 0.417 0.504 0.474 0.522 0.5 0.487 TPCK 0.462 0.477 0.511 0.458 0.486 0.478 0.432 0.491 0.477 TPK 0.477 0.524 0.407 0.499 0.458 0.486 0.43 0.466 0.476 0.457 The Fornell-Larcker criterion also ensured discriminant validity, as shown in Table 4 . The criterion is that, for each construct, the square root of the AVE value should exceed the inter-construct correlation values in respective rows and columns. This is exactly what happened here. According to this, (Fornell & Larcker, 1981 ) guide a construct to share more variance with its indicators than with any other construct. Discriminant validity is thus very well supported within the measurement model. Table 4 Fornell-Larcker BE CE CK EE GA PCK PK TCK TK TPCK TPK BE 0.84 CE 0.47 0.839 CK 0.422 0.44 0.844 EE 0.477 0.471 0.406 0.864 GA 0.484 0.492 0.427 0.428 0.798 PCK 0.448 0.475 0.399 0.449 0.417 0.871 PK 0.442 0.486 0.433 0.415 0.403 0.414 0.853 TCK 0.473 0.463 0.387 0.413 0.383 0.418 0.402 0.862 TK 0.443 0.466 0.366 0.446 0.425 0.465 0.44 0.432 0.861 TPCK 0.417 0.435 0.447 0.407 0.436 0.426 0.381 0.435 0.422 0.86 TPK 0.431 0.479 0.36 0.444 0.412 0.433 0.38 0.415 0.422 0.406 0.861 Overall, the results from reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and collinearity diagnostics verify that the measurement model is statistically robust and psychometrically sound. All constructs meet or exceed the recommended methodological standards, providing a strong foundation for the structural model assessment. Structural Model Path Coefficients After confirming the measurement model’s quality, we evaluated the structural model (Table 5 ). First, the direct relationships were examined. The findings indicate that teacher TPACK has a positive and significant effect on student engagement (β = 0.657, t = 32.257, p < 0.001) and goal achievement (β = 0.567, t = 25.422, p < 0.001). Furthermore, goal achievement was found to positively influence student engagement (β = 0.179, t = 7.690, p < 0.001). In addition to the direct effects, the mediating role of goal achievement was also assessed. The specific indirect effect of teacher TPACK on student engagement through goal achievement was significantly (β = 0.101, t = 7.269, p < 0.001). These results indicate that goal achievement partially mediates the relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement, as both the direct and indirect paths remain significant. Table 5 Path Coefficients Relationship Beta T P Direct Effects Teacher TPACK -> Student Engagement 0.657 32.257 Goal Achievement 0.567 25.422 Student Engagement 0.179 7.690 Goal Achievement -> Student Engagement 0.101 7.269 < 0.001 Explanatory Power and Predictive Relevance The explanatory power of the structural model was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R²), whereas predictive relevance was examined using predictive relevance (Q²) values obtained through the blindfolding procedure. Table 6 presents the results for the two endogenous variables: goal achievement and student engagement. Table 6 Results of the Model Explanatory Power Test R 2 Q 2 Goal Achievement 0.366 0.360 Student Engagement 0.643 0.620 Table 6 presents the assessment of the model’s explanatory power and predictive relevance. The R 2 results indicate that the structural model explains 64.3% of the variance in student engagement (R 2 = 0.643) and 36.6% of the variance in goal achievement (R 2 = 0.366). According to standard thresholds, these values demonstrate a moderate-to-substantial level of explanatory power for student engagement and a moderate level for goal achievement. Furthermore, the predictive relevance was evaluated using Q 2 . The Q 2 values for student engagement (0.620) and goal achievement (0.360) are well above zero and exceed the threshold for high predictive relevance (Q 2 > 0.35). These findings confirm that the model possesses strong predictive relevance for the endogenous constructs. Effect Size Analysis The effect size (f²) was used to measure how strongly each predictor affects its related endogenous variable. Based on Hair et al. ( 2017 ), f² values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 indicate small, medium, and large effects. The results show that teacher TPACK has a strong effect on both endogenous variables. It shows a large effect on student engagement (f² = 0.611) and on goal achievement (f² = 0.489). The effect of goal achievement on student engagement was small (f² = 0.04) (Table 7 ). Table 7 Effect Size Estimates for Direct Effects f² GA -> SE 0.04 TPACK -> GA 0.489 TPACK -> SE 0.611 Figure 2 showed the structural path estimates. It showed the direct effect of teacher TPACK on goal achievement. It also showed the direct effects of teacher TPACK and goal achievement on student engagement. The figure showed the higher-order structure of teacher TPACK and student engagement. These constructs are formed by their underlying dimensions. Overall, the structural model provides strong empirical support for the proposed relationships among teacher TPACK, goal achievement, and student engagement. Discussions This study examined the structural relationships among teachers TPACK, student goal attainment and student engagement. It also tested the mediating role of goal attainment in the relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement. Findings support the proposed theoretical model. The results present empirical evidence for coordinated interaction among cognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes in technology-enhanced learning environments. Teacher TPACK was found to be a significant predictor of student engagement. This supports earlier studies (Gong et al., 2024 ; Mulyana et al., 2025 ). It subsequently validates the substantive integration of technology, pedagogy, and subject matter in augmenting classroom learning experiences. In physical education, higher TPACK enables teachers to integrate digital technologies better into skill instruction and activity design. That may further enhance immersion, feedback immediacy, and learning relevance, thereby increasing students' willingness to participate and their level of sustained enjoyment. Teacher TPACK also positively and significantly affected students’ goal attainment. According to the SRL perspective, high TPACK allows a teacher to extend good external regulatory support, particularly through digital monitoring tools, formative feedback systems, and video-based performance analysis. Such technological resources make setting clear learning goals and structuring learning pathways easier. They also alleviate the cognitive burden of self-monitoring performance, evaluating it, and adjusting strategies for students. This way, students should identify performance gaps and modify learning strategies. Teacher TPACK is, therefore, an environmental resource that initiates and facilitates students' goal-oriented and self-regulatory process engagement beyond instructional expertise. Student goal attainment has been strongly aligned with classroom engagement. Successful goal achievement enhances students’ sense of competence, accomplishment, and task value. These psychological experiences provide the necessary impetus for continued effort and persistence. According to Self-Regulated Learning Theory, the capacity to self-regulate learning, combined with the intention to outperform oneself, is likely to produce higher levels of persistence, autonomy, and behavioral engagement in students (Adicondro & Purnamasari, 2011 ; Burns et al., 2019 ). For this reason, in physical education, where skill and physical development are very visible, the consequent satisfaction from achieving a goal is more likely to be transmuted into active practice, persistent effort, and high-quality participation. Although teacher TPACK is an important external antecedent that evaluates the learning process, it has no influences on student engagement via a single, direct route. Instead, this influence is largely mediated through the psychological experiences students have in successfully achieving learning goals. From this perspective, Bandura’s ( 1986 ) triadic reciprocal determinism could equally well be applied to this pattern. The technology-enriched environmental experience, first of all, affects personal factors such as goal attainment and self-efficacy, which then activate behavioral outcomes like classroom engagement. Technology thus empowers students to pursue learning goals rather than mechanistically increasing engagement. The sense of achievement garnered from doing so becomes the prime sustainer and deepener of engagement. Conclusions This study seeks to examine the relationships among teacher TPACK, students’ goal attainment, and student engagement in university physical education courses in China, with a particular focus on the mediating role of goal attainment. The findings showed that teacher TPACK was a strong predictor of both student engagement and goal attainment. A significant positive relationship was identified between teacher TPACK and student engagement, indicating that teachers’ ability to integrate technology into pedagogy and subject content substantially enhanced students’ engagement. Mediation analysis further revealed that this relationship was partially explained by student goal attainment. These results suggest that technology-enhanced instruction influences student engagement both directly and indirectly by supporting students in achieving their learning goals. Contribution to Theoretical The present study responds to this theoretical gap by illustrating how teachers’ digital competencies may influence student behaviours. Drawing on Bandura’s SCT and SRL theories, a theoretical model was developed and tested. The evidence supports the applicability of the triadic reciprocal determinism framework within physical education contexts. Results from the structural model indicate that teachers’ TPACK, as an environmental factor, influences students’ personal factors in terms of goal attainment, which in turn promotes students’ engagement behaviours. Furthermore, these findings provide new empirical extensions to SRL theory by demonstrating that teachers’ digital competencies, as a form of external support, can activate students’ internal self-regulatory processes involved in planning and executing learning activities, thereby enhancing learning motivation and behavioural engagement. Contributions to Practical This study demonstrates several important practical implications for PE teaching in tertiary education. The findings clearly suggest the necessity for teachers to integrate technology, pedagogy, and subject content to create supportive and engaging learning environments. The results further indicate that goal achievement mediates the relationship between technology-enhanced instruction and students’ active and behavioural engagement. Accordingly, instructional strategies in PE should emphasize clear goal setting, timely feedback, and structured support for students’ goal attainment. Limitations and Future Research The present study has several limitations that should be taken into account. First, it is based on a cross-sectional design, which limits its ability to support strong causal inferences. Accordingly, future studies should consider longitudinal designs to examine changes in student engagement over time. Second, the study relies on student self-reported data, which, although informative, may be subject to social desirability bias. Future research may therefore incorporate objective measures of physical performance or direct observations of teaching practices. In addition, the sample is limited to public universities in Guangdong Province. Future studies should include more diverse regions and different levels of higher education to further test the proposed hypotheses and examine the generalizability of the findings across broader educational and cultural contexts. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the participants for their participation in this study. Funding The authors declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Author information Wang Jianxun: Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia Shamsulariffin Bin Samsudin: Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia Riyan Hidayat: Department of science and technological education, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia Contributions Wang Jianxun: Conceptualization, data collection, formal analysis, and writing of the manuscript. Shamsulariffin Bin Samsudin: Supervision, methodology guidance, and manuscript review and editing. Riyan Hidayat: Data verification, validation, and investigation. Corresponding author Correspondence to Shamsulariffin Bin Samsudin Competing interests All other authors declare no competing interests. Ethics declarations All participants were informed about the purpose of the research. The study received ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee at Guangdong University of science and technology (Protocol No. GK2025-1016). Participants were informed that the information provided in the anonymous survey would be used for the purposes of this study. We followed ethical standards for research with human subjects (Declaration of Helsinki) and obtained written informed consent from all participants involved in the study. References Adicondro, N., & Purnamasari, A. (2011). Efikasi diri, dukungan sosial keluarga dan self-regulated learning pada siswa kelas VIII. Humanitas, 8(1), 17. Attard, C., & Holmes, K. (2020). “It gives you that sense of hope”: An exploration of technology use to mediate student engagement with mathematics. Heliyon, 6(1). Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986(23–28), 2. Bardach, L., Oczlon, S., Pietschnig, J., & Lüftenegger, M. (2020). Has achievement goal theory been right? 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R., Shriedeh, F. B., & In'airat, M. (2023). Impact of classroom environment, teacher competency, information and communication technology resources, and university facilities on student engagement and academic performance. International Journal of Information Management Data Insights, 3(2), 100188. Hastie, P. A., Stringfellow, A., Johnson, J. L., Dixon, C. E., Hollett, N., & Ward, K. (2022). Examining the concept of engagement in physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 27(1), 1–18. Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the academy of marketing science, 43(1), 115–135. Jang, S. J. (2025). Using Video Technology with Flipped Teaching to Explore University Students’ Perception of Their SRL and Instructors’ TPACK. Journal of Pedagogical and Teacher Professional Development, 2(1), 17–37. Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press. Koehler, M.J., Mishra, P., Kereluik, K., Shin, T.S., Graham, C.R. (2014). The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework. In: Spector, J., Merrill, M., Elen, J., Bishop, M. (eds) Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. Kolovelonis, A., Goudas, M., & Samara, E. (2022). The effects of a self-regulated learning teaching unit on students’ performance calibration, goal attainment, and attributions in physical education. The Journal of Experimental Education, 90(1), 112–129. Kolovelonis, A., Goudas, M., & Samara, E. (2022). The effects of a self-regulated learning teaching unit on students’ performance calibration, goal attainment, and attributions in physical education. The Journal of Experimental Education, 90(1), 112–129. Ladrillo, S. (2024). Teachers’ technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK) and students’ self-efficacy: predictors on mathematics academic performance. Liu, J., Xiang, P., McBride, R. E., & Chen, H. (2020). Self-regulated learning strategies and achievement goals among preservice physical education teachers. European Physical Education Review, 26(2), 375–391. Maimanah, M. A., Masfufah, M., & Majid, A. B. A. (2025). Implementation of technology-enhanced learning media based on technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK) to improve student engagement in PAI learning. Edusoshum: Journal of Islamic Education and Social Humanities, 5(1), 74–83. Martin, A. J., Burns, E. C., Collie, R. J., Bostwick, K. C., Flesken, A., & McCarthy, I. (2022). Growth goal setting in high school: A large-scale study of perceived instructional support, personal background attributes, and engagement outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(4), 752. Meece, J. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (1988). Students’ goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities. Journal of educational psychology, 80(4), 514. Moeller, A. J., Theiler, J. M., & Wu, C. (2012). Goal setting and student achievement: A longitudinal study. The Modern Language Journal, 96(2), 153–169. Mulyana, D., Suherman, A., Komarudin, K., Abduljabar, B., & Mulyana, F. R. (2025). Integrating technology in physical education: The impact of TPACK-based tactical and technical approaches on football skills and student motivation. Physical Education and Sports: Studies and Research, 4(1), 71–82. Otundo, J. O., & Garn, A. C. (2019). Student interest and engagement in middle school physical education: Examining the role of needs supportive teaching. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(2), 137. Putri, A. D., Juandi, D., Jupri, A., & Muchsin, S. B. (2024). Mastering the TPACK framework: Innovative approaches by mathematics teachers. Jurnal Elemen, 10(3), 582–594. Reginald, G. (2023). Teaching and learning using virtual labs: Investigating the effects on students’ self-regulation. Cogent Education, 10(1), 2172308. Ren, X., & Wu, M. L. (2025). Examining teaching competencies and challenges while integrating artificial intelligence in higher education. TechTrends, 1–20. Salkind, N. J. (1997). Exploring Research. Pearson Educación. Saubern, R., Henderson, M., Heinrich, E., & Redmond, P. (2020). TPACK-time to reboot?. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 36(3), 1–9. Schmid, M., Brianza, E., & Petko, D. (2020). Developing a short assessment instrument for technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK.xs) and comparing the factor structure of an integrative and a transformative model. Computers & Education, 157, 103967. Shen, B. (2012). Outside-school physical activity participation and motivation in physical education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), 40–57. Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic?. ournal of educational psychology, 100(4), 765. Sui, C. J., Yen, M. H., & Chang, C. Y. (2023). Investigating effects of perceived technology-enhanced tnvironment on self-regulated learning: Beyond P-values. Sui, C., Yen, M., & Chang, C. (2024). Investigating effects of perceived technology-enhanced environment on self-regulated learning. Education and Information Technologies, 29(1), 161–183. Sulistiani, I. R., Setyosari, P., Sa’ dijah, C., & Praherdhiono, H. (2024). Technological pedagogical content knowledge of preservice elementary teachers: Relationship to self-regulation and technology integration self-efficacy. European Journal of Educational Research, 13(1), 159–170. Thohir, M. A., Yanti, F. A., Handayani, R. A. D., & Halim, L (2025). Relationship of TPACK, motivation, self-regulation, and learning performance on preservice primary school teachers. Vasconcellos, D., Parker, P. D., Hilland, T., Cinelli, R., Owen, K. B., Kapsal, N., & Lonsdale, C. (2020). Self-determination theory applied to physical education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of educational psychology, 112(7), 1444. Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing achievement goal theory: Using goal structures and goal orientations to predict students’ motivation, cognition, and achievement. Journal of educational psychology, 96(2), 236. Wong, Z. Y., & Liem, G. A. D. (2022). Student engagement: Current state of the construct, conceptual refinement, and future research directions. Educational Psychology Review, 34(1), 107–138. Xiong, X. (2025). Influence of teaching styles of higher education teachers on students ‘engagement in learning: The mediating role of learning motivation. Education for Chemical Engineers, 51, 87–102. Zahroh, L. (2025). Effectiveness of the implementation of an innovative problem-based learning (PBL) model based on TPACK to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes in IPAS. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, 11(2), 525–530. Zhang, J. Y., Liu, Y. J., Shu, T., Xiang, M., & Feng, Z. C. (2022). Factors associated with medical students’ self-regulated learning and its relationship with clinical performance: a cross-sectional study. BMC medical education, 22(1), 128. Zhou, C., Wu, D., Li, Y., Yang, H. H., Man, S., & Chen, M. (2023). The role of student engagement in promoting teachers’ continuous learning of TPACK: Based on a stimulus-organism-response framework and an integrative model of behavior prediction. Education and Information Technologies, 28(2), 2207–2227. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). Academic press. Zimmerman, B. J. (2012). Goal setting: A key proactive source of academic self-regulation. In Motivation and self-regulated learning (pp. 267–295). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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However, student engagement in physical education (PE) has been noted to be at a lower level than in other subjects, which adversely impacts the quality and effectiveness of PE teaching (Hastie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it becomes imperative to look for the most effective teaching strategies to boost engagement in University physical education classes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; teaching competence and pedagogical approach are foundational elements in promoting student engagement (Xiong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). More specifically, the TPACK framework provides a promising context in which teachers can integrate technology, subject matter knowledge, and pedagogical strategies in teaching with digital media (Koehler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). To illustrate this, in a successful TPACK-based teaching model, Zahroh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e, improved student engagement and learning outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the one hand, teacher TPACK has been found to predict classroom engagement and disciplinarily relevant instructional quality (Maimanah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Attard \u0026amp; Holmes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, there is limited research into this within the context of PE. More importantly, there is a significant leading question regarding how teacher TPACK predicts student engagement. Most research views students' behavioral and attitudinal outcomes as a consequence of the psychological processes mediating the teachers\u0026rsquo; pedagogical competence. For this reason, it is very sketchy how teachers\u0026rsquo; technological integration competence leads to student engagement. This paper proposes that goal achievement was missed in establishing a theoretical connection. While inapplicable to theoretical disciplines, physical education involves goal attainment in an embodied performance-PE-as a prominent source of motivation for students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study explored the following questions. 1. What are the correlations between teacher TPACK, goal achievement and student engagement? 2. Does goal achievement mediate the relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTeacher TPACK and Student Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher competence has long been viewed as one of the most crucial factors in determining student engagement. Recent literature empirically validates that high teacher competence results in high student engagement and high academic performance (Hanaysha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In light of this fast development in digital education, digital competence has emerged as a fundamental dimension in defining teachers\u0026rsquo; professional capability (Basilotta-G\u0026oacute;mez-Pablos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, information and communication technology has been acknowledged as a fundamental lever for enhancing the quality of instruction (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, the TPACK framework has come to represent a holistic model providing guidance around the effective integration of technology into teaching practice (Saubern et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrowing evidence has discussed that TPACK would act as the antecedent of student engagement and improved learning outcomes. The SEM studies established several positive relationships between students\u0026rsquo; behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement and teachers\u0026rsquo; continuous development of TPACK, as indicated by Zhou et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Intervention studies go further by testing whether TPACK-oriented instructional models and learning media improve student engagement and academic achievement in various subjects, as Putri et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), Zahroh (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), and Maimanah (2025) demonstrated. Furthermore, large-scale reviews found that estuary technology use, particularly when embedded or reinforced with professional development, produces greater student learning and engagement, according to Hamid and Ahmad (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Despite this evidence, the specific effects of TPACK on student engagement in physical education have not been well explored, thus requiring further empirical studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypotheses 1: There is a significant positive relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTeacher TPACK and Goal Achievement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTeachers' TPACK is increasingly seen as one of the important precursors to student self-regulated learning (SRL) viewed as a key psychological mechanism in goal attainment. Recently, increasing evidence from empirical studies has provided evidence in general terms that teacher TPACK bears a positive relationship with SRL-related student outcomes. Taken together, mixed-methods and quantitative research has revealed that high teacher TPACK is associated with high levels of student self-efficacy, learning motivation, and self-regulation skills, leading to better academic performance (Jang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Ladrillo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Thohir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Sulistiani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther research has gone as far as indicating that technology-basted learning environments become a substantial mechanism through which TPACK influences SRL. TPACK-aligned learning environments also provide features to assist feedback, monitoring, and cognitive scaffolding, all of which contribute significantly to the nurturing of self-regulated learning. Sui et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), Reginald (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), Ren and Wu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) corroborate this idea. Cumulatively, it has also been extensively verified that SRL is a very good determinant of goal-setting and goal-attaining behavior in a wide range of educational contexts, including physical education, online learning, and higher education. This was proved by Kolovelonis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), Zhang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and Cheng et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, although direct empirical evidence linking teacher TPACK to student goal achievement remains limited, existing findings support an indirect pathway in which teacher TPACK promotes technology-rich learning environments that strengthen students\u0026rsquo; self-regulated learning, thereby facilitating goal achievement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypotheses 2: There is a significant positive relationship between teacher TPACK and goal achievement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGoal Achievement and Student Engagement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGoal setting have been widely identified as important determinants of engagement. Growth-oriented goals and personal-best goals have been shown to enhance cognitive and behavioral engagement through the guidance of attention and the regulation of effort (Meece et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This relationship has been further supported by longitudinal intervention studies. For example, sustained engagement over time has been associated with systematic goal setting (Moeller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Improved goal attainment has been shown to lead to higher levels of classroom participation in PE (Kolovelonis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, the regulatory process of goal setting is often conflated with the performance outcome of goal achievement, and the distinct motivational effects of actual attainment have yet to be fully examined. Therefore, it is still unclear how goal achievement influences student engagement in sports-based learning. This study is designed to address that gap.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypotheses 3: There is a significant positive relationship between goal achievement and student engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Mediating role of Goal Achievement between Teacher TPACK and Student Engagement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere was a significant correlation between goal achievement and student engagement in PE. Students who successfully attain their learning goals have been found to display higher levels of classroom engagement and more positive emotional experiences (Vasconcellos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, goal achievement has been shown to contribute to psychological development. Students\u0026rsquo; self-regulation learning competency have been reinforced, which helps sustain learning engagement over time (Zimmerman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Teacher instructional practices have also been identified as critical in supporting this process. When goal achievement is supported through well-structured instructional design and timely feedback, a stronger sense of competence and accomplishment is fostered (Bardach et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This perceived competence has been shown to support the maintenance of student engagement in PE learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 4\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoal achievement plays a mediating role between teacher TPACK and student engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSocial Cognitive Theory (SCT)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial Cognitive Theory (SCT) is the overarching theoretical framework for this study. Bandura \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e posits that triadic reciprocal determinism is the model in which personal, behavioral, and environmental factors interact to govern human functioning. Triadic reciprocal determinism models one of the major differences from classical one-way determinism: it unites all those elements in a single causal structure and explains how people modulate their behavior within social contexts (Chai \u0026amp; Ye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The current research offers a theoretical structural model in which teacher TPACK is an environmental factor, students goal achievement is a personal factor, and students engagement is a behavioral factor. This theoretical anchorage offers clear pathways that may explain how the instructional environment shapes internal engagements that lead to behavioral outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSelf-Regulation Learning Theory (SRL)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Regulated Learning (SRL) Theory is the guiding light of this study, wherein the learner is considered an active agent who goes through three cyclical phases: forethought, performance, and self-reflection (Zimmerman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, this sets a logical bridge to the proposed model. Teacher TPACK would serve as an external scaffold in the forethought phase and activate the regulatory cycle in strategic planning. The students goal achievement will then manifest itself in the performance phase as the effective achievement of any targeted goal. From the self-reflective phase, student engagement will then emerge from successful accomplishment, leading to a positive reinforcement process maintaining the students\u0026rsquo; efforts over time. Teacher competence is conceptualized as a key driver of learners\u0026rsquo; internal regulatory processes that facilitate goal achievement and sustained engagement in the SRL theory (Dignath \u0026amp; Veenman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheoretical Framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is based on the SCT or Bandura\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) triadic reciprocal determinism model that conceptualizes dynamic interactions among environmental, personal, and behavioral factors. Teacher TPACK is an environment factor that provides the instructional context. Goal achievement is a personal factor as it represents internal cognition, while student engagement is a behavioral factor. SRL theory (Zimmerman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) acts as the explanation between these domains. It explains how environmental scaffolding via TPACK activates internal regulatory processes to achieve goals, reinforcing motivation and driving further behavioral engagement. This integrated framework explains the causal pathways in which teacher competence translates into student participation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Research Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed a cross-sectional survey design. Since multiple variables are tested at one point in time, causation cannot be confirmed (Curtis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Because data collection from participants only occurs once, the relationships among variables are based on the results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants and Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in four universities in Guangdong Province, China. The four were selected to represent the different levels of the Chinese higher education system, according to the QS rankings. The research subjects are undergraduate students provided by the university. Apon proportional stratified random sampling was employed, with the university as the stratification variable. The total accessible population was approximately 113,375 students across the four universities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo specify the sample size, two methods were applied. First was an a priori power analysis using G*Power, which postulated a minimum of 77 participants necessary based on the complexity of the model. Then, Cochran\u0026rsquo;s formula was applied to reflect the population size better, using a 95% confidence level (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.96) and a 3% margin of error (d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15 on a 5-point scale). This made the required sample size 266. The target sample size was increased by about 50% to account for non-responses and invalid data, as suggested by Salkind (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, 400 questionnaires were distributed in total. The sample size was effectively doubled by including both male and female participants in the analysis. The total sample size has been increased to 800.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Guangzhou University of science and technology. Before data collection, permission was obtained to use the measurement scales, and informed consent was collected from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuestionnaires were distributed using stratified random sampling. The number of participants from each university was determined based on its proportion of the total student population. Classes within each university were randomly selected, and the questionnaires were administered in person. In total, 900 questionnaires were distributed. Among them, 880 questionnaires were returned, which resulted in a return rate of 97.78%. After data screening in SPSS 29, 8 questionnaires were removed because of incomplete answers or logical errors. The final sample included 872 valid questionnaires.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e showed that in terms of gender, there were 439 females (50.34%) and 433 males (49.66%), indicating a more balanced gender distribution of the sample; In the age structure, there were a higher concentration between 20 and 21 years old, 18.58% and 18.81% respectively, with a cumulative percentage of 69.72%, and the cumulative percentage of the 18 to 22 years old age group is 83.03%, indicating that the sample is the group of undergraduate students; Regarding the distribution of majors, the humanities and social sciences were 452, or 51.83%, and the natural sciences were 420, or 48.17%, indicating that the sample\u0026rsquo;s professional background was relatively even; In the distribution of colleges and universities, University 1 has the highest share of 35.32%, while University 3 and University 4 are close, with 26.83% and 27.52% respectively, University 4 has the lowest percentage of 10.33%, and the four universities have a balanced and representative distribution. In summary, the sample is diverse and representative of gender, age, major, and college background.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic Information\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eName\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCumulative percentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e439\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e433\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumanities and Social Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNatural Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e420\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollege\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e308\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInstruments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research instrument consists of 4 parts with 57 questions. Part A is demographic information. Part B is teachers TPACK. Part C is the student engagement scale. Part D is the students goal achievement. The researcher adjusted the existing questionnaire to guarantee the data\u0026rsquo;s accuracy and ensure that the questionnaire can answer all the research questions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTeacher Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the TPACK competence of university PE teachers, this study will use the Pre-service Teacher TPACK.xs scale (Schmid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Given the differences in the target population and subject background, this scale will be modified to ensure its applicability to the purpose of this study. Specifically, the target research subjects of this study are college students, who are not the direct research objects of TPACK construction, but are evaluated indirectly through students\u0026rsquo; learning experiences. To determine the validity of the questionnaire content, the revised questionnaire was sent to two experts in the field of PE for further verification. These two experts (professors specializing in sports humanities and social sciences from Guangdong Province) provided detailed feedback. The scale consists of 28 items and uses a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudent Goal Achievement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate the goal achievement of college students in PE courses, this study will construct the student goal achievement scale in PE courses through the goal attainment scaling (GAS). GAS is a method that uses a form of a 5-point Likert scale (+\u0026thinsp;2 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2) that portrays several outcomes for a given goal (Chapleau \u0026amp; Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In the process of constructing the scale, this study constructs the GAS based on the student goal setting of physical fitness. The student goal setting is based on National Student Physical Fitness Standards (NSPFS) (Ministry of education of the people\u0026rsquo;s republic of China, 2014). Based on the goals, this study contains 7 items. In most empirical studies applying goal achievement scaling in the fields of education, rehabilitation, and sports, factor validity analysis is typically not conducted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudent Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent engagement was assessed across behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions. Behavioral and emotional engagement were measured using 10 items adapted from the Engagement vs. Disaffection with Learning Survey (Skinner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), while cognitive engagement was evaluated using 8 items from Wolters\u0026rsquo; (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) Metacognitive Strategies Questionnaire. Both instruments have been previously validated in PE settings (Otundo \u0026amp; Garn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Shen et al., 2012). All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Minor wording adjustments were made to ensure cultural and contextual relevance for undergraduate PE students in China, preserving the original structural validity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConvergent Validity and Reliability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e showed the results for validity and reliability. We used Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, and Composite Reliability (CR) to check this. All AVE values were higher than the 0.50 limit, ranging from 0.636 to 0.758. This means the constructs explain most of the variance instead of error. Also, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values were between 0.866 and 0.940, and CR values were between 0.909 and 0.950. These numbers are above the suggested 0.70 level. This shows that the items in each group measure the right concepts consistently.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConvergent Validity and Reliability of Constructs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoading\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAVE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.836\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.866\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.713\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.826\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.865\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.849\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.894\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.926\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.885\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.857\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.875\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.914\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.727\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.848\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.844\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.861\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.866\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.884\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.743\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.876\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.884\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.741\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.841\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.853\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.873\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.883\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.919\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.849\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.861\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.864\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.884\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.742\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.864\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.841\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.917\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.935\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.706\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.831\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.835\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.703\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.833\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.838\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.834\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.836\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.838\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.887\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.747\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.859\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.905\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.924\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.636\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.807\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.780\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.804\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.816\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.777\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDiscriminant Validity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations further establishes discriminant validity in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Heterotrait-Monotrait values range from 0.407 to 0.535, below the conservative boundary of 0.85 (Kline, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) gives and quite far from the maximum limit suggested by (Henseler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), at 0.90. Hence, the constructs are empirically different.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeterotrait-Monotrait ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.506\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.472\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.485\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.528\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.515\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.461\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.531\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.533\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.481\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.493\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.517\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.451\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.502\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.461\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.493\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.535\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.494\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.451\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.524\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.507\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.441\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.465\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.467\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.492\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.417\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.474\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.522\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.487\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.462\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.511\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.458\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.486\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.478\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.432\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.491\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.524\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.407\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.499\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.458\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.486\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.457\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fornell-Larcker criterion also ensured discriminant validity, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The criterion is that, for each construct, the square root of the AVE value should exceed the inter-construct correlation values in respective rows and columns. This is exactly what happened here. According to this, (Fornell \u0026amp; Larcker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e) guide a construct to share more variance with its indicators than with any other construct. Discriminant validity is thus very well supported within the measurement model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFornell-Larcker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.844\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.864\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.484\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.492\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.428\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.448\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.475\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.399\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.449\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.417\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.442\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.486\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.433\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.403\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.414\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.853\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.473\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.463\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.387\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.418\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.862\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.443\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.366\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.446\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.425\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.465\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.432\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.861\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.417\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.435\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.447\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.407\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.436\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.426\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.435\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.431\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.444\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.412\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.433\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.861\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the results from reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and collinearity diagnostics verify that the measurement model is statistically robust and psychometrically sound. All constructs meet or exceed the recommended methodological standards, providing a strong foundation for the structural model assessment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStructural Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePath Coefficients\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter confirming the measurement model\u0026rsquo;s quality, we evaluated the structural model (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). First, the direct relationships were examined. The findings indicate that teacher TPACK has a positive and significant effect on student engagement (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.657, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32.257, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and goal achievement (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.567, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25.422, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Furthermore, goal achievement was found to positively influence student engagement (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.179, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.690, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). In addition to the direct effects, the mediating role of goal achievement was also assessed. The specific indirect effect of teacher TPACK on student engagement through goal achievement was significantly (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.101, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.269, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). These results indicate that goal achievement partially mediates the relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement, as both the direct and indirect paths remain significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath Coefficients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect Effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher TPACK -\u0026gt; Student Engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.657\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.257\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher TPACK -\u0026gt; Goal Achievement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.567\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoal Achievement -\u0026gt; Student Engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.179\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.690\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect Effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher TPACK -\u0026gt; Goal Achievement -\u0026gt; Student Engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExplanatory Power and Predictive Relevance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe explanatory power of the structural model was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R\u0026sup2;), whereas predictive relevance was examined using predictive relevance (Q\u0026sup2;) values obtained through the blindfolding procedure. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e presents the results for the two endogenous variables: goal achievement and student engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of the Model Explanatory Power Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoal Achievement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.366\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.360\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent Engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.643\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.620\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e presents the assessment of the model\u0026rsquo;s explanatory power and predictive relevance. The R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e results indicate that the structural model explains 64.3% of the variance in student engagement (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.643) and 36.6% of the variance in goal achievement (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.366). According to standard thresholds, these values demonstrate a moderate-to-substantial level of explanatory power for student engagement and a moderate level for goal achievement. Furthermore, the predictive relevance was evaluated using Q\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The Q\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e values for student engagement (0.620) and goal achievement (0.360) are well above zero and exceed the threshold for high predictive relevance (Q\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.35). These findings confirm that the model possesses strong predictive relevance for the endogenous constructs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffect Size Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effect size (f\u0026sup2;) was used to measure how strongly each predictor affects its related endogenous variable. Based on Hair et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), f\u0026sup2; values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 indicate small, medium, and large effects. The results show that teacher TPACK has a strong effect on both endogenous variables. It shows a large effect on student engagement (f\u0026sup2; = 0.611) and on goal achievement (f\u0026sup2; = 0.489). The effect of goal achievement on student engagement was small (f\u0026sup2; = 0.04) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect Size Estimates for Direct Effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ef\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA -\u0026gt; SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPACK -\u0026gt; GA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.489\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTPACK -\u0026gt; SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.611\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e showed the structural path estimates. It showed the direct effect of teacher TPACK on goal achievement. It also showed the direct effects of teacher TPACK and goal achievement on student engagement. The figure showed the higher-order structure of teacher TPACK and student engagement. These constructs are formed by their underlying dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the structural model provides strong empirical support for the proposed relationships among teacher TPACK, goal achievement, and student engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the structural relationships among teachers TPACK, student goal attainment and student engagement. It also tested the mediating role of goal attainment in the relationship between teacher TPACK and student engagement. Findings support the proposed theoretical model. The results present empirical evidence for coordinated interaction among cognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes in technology-enhanced learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher TPACK was found to be a significant predictor of student engagement. This supports earlier studies (Gong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Mulyana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). It subsequently validates the substantive integration of technology, pedagogy, and subject matter in augmenting classroom learning experiences. In physical education, higher TPACK enables teachers to integrate digital technologies better into skill instruction and activity design. That may further enhance immersion, feedback immediacy, and learning relevance, thereby increasing students' willingness to participate and their level of sustained enjoyment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher TPACK also positively and significantly affected students\u0026rsquo; goal attainment. According to the SRL perspective, high TPACK allows a teacher to extend good external regulatory support, particularly through digital monitoring tools, formative feedback systems, and video-based performance analysis. Such technological resources make setting clear learning goals and structuring learning pathways easier. They also alleviate the cognitive burden of self-monitoring performance, evaluating it, and adjusting strategies for students. This way, students should identify performance gaps and modify learning strategies. Teacher TPACK is, therefore, an environmental resource that initiates and facilitates students' goal-oriented and self-regulatory process engagement beyond instructional expertise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent goal attainment has been strongly aligned with classroom engagement. Successful goal achievement enhances students\u0026rsquo; sense of competence, accomplishment, and task value. These psychological experiences provide the necessary impetus for continued effort and persistence. According to Self-Regulated Learning Theory, the capacity to self-regulate learning, combined with the intention to outperform oneself, is likely to produce higher levels of persistence, autonomy, and behavioral engagement in students (Adicondro \u0026amp; Purnamasari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Burns et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For this reason, in physical education, where skill and physical development are very visible, the consequent satisfaction from achieving a goal is more likely to be transmuted into active practice, persistent effort, and high-quality participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough teacher TPACK is an important external antecedent that evaluates the learning process, it has no influences on student engagement via a single, direct route. Instead, this influence is largely mediated through the psychological experiences students have in successfully achieving learning goals. From this perspective, Bandura\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) triadic reciprocal determinism could equally well be applied to this pattern. The technology-enriched environmental experience, first of all, affects personal factors such as goal attainment and self-efficacy, which then activate behavioral outcomes like classroom engagement. Technology thus empowers students to pursue learning goals rather than mechanistically increasing engagement. The sense of achievement garnered from doing so becomes the prime sustainer and deepener of engagement.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study seeks to examine the relationships among teacher TPACK, students\u0026rsquo; goal attainment, and student engagement in university physical education courses in China, with a particular focus on the mediating role of goal attainment. The findings showed that teacher TPACK was a strong predictor of both student engagement and goal attainment. A significant positive relationship was identified between teacher TPACK and student engagement, indicating that teachers\u0026rsquo; ability to integrate technology into pedagogy and subject content substantially enhanced students\u0026rsquo; engagement. Mediation analysis further revealed that this relationship was partially explained by student goal attainment. These results suggest that technology-enhanced instruction influences student engagement both directly and indirectly by supporting students in achieving their learning goals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eContribution to Theoretical\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study responds to this theoretical gap by illustrating how teachers\u0026rsquo; digital competencies may influence student behaviours. Drawing on Bandura\u0026rsquo;s SCT and SRL theories, a theoretical model was developed and tested. The evidence supports the applicability of the triadic reciprocal determinism framework within physical education contexts. Results from the structural model indicate that teachers\u0026rsquo; TPACK, as an environmental factor, influences students\u0026rsquo; personal factors in terms of goal attainment, which in turn promotes students\u0026rsquo; engagement behaviours. Furthermore, these findings provide new empirical extensions to SRL theory by demonstrating that teachers\u0026rsquo; digital competencies, as a form of external support, can activate students\u0026rsquo; internal self-regulatory processes involved in planning and executing learning activities, thereby enhancing learning motivation and behavioural engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eContributions to Practical\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates several important practical implications for PE teaching in tertiary education. The findings clearly suggest the necessity for teachers to integrate technology, pedagogy, and subject content to create supportive and engaging learning environments. The results further indicate that goal achievement mediates the relationship between technology-enhanced instruction and students\u0026rsquo; active and behavioural engagement. Accordingly, instructional strategies in PE should emphasize clear goal setting, timely feedback, and structured support for students\u0026rsquo; goal attainment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Future Research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study has several limitations that should be taken into account. First, it is based on a cross-sectional design, which limits its ability to support strong causal inferences. Accordingly, future studies should consider longitudinal designs to examine changes in student engagement over time. Second, the study relies on student self-reported data, which, although informative, may be subject to social desirability bias. Future research may therefore incorporate objective measures of physical performance or direct observations of teaching practices. In addition, the sample is limited to public universities in Guangdong Province. Future studies should include more diverse regions and different levels of higher education to further test the proposed hypotheses and examine the generalizability of the findings across broader educational and cultural contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors wish to thank the participants for their participation in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWang Jianxun: Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShamsulariffin Bin Samsudin: Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRiyan Hidayat: Department of science and technological education, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eContributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWang Jianxun: Conceptualization, data collection, formal analysis, and writing of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShamsulariffin Bin Samsudin: Supervision, methodology guidance, and manuscript review and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRiyan Hidayat: Data verification, validation, and investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorresponding author\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence to Shamsulariffin Bin Samsudin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll other authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants were informed about the purpose of the research. The study received ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee at Guangdong University of science and technology (Protocol No. GK2025-1016). Participants were informed that the information provided in the anonymous survey would be used for the purposes of this study. We followed ethical standards for research with human subjects (Declaration of Helsinki) and obtained written informed consent from all participants involved in the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdicondro, N., \u0026amp; Purnamasari, A. (2011). Efikasi diri, dukungan sosial keluarga dan self-regulated learning pada siswa kelas VIII. Humanitas, 8(1), 17.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAttard, C., \u0026amp; Holmes, K. (2020). \u0026ldquo;It gives you that sense of hope\u0026rdquo;: An exploration of technology use to mediate student engagement with mathematics. Heliyon, 6(1).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986(23\u0026ndash;28), 2.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBardach, L., Oczlon, S., Pietschnig, J., \u0026amp; L\u0026uuml;ftenegger, M. (2020). Has achievement goal theory been right? A meta-analysis of the relation between goal structures and personal achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(6), 1197.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBasilotta-G\u0026oacute;mez-Pablos, V., Matarranz, M., Casado-Aranda, L. A., \u0026amp; Otto, A. (2022). Teachers\u0026rsquo; digital competencies in higher education: a systematic literature review. International journal of educational technology in higher education, 19(1), 8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBurns, E. C., Martin, A. J., \u0026amp; Collie, R. J. (2019). Understanding the role of personal best (PB) goal setting in students\u0026rsquo; declining engagement: A latent growth model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(4), 557.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChai, J., \u0026amp; Ye, J. H. (2024). A social network analysis of college students\u0026rsquo; online learning during the epidemic era: A triadic reciprocal determinism perspective. Heliyon, 10(6).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChapleau, A., \u0026amp; Harrison, J. (2015). Fieldwork I program evaluation of student learning using goal attainment scaling. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 69 (Supplement_2), p1-p8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen, M., Zhou, C., Meng, C., \u0026amp; Wu, D. (2019). How to promote Chinese primary and secondary school teachers to use ICT to develop high-quality teaching activities. 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J., Shu, T., Xiang, M., \u0026amp; Feng, Z. C. (2022). Factors associated with medical students\u0026rsquo; self-regulated learning and its relationship with clinical performance: a cross-sectional study. BMC medical education, 22(1), 128.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhou, C., Wu, D., Li, Y., Yang, H. H., Man, S., \u0026amp; Chen, M. (2023). The role of student engagement in promoting teachers\u0026rsquo; continuous learning of TPACK: Based on a stimulus-organism-response framework and an integrative model of behavior prediction. Education and Information Technologies, 28(2), 2207\u0026ndash;2227.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13\u0026ndash;39). Academic press.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZimmerman, B. J. (2012). Goal setting: A key proactive source of academic self-regulation. In Motivation and self-regulated learning (pp. 267\u0026ndash;295).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"College Students, Goal Achievement, Physical Education, Student Engagement, TPACK","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8832066/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8832066/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eStudent engagement is a key way to measure quality in Physical Education (PE). However, there is little research on how this relates to a teacher\u0026rsquo;s digital skills in Chinese higher education. This study examines the relationships among three key factors, teachers Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), student goal achievement, and student engagement. We used Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulated Learning theory as a guide. A cross-sectional design was employed, involving 872 undergraduate students from four universities in Guangdong, China. Data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with Smart PLS 4. The results showed that teacher TPACK has a positive effect on both student engagement and goal achievement. Goal achievement served as a partial mediator between teacher TPACK and student engagement. These findings indicated that teachers\u0026rsquo; digital competence not only directly promoted student engagement but also exerted an indirect effect by supporting students\u0026rsquo; goal attainment. The study underscores the necessity of professional development focused on TPACK to enhance student self-regulation and participation in PE.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mediating Role of Goal Achievement on the Teacher TPACK and Student Engagement among Chinese College Students in Physical Education","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-12 12:47:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8832066/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision 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