Firearm Ownership, Victimization Experience, and Threat Sensitivity Among LGBTQ+ People

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Firearm violence and victimization are a serious public health issue and yet little is known about the victimization and discrimination experiences, as well as the firearm ownership and carrying behaviors, of LGBTQ+ people. Methods. This study included 843 LGBTQ+ adults. Cross-sectional survey data were collected in the United States from April 30 to May 13, 2024, and from August 8 to August 14, 2024. Quantitative analyses were conducted using Stata 15.1. Results. Among participants, firearm owners appeared to be younger than non-owners (38.88 vs 43.93). A higher proportion of firearm owners than non-owners self-identified as gay (40.87% vs 28.11%), married (39.42% vs 21.89%), and somewhat politically conservative (13.52% vs 6.02%) or moderate (43.19% vs 34.74%). Firearm owners tended to have higher incomes than non-owners. Participants who indicated they knew four or more people who had experienced anti-LGBTQ+ victimization had lower odds of firearm ownership relative to those in the reference category. Among firearm owners, participants who experienced violent victimization reported higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination and had increased odds of carrying a firearm in public. Conclusions. The factors related to firearm ownership and carrying behaviors among LGBTQ+ people could be used to plan and implement systemic level interventions to ensure LGBTQ+ people are safe from victimization and discrimination, which then may alter their carrying behaviors. Policy Implications. This study helps to identify the rationale for why some LGBTQ+ people are more likely to carry firearms to inform public health policy interventions. carrying behaviors discrimination firearm ownership LGBTQ+ threat sensitivity violent victimization Background Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ+) people represent a unique group of firearm owners. The limited research which exists suggests that LGBTQ+ firearm owners fear that their sexuality, gender identity, and gender expression all increase their risk for threats of targeted (Warner & Steidley, 2021 ) and interpersonal (Bruner et al., 2019 ) violence and produce hypervigilance in public spaces (Rostosky et al., 2022 ). Indeed, relative to the general population of firearm owners in a California based sample, higher rates of LGBTQ+ owners reported owning a firearm for the purpose of self-protection and carrying their firearm publicly in the prior 30 days (Tomsich et al., 2020 ). However, the association between these stressors and psychosocial sequelae experienced by LGBTQ+ people and ownership and carrying remains unexplored. Fear of violence is not unwarranted for LGBTQ+ people, who in 2016, were the targets of one of the deadliest mass shootings in the history of the United States at Pulse Nightclub, a popular gay bar in Orlando, Florida (Alvarez & Pérez-Peña, 2016 ). The shooting resulted in LGBTQ+ people withdrawing from historically safe spaces (e.g., gay bars) in conservative regions due to perceived threat and safety concerns (Croff et al., 2017 ) and triggered a range of psychological harms (e.g., sadness, fear, and shock) (Jackson, 2017 ), as well as maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., substance misuse) (Boyle et al., 2016 ). Personal safety concerns were particularly elevated among those with more marginalized LBGTQ identities (e.g., cisgender LGBQ women, transgender people) (Stults et al., 2017 ). LGBTQ+ people were again targets of anti-LGBTQ+ violence in 2022 when Club Q, another popular gay bar in Colorado Springs, Colorado, experienced a mass shooting, highlighting that this subgroup of the population continues to experience high rates of victimization and threats of gun violence. Between 2017 and 2019, LGBTQ+ people experienced 6.6 violent hate crime victimizations per 1,000 people, compared to 0.8 victimizations per 1,000 for non-LGBTQ+ people (Flores et al., 2023 ). In general, LGBTQ+ people are disproportionately more likely to be victims of violent crime relative to cisgender, heterosexual people (Flores et al., 2020 ). Victimization experiences have been associated with plans to purchase a firearm, as well as firearm acquisition (Kleck et al., 2011 ). In response to high rates of victimization and related sequelae, recent calls to action (Correll-King et al., 2025 ) implore additional research on LGBTQ+ firearm ownership, firearm violence victimization, and vicarious firearm exposure. The political system embodies another component of structural violence against LGBTQ+ people. Civil rights organizations, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the Human Rights Campaign (HRC) tracked between 558 (ACLU, 2024) and more than 750 (HRC, 2024) pieces of anti-LGBTQ+ legislative bills in 2024, an increase of between 173% (ACLU, 2021) and 203% (HRC, 2024) since 2021, respectively. Social and political uncertainty and opposition faced by the LGBTQ+ community are positively associated with increased rates of distress (Monk et al., 2024 ). Responses to anti-LGBTQ+ policies (e.g., shock, fear, hopelessness, etc.) (Russell et al., 2011 ), mirror reactions to vicarious hate crime victimization of LGBTQ+ people (Jackson, 2017 ). LGBTQ+ people additionally report elevated levels of everyday discrimination (Kolysh, 2021 ). Increased risk of violent victimization and hate crimes, coupled with structural and interpersonal homophobia and transphobia, constitute unique stressors experienced by LGBTQ+ people. Uncertainty is inherently threatening and may produce defensive reactions (Tanovic et al., 2018 ) such as firearm acquisition for purposes of self-protection (Warner & Steidley, 2021 ). Increased access to firearms and the unique series of threat-related stressors increases the risk of suicide and homicide death while the sense of security firearms affords LGBTQ+ people may lessen negative emotional reactions, such as fear and anxiety (Anestis et al., 2023 ; Bryan et al., 2023 ). This is especially true among firearm owners who report owning a firearm for self-protection and who are hypervigilant to perceived or actual safety threats (Bryan et al., 2023 ; Semenza et al., 2023 ). In line with this, research has also found that a low ability to tolerate uncertainty is associated with plans to acquire a firearm in the next year (Anestisv& Bryan, 2021). Given the unique stressors experienced by LGBTQ+ people, and the dearth of research on firearm ownership and behaviors within this community, the present study was designed to examine associations between violent victimization, vicarious victimization, discrimination, and related psychological sequelae and the following outcomes: firearm ownership and carrying behaviors. Methods The survey was designed by the authors and fielded online by the survey research firm Ipsos between April 30 and May 13, 2024, and again from August 8 to 14, 2024 to reach the sampling quota. The [redacted for peer review] Institutional Review Board reviewed and approved the study and determined it was exempt as non-human subjects’ research. Prior to accessing the survey, participants provided informed consent. Participants All participants who were residents of the United States, 18 years and older, and self-identified as LGBTQ+ were eligible to participate in the study. Participants received an email recruiting participation; the topic was not described until qualified respondents opted in to the survey to minimize self-selection bias. Ipsos uses a predominantly points-based incentive program to promote participation. Recruitment remained open until a pre-specified sample size of LGBTQ+ firearm owners and non-owners was obtained. Participants were compensated at an individually agreed upon price with Ipsos. Participants were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive survey response options in order from negative to positive valence (e.g., from ‘do not agree’ to ‘strongly agree’) or in the reverse sequence, except for response options such as “none of the above”. Measures Sexual Orientation Respondents indicated their sexual identity in response to the following question: “How do you define your sexual orientation?”. After excluding those who responded “Heterosexual”, the recoded sexual orientation variable comprised the following categories: “Gay” (1), “Lesbian” (2), “Bisexual” (3), “Pansexual” (4), “Queer” (5), or “Asexual” (6). Gender Identity Participants reported their gender identity in response to the following question: “How do you define your gender?”. Response options included the following: “Cisgender male” (1), “Cisgender female” (2), “Transgender male” (3), “Transgender female” (4), “Non-binary”, or (5) “Other”. Ownership and Carrying Firearm ownership was assessed using the following question: “Do you personally own a gun or have you owned a gun in the past?”, with the following response options: “No”, “Yes, I currently own a gun”, and “Yes, I owned a gun in the past but do not currently own one”. Responses were collapsed into two categories: not a current gun owner (0), and current gun owner (1). Carrying behaviors were indicated by current owners reporting “Yes” (1) in response to the question: “In the past 30 days, have you carried a loaded handgun on your person away from your home?”. Victimization, Threat, and Psychosocial Factors To measure victimization, we used the following question: “While you have lived in your current neighborhood, has anyone ever used violence, such as in a robbery, physical assault or sexual assault, or rape against you or any member of your household?”, with the following response options: “No” (0) and “Yes” (1). The question “How many people do you know personally who have been verbally harassed, threatened with violence, or physically attacked because of their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression?” was used as an indicator of vicarious victimization by a hate crime. Response options included “None” (1), “One” (2), “Two or three” (3), and “Four or more” (4). We used questions from the Experiences of Discrimination scale (Krieger et al., 2005 ) to measure whether respondents had “ever experienced discrimination, been prevented from doing something, or been hassled or made to feel inferior” in 9 different settings due to their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. Respondents indicated “No” (0) or “Yes” (1) to discrimination experiences in education, employment, housing, medical care, customer service, finances, public, and criminal justice settings. We created an indicator representing the proportion of affirmative responses by averaging response values (alpha = 0.833). We used the following question to measure concerns about victimization by firearm violence: “In general, how worried are you about gun violence happening to you?”. Response options comprised “Not at all worried” (1), “Somewhat worried” (2), “Moderately worried” (3), and “Very worried” (4). We used a modified version of the Heightened Vigilance Scale (Hicken et al., 2013 ) to measure anticipation of and preparation for discrimination. Respondents were asked to indicate how often they do the following things: (1) try to prepare for possible insults from other people before leaving home; (2) feel that you always have to be very careful about your appearance to get good service or avoid being harassed; (3) carefully watch what you say and how you say it; (4) carefully observe what happens around you; and (5) try to avoid certain social situations and places. Response options included “Never” (1), “Hardly ever” (2), “Not too often” (3), “Fairly often” (4), and “Very often” (5). We derived an indicator by averaging responses across items (alpha = 0.869). We used items from the Post Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (Foa et al., 1999 ) to measure threat sensitivity. Using a Likert scale ranging from “Totally disagree” (1) to “Totally agree” (7), respondents reported how much they agreed or disagreed with three statements: (1) people can’t be trusted, (2) I can’t rely on other people, and (3) people are not what they seem. We developed a threat sensitivity indicator based on the mean of the response values (alpha = 0.909). To measure respondents’ emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to ambiguous situations, we used the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (Buhr & Dugas, 2002 ). The scale comprises 27 items, such as “Uncertainty makes life intolerable,” “One should always look ahead so as to avoid surprises”, and “When it’s time to act, uncertainty paralyses me.” Respondents indicated agreement with the items on a scale ranging from “Not at all characteristic of me” (1) to “Entirely characteristic of me” (5). We averaged response values across scale items to create an intolerance of uncertainty indicator (alpha = 0.959). Demographics Consistent with prior research on firearm ownership and behaviors and their association with victimization, threat, and psychosocial factors (Bond et al., 2023 ; Kleck et al., 2011 ; Semenza et al., 2023 ; Warner & Steidley, 2021 ) adjusted models include the following control variables: age, race and ethnicity, gender, relationship status, education, income, political ideology, and urbanicity. Patient and Public Involvement Neither patients nor the public were involved in the development of the survey, research question, or outcome measures. Similarly, they were not involved in the design and conducting of the study or the recruitment of participants. However, we anticipate disseminating the study results to LGBTQ+ health and firearm advocacy organizations, as well as to legislators responsible for enacting legislation which protects LGBTQ+ people. Additionally, we intend to disseminate results broadly through press releases and mass media. Data Analysis We summarized sample demographics using descriptive statistics. We used logistic regression to examine the associations between victimization, threat, and psychosocial factors and current firearm ownership. Within the sample of current owners, we used logistic regression to examine associations between exposure variables and carrying behaviors. All analyses were conducted using Stata 15.1. Results Of the individuals invited to participate who met eligibility requirements (n = 1,419), 329 (23.2%) started and did not complete the survey, and another 247 (17.4%) failed the attention check. Variance inflation factors for education and political ideology had values greater than 4.0 in both samples, indicating moderate collinearity (Glantz et al., 2026; O’brien, 2007 ), and were excluded from the adjusted models as covariates. Characteristics of the Study Sample Table 1 describes the overall sample, firearm owners, and non-owners. Owners appeared to be somewhat younger than non-owners (38.88 vs 43.93). A higher proportion of owners than non-owners were gay (40.87% vs 28.11%), married (39.42% vs 21.89%), and somewhat conservative (13.52% vs 6.02%) or moderate (43.19% vs 34.74%). Owners tended to have higher incomes than non-owners. Table 1 Sample demographics Characteristic Full sample (n = 843) Owners (n = 345) Non-owners (n = 498) Mean age (SD) 41.86 (14.89) 38.88 (12.23) 43.93 (16.18) Race and ethnicity, n(%) White, non-Hispanic 560 (66.43%) 230 (66.67%) 330 (66.27%) Black, non-Hispanic 112 (13.29%) 48 (13.91%) 64 (12.85%) Asian/NHPI, non-Hispanic 17 (2.02%) 7 (2.03%) 10 (2.01%) AIAN, non-Hispanic 8 (0.95%) 5 (1.45%) 3 (0.6%) Hispanic 103 (12.22%) 44 (12.75%) 59 (11.85%) Multiracial, non-Hispanic 41 (4.86%) 11 (3.19%) 30 (6.02%) Other, non-Hispanic 2 (0.24%) 0 (0%) 2 (0.4%) Gender identity, n(%) Cisgender male 308 (36.54%) 133 (38.55%) 175 (35.14%) Cisgender female 399 (47.33%) 168 (48.7%) 231 (46.39%) Transgender male 23 (2.73%) 8 (2.32%) 15 (3.01%) Transgender female 21 (2.49%) 13 (3.77%) 8 (1.61%) Non-binary 40 (4.74%) 10 (2.9%) 30 (6.02%) Other 52 (6.17%) 13 (3.77%) 39 (7.83%) Sexual orientation, n(%) Gay 281 (33.33%) 141 (40.87%) 140 (28.11%) Lesbian 131 (15.54%) 45 (13.04%) 86 (17.27%) Bisexual 395 (46.86%) 151 (43.77%) 244 (49%) Pansexual 7 (0.83%) 5 (1.45%) 2 (0.4%) Queer 19 (2.25%) 2 (0.58%) 17 (3.41%) Asexual 10 (1.19%) 1 (0.29%) 9 (1.81%) Relationship status, n(%) Single 266 (31.55%) 64 (18.55%) 202 (40.56%) In a relationship 254 (30.13%) 112 (32.46%) 142 (28.51%) Married 245 (29.06%) 136 (39.42%) 109 (21.89%) Divorced or widowed 78 (9.25%) 33 (9.57%) 45 (9.04%) Education Less than high school 19 (2.25%) 8 (2.32%) 11 (2.21%) High school or equivalent 187 (22.18%) 70 (20.29%) 117 (23.49%) Some college 181 (21.47%) 65 (18.84%) 116 (23.29%) Associate's degree (2-year degree) 112 (13.29%) 54 (15.65%) 58 (11.65%) Trade school (e.g., electrician, welding, etc.) 26 (3.08%) 15 (4.35%) 11 (2.21%) Bachelor's degree (4-year degree) 193 (22.89%) 84 (24.35%) 109 (21.89%) Master's degree 90 (10.68%) 35 (10.14%) 55 (11.04%) Doctorate/Professional degree 35 (4.15%) 14 (4.06%) 21 (4.22%) Annual household income, n(%) Less than $ 10,000 45 (5.34%) 8 (2.32%) 37 (7.43%) $ 10,001 - $ 19,999 61 (7.24%) 9 (2.61%) 52 (10.44%) $ 20,000 - $ 29,999 101 (11.98%) 32 (9.28%) 69 (13.86%) $ 30,000 - $ 39,999 73 (8.66%) 23 (6.67%) 50 (10.04%) $ 40,000 - $ 49,999 68 (8.07%) 20 (5.8%) 48 (9.64%) $ 50,000 - $ 59,999 89 (10.56%) 38 (11.01%) 51 (10.24%) $ 60,000 - $ 69,999 48 (5.69%) 22 (6.38%) 26 (5.22%) $ 70,000 - $ 79,999 73 (8.66%) 34 (9.86%) 39 (7.83%) $ 80,000 - $ 89,999 52 (6.17%) 28 (8.12%) 24 (4.82%) $ 90,000 - $ 99,999 60 (7.12%) 30 (8.7%) 30 (6.02%) $ 100,000 - $ 149,999 110 (13.05%) 67 (19.42%) 43 (8.63%) $ 150,000 or more 63 (7.47%) 34 (9.86%) 29 (5.82%) Political ideology, n(%) Highly conservative 38 (4.51%) 19 (5.51%) 19 (3.82%) Somewhat conservative 77 (9.13%) 47 (13.62%) 30 (6.02%) Moderate 322 (38.2%) 149 (43.19%) 173 (34.74%) Somewhat liberal 186 (22.06%) 71 (20.58%) 115 (23.09%) Highly liberal 220 (26.1%) 59 (17.1%) 161 (32.33%) Urbanicity, n(%) Rural 177 (21.1%) 85 (24.85%) 92 (18.51%) Urban 662 (78.9%) 257 (75.15%) 405 (81.49%) Factors Associated with Ownership Table 2 displays the unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models examining associations between victimization, threat, and psychosocial factors and current ownership. None of the exposures were significantly related to firearm ownership in the adjusted model, apart from anti-LGBTQ+ vicarious victimization, where respondents who indicated they knew four or more people who had experienced victimization had lower odds of firearm ownership relative to those in the reference category (“None”) (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 0.55 [95% CI, 0.31 to 0.99]). Table 2 Associations between victimization, threat, psychosocial factors and firearm ownership Factors Unadjusted Adjusted† OR (95% CI) AOR (95% CI) Victimization 1.29 (0.82–2.03) 1.26 (0.76–2.08) Anti-LGBTQ+ vicarious victimization None 1.00 (reference) 1.00 (reference) One 1.47 (0.93–2.32) 1.30 (0.78–2.17) Two or three 0.81 (0.55–1.20) 0.76 (0.49–1.19) Four or more 0.59 (0.35–0.99) 0.55 (0.31–0.99) Gun violence Not at all worried 1.00 (reference) 1.00 (reference) Somewhat worried 0.96 (0.67–1.37) 0.91 (0.61–1.35) Moderately worried 0.67 (0.41–1.09) 0.59 (0.35–1.01) Very worried 0.47 (0.24–0.90) 0.52 (0.25–1.08) Anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination 1.79 (0.59–1.76) 1.70 (0.82–3.52) Vigilance 0.97 (0.09–0.34) 1.04 (0.85–1.27) Threat sensitivity 0.87 (0.04–2.76) 0.92 (0.83–1.03) Intolerance of uncertainty 1.39 (0.14–3.34) 1.11 (0.88–1.39) AOR = adjusted odds ratio; CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio †Adjusted for age, race and ethnicity, gender identity, relationship status, income, and urbanicity Factors Associated with Carrying Findings from the unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models predicting carrying a loaded firearm in the prior 30 days are displayed in Table 3 . Results from the adjusted model indicate respondents who experienced personal or household violent victimization ([AOR], 2.64 [95% CI, 1.17 to 5.97]) and reported higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination ([AOR], 4.59 [95% CI, 1.48 to 14.28]) had increased odds of carrying. Table 3 Associations between victimization, threat, psychosocial factors and firearm carrying Factors Unadjusted Adjusted† OR AOR Victimization 2.94 (1.42–6.08) 2.64 (1.17–5.97) Anti-LGBTQ+ vicarious victimization None 1.00 (reference) 1.00 (reference) One 0.94 (0.47–1.86) 1.02 (0.48–2.20) Two or three 0.89 (0.46–1.74) 0.93 (0.45–1.93) Four or more 0.74 (0.30–1.79) 0.67 (0.25–1.81) Gun violence Not at all worried 1.00 (reference) 1.00 (reference) Somewhat worried 0.70 (0.40–1.22) 0.62 (0.34–1.15) Moderately worried 0.77 (0.35–1.71) 0.80 (0.34–1.90) Very worried 0.69 (0.21–2.29) 0.92 (0.25–3.44) Anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination 3.31 (1.71–2.32) 4.59 (1.48–14.28) Vigilance 1.10 (0.17–0.61) 1.07 (0.76–1.50) Threat sensitivity 1.19 (0.09–2.21) 1.18 (0.99–1.40) Intolerance of uncertainty 0.95 (0.14–0.36) 0.83 (0.59–1.17) AOR = adjusted odds ratio; CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio †Adjusted for age, race and ethnicity, gender identity, relationship status, income, and urbanicity Discussion The present study sought to examine firearm ownership within the LGBTQ+ community and determine the association between experiences of victimization, firearm ownership, and firearm behaviors. We found that higher proportions of LGBTQ+ firearm owners were married, identified as White, non-Hispanic, gay, cisgender, and male, aligned with moderate to conservative political views, and reported higher incomes. On average, owners were somewhat younger than their non-firearm owning LGBTQ+ peers. These demographics are congruent with longstanding trends in the demographics of firearm ownership (e.g., white, older, politically conservative, cisgender men) (Warner et al., 2022) and reflective of emerging trends observed among underrepresented populations of firearm owners (Bond et al., 2023 ; Wolfson et al., 2018 ). Prior research on the association between victimization and firearm ownership has been inconclusive. Recent studies of Black (Bond et al., 2023 ; Semenza et al., 2023 ) and female (Kelley, 2022) samples found significant associations between victimization and ownership, while others conducted in the general population did not (Kleck et al., 2011 ). Our findings suggest that among LGBTQ+ individuals there is no association between victimization and firearm ownership. However, it is important to note that our findings indicate the odds of owning a firearm were significantly lower among LGBTQ+ people who reported knowing four or more people who personally experienced a hate crime. One explanation for this is that higher rates of exposure to vicarious victimization are associated with increased threat sensitivity, which has been found to decrease the odds of firearm ownership (Bond et al., 2023 ). Therefore, it may be that as an LGBTQ+ person becomes increasingly exposed to vicarious victimization, their odds of owning a firearm decrease. However, given this, future research is needed to examine how threat sensitivity, and its responsiveness to violent victimization and vicarious hate crime victimization, among LGBTQ+ people may differ from the general population. While victimization experiences were not associated with firearm ownership, we did find that among firearm owners, experiencing violent victimization was associated with increased odds of carrying a firearm outside the home. This finding deviates from previous research which suggests no association between victimization and carrying behaviors (Semenza et al., 2023 ). However, and importantly, earlier work did not include sexual orientation variables. Research indicates that higher proportions of LGBTQ+ people own firearms for self-protection and report carrying in the prior month relative to the general population (Tomsich et al., 2020 ). Our finding suggests that LGBTQ+ firearm owners who have experienced a personal or household violent victimization may feel a need to protect themselves in public spaces, resulting in them carrying a firearm outside of the home. In addition, and congruent with previous research (Semenza et al., 2023 ), we found that higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination were associated with increased odds of firearm carrying behavior outside the home. One interpretation of this finding is that as LGBTQ+ firearm owners weigh the risks and benefits of carrying a firearm outside of the home, respondents reporting higher levels of discrimination may see the benefits of having access to a means of self-protection as outweighing the risk associated with carrying a firearm. In summary, LGBTQ+ firearm owners who have experienced personal or household violent victimization and higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination may perceive greater risk in public than those without these experiences. Implications for Social Policy Overall, our findings indicate associations between carrying firearms outside the home and victimization and higher levels of discrimination among LGBTQ+ owners. Carrying a firearm outside of the home introduces risk. However, as explained above there are real threats to the safety of LGBTQ+ people in the US. Therefore, systemic policy level interventions are needed to ensure LGBTQ+ people are safe from victimization and discrimination, which then may alter their carrying behaviors. Specifically, programs such as educating law enforcement personnel on the threats of victimization and discrimination to LGBTQ+ people, and ways to protect LGBTQ+ individuals’ livelihoods, wellbeing, and personal safety may help initiate systemic level policy change. Research suggests that LGBTQ+ people regularly experience law enforcement personnel as rude, mean, or judgmental (Goodman et al., 2022 ). This is especially true for LGBTQ+ people of color (Goodman et al., 2022 ) and transgender people, who often report experiences discomfort and abuse by law enforcement personnel (Meyer & Paige, 2025). In addition to ensuring law enforcement personnel are trained to protect LGBTQ+ people, so too should their policies ensure appropriate consequences when they are responsible for discriminatory practices towards LGBTQ+ people. Such changes are necessary to reduce the fear of secondary victimization and mistrust LGBTQ+ people have in law enforcement which have led to underreporting of hate crime incidents in the US (Girardi, 2021 ). Recognizing the underreporting of hate crimes experienced by LGBTQ+ people is important to developing appropriate policy solutions. In addition to fear among the LGBTQ+ community it has also been suggested that many law enforcement agencies and prosecutors are ill equipped to detect hate crimes and meaningfully engage with LGBTQ+ crime victims (Palmer & Luka Kutateladze, 2021). Such problems require federal policy solutions and direction; however, current hate crimes legislation is variable across different states and jurisdictions (Bills & Vaughn, 2022 ). This variability is often responsible for many of the most marginalized people being omitted from protection and law enforcement personnel being unprepared to adequately intervene. While there is a need for systemic social and structural change that prioritizes the actual and perceived safety and wellbeing of LGBTQ+ firearm owners, there is also a need for policies and practices that reduce the burden of firearm violence on the LGBTQ+ community. However, it is important to consider that these policies and practices must be reflective and responsive to the unique needs and characteristics of the communities they seek to impact. 2 Limitations The study’s limitations include that it was cross-sectional, and thus causation and the direction of effects cannot be determined, and reverse-causality is a possibility. Second, our survey collected self-report data, which may be subject to bias. Third, results are not generalizable due to convenience sampling. Lastly, our low completion rate, potentially related to the survey involving sensitive topics and a marginalized population, may contribute to selection bias. However, this study represents the first of its kind to explore LGBTQ+ firearm ownership and carrying behaviors and their unique victimization and discrimination experiences. Conclusions Firearm violence is a serious threat to LGBTQ+ people in the United States. While experiences of victimization did not relate to firearm ownership, findings indicated associations between victimization and higher levels of discrimination and firearm carrying. It is imperative that victimization and discrimination of LGBTQ+ people be addressed with meaningful policy interventions and as a public health problem to better understand firearm ownership and carrying behaviors, lessen fear, and enhance the overall health and wellbeing of this marginalized population. Declarations Code Availability Code is available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. Author Contribution C.C. and A.B. wrote the main manuscript text and E.T. completed all data analysis and prepared tables 1-3. Data Availability Data are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. References Alvarez, L., & Pérez-Peña, R. (2016). Orlando gunman attacks gay nightclub, leaving 50 dead. The New York Times , 12 . American Civil Liberties Union (2021). Legislation affecting LGBTQ+ rights across the country 2021 . https://www.aclu.org/documents/legislation-affecting-LGBTQ+-rights-across-country-2021 American Civil Liberties Union (2024). Mapping attacks on LGBTQ+ rights in U.S. state legislatures in 2024 . https://www.aclu.org/legislative-attacks-on-LGBTQ+-rights-2024 Anestis, M. D., Bandel, S. L., Bond, A. E., & Bryan, C. J. (2023). Threat sensitivity, intolerance of uncertainty, and firearm purchasing during a firearm purchasing surge. 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Addictive Behaviors , 65 , 51–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.10.001 Bruner, S., Goodrich, K., Luke, M., Peters, H., Cavanaugh, K., Fox, D., & Silvaine, S. (2019). An Interdisciplinary Ecological Framework: Intervention for LGBTQ+ Interpersonal Violence. International Journal of Bullying Prevention , 1 (4), 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-019-00048-0 Bryan, C. J., Daruwala, S. E., Tabares, J. V., Butner, J. E., Coccaro, E. F., & Gorka, S. M. (2023). Heightened threat perceptions and reduced stability in anxiety and fear among U.S. adults who carry handguns. Journal of Anxiety Disorders , 99 , 102764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2023.102764 Buhr, K., & Dugas, M. (2002). The intolerance of uncertainty scale: psychometric properties of the English version. Behaviour Research and Therapy , 40 (8), 931–945. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00092-4 Correll-King, W. M., Crifasi, C., & Gamarel, K. E. (2025). A scoping review of empirical research on firearms and firearm violence among sexual and gender minority populations in the United States. Annals of Behavioral Medicine , 59 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaae094 Croff, J. M., Hubach, R. D., Currin, J. M., & Frederick, A. F. (2017). HidDen rainbows: Gay bars as safe havens in a socially conservative area since the Pulse Nightclub massacre. Sexuality Research and Social Policy , 14 (2), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-017-0273-1 Flores, A. R., Langton, L., Meyer, I. H., & Romero, A. P. (2020). Victimization rates and traits of sexual and gender minorities in the United States: Results from the National Crime Victimization Survey, 2017. Science Advances , 6 (40). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba6910 Flores A.R., Wilson B. D. M., Langton L.L., Meyer I.H. (2023) Violent victimization at the intersections of sexual orientation, gender identity, and race: National Crime Victimization Survey, 2017–2019. PLoS ONE 18(2): e0281641. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281641 Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment , 11 (3), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.3.303 Girardi, R. (2021). ‘It’s easy to mistrust police when they keep on killing us’: A queer exploration of police violence and LGBTQ+ victimization. Journal of Gender Studies , 31 (7), 852–862. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2021.1979481 Glantz, S. A., Slinker, B. K., & Neilands, T. B. (2016). Primer of Applied Regression & Analysis of Variance 3E . McGraw Hill Professional. Goodman, J. A., Israel, T., Avellar, T. R., Delucio, K., Harkness, A., & Bettergarcia, J. N. (2022). Sexual and gender minorities’ positive and negative experiences with law enforcement. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology , 40 (2), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09496-9 Hicken, M. T., Lee, H., Morenoff, J., House, J. S., & Williams, D. R. (2013). Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Hypertension Prevalence: Reconsidering the role of Chronic stress. American Journal of Public Health , 104 (1), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2013.301395 Human Rights Campaign (2024). State legislation and LGBTQ+ rights . State Legislation and LGBTQ+ Rights. https://www.hrc.org/resources/map-state-legislation-LGBTQ+-rights Jackson, S. D. (2017). “Connection is the antidote”: Psychological distress, emotional processing, and virtual community building among LGBTQ+ students after the Orlando shooting. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity , 4 (2), 160. Kelley, M. S. (2021). Feminism and Firearms: gun ownership, gun carrying, and women’s empowerment. Sociological Perspectives , 65 (1), 77–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211028603 Kleck, G., Kovandzic, T., Saber, M., & Hauser, W. (2011). The effect of perceived risk and victimization on plans to purchase a gun for self-protection. Journal of Criminal Justice , 39 (4), 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.03.002 Kolysh, S. (2021). Everyday violence: The Public Harassment of Women and LGBTQ+ People . Rutgers University Press. Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine , 61 (7), 1576–1596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.006 Meyer, S. J., & Moore, P. L. (2025). “Who YA GONNA CALL?” Maybe not the police: Transgender peoples’ perceptions of and experiences with the police. Public Administration Quarterly . https://doi.org/10.1177/07349149251323570 Monk, J. K., Rice, T. M., Ogolsky, B. G., Sloan, S., & Lannutti, P. J. (2024). “Laws could always be revoked”: Sociopolitical uncertainty in the transition to marriage equality. Sexuality Research and Social Policy , 21 (3), 1171–1188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-024-00975-8 O’brien, R. M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity , 41 (5), 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6 Palmer, N. A., & Kutateladze, B. L. (2021). What prosecutors and the police should do about underreporting of anti-LGBTQ hate crime. Sexuality Research and Social Policy , 19 (3), 1190–1204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00596-5 Rostosky, S. S., Richardson, M. T., McCurry, S. K., & Riggle, E. D. (2022). LGBTQ+ individuals’ lived experiences of hypervigilance. Psychology of sexual orientation and gender diversity , 9 (3), 358. Russell, G. M., Bohan, J. S., McCarroll, M. C., & Smith, N. G. (2011). Trauma, recovery, and community perspectives on the long-term impact of anti-LGBT politics. Traumatology, 17, 14–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1534765610362799 Semenza, D. C., Magee, L. A., Anestis, M. D., & Buggs, S. A. (2023). Identity, experience, and threat: Assessing key correlates of firearm ownership and related behaviors in a representative sample of five US States. Preventive Medicine Reports , 34 , 102269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102269 Stults, C. B., Kupprat, S. A., Krause, K. D., Kapadia, F., & Halkitis, P. N. (2017). Perceptions of safety among LGBTQ+ people following the 2016 Pulse nightclub shooting. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity , 4 (3), 251–256. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000240 Tanovic, E., Gee, D. G., & Joormann, J. (2018). Intolerance of uncertainty: Neural and psychophysiological correlates of the perception of uncertainty as threatening. Clinical Psychology Review , 60 , 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.01.001 Tomsich, E. A., Kravitz-Wirtz, N., Pallin, R., & Wintemute, G. J. (2020). Firearm ownership among LGBT adults in California. Violence and Gender , 7 (3), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2020.0024 Warner, T. D., & Steidley, T. (2021). Some fear, more loathing? Threats and anxieties shaping protective gun ownership and gun carry in the U.S. Journal of Crime and Justice , 45 (4), 484–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648x.2021.1997787 Warner, T. D., Tober, T. L., Bridges, T., & Warner, D. F. (2021). To provide or protect? masculinity, economic precarity, and protective gun ownership in the United States. Sociological Perspectives , 65 (1), 97–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121421998406 Wolfson, J. A., Azrael, D., & Miller, M. (2018). Gun ownership among US women. Injury Prevention , 26 (1), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2018-042991 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8673724","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":589185781,"identity":"9952c71c-5201-404b-947c-1e152639959f","order_by":0,"name":"Christopher Collins","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgMPDBgY+EEMhCAbfj0HEoBaJBuADCBHAqKaoBYgYXCAWC387YcPHEgouGNvfP7wgwMfc+rq+Oc3H2D4UHYYpxaJM2kJQIc9S9x2I83g4MxthyUkjrElMM44h1uLgQSPAVDL4QSzGwwGh3m3HZBgOMZjwMzbRliLvXH/8Q+H/26rk5A/xv+B+S8RWhg3MOQAyW3MEgbHeBiYGfFogfrlcOKMGzkFB3u3HZbceAzoqZ5z6Ti1AEPs4IMPfw7b8/cf3/jg57Y6frnDhx8++FFmjVMLdnCARPWjYBSMglEwCtAAAKkdX8I96nl9AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Salem State University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christopher","middleName":"","lastName":"Collins","suffix":""},{"id":589185782,"identity":"c88ce489-86e0-44ae-af6e-c1d272920581","order_by":1,"name":"Elizabeth Tomsich","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of California, Davis","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elizabeth","middleName":"","lastName":"Tomsich","suffix":""},{"id":589185783,"identity":"3a96b9d0-ddfa-412e-a9f2-8c4c56c1deb3","order_by":2,"name":"Allison Bond","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Allison","middleName":"","lastName":"Bond","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-23 00:38:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673724/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673724/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102746234,"identity":"a087921f-ddca-4d51-b250-52f75e975661","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 08:56:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":878718,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8673724/v1/4654a1bd-e347-459a-9b70-c763fc6a6ec2.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Firearm Ownership, Victimization Experience, and Threat Sensitivity Among LGBTQ+ People","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eLesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ+) people represent a unique group of firearm owners. The limited research which exists suggests that LGBTQ+ firearm owners fear that their sexuality, gender identity, and gender expression all increase their risk for threats of targeted (Warner \u0026amp; Steidley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and interpersonal (Bruner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) violence and produce hypervigilance in public spaces (Rostosky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, relative to the general population of firearm owners in a California based sample, higher rates of LGBTQ+ owners reported owning a firearm for the purpose of self-protection and carrying their firearm publicly in the prior 30 days (Tomsich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, the association between these stressors and psychosocial sequelae experienced by LGBTQ+ people and ownership and carrying remains unexplored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFear of violence is not unwarranted for LGBTQ+ people, who in 2016, were the targets of one of the deadliest mass shootings in the history of the United States at Pulse Nightclub, a popular gay bar in Orlando, Florida (Alvarez \u0026amp; P\u0026eacute;rez-Pe\u0026ntilde;a, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The shooting resulted in LGBTQ+ people withdrawing from historically safe spaces (e.g., gay bars) in conservative regions due to perceived threat and safety concerns (Croff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and triggered a range of psychological harms (e.g., sadness, fear, and shock) (Jackson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), as well as maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., substance misuse) (Boyle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Personal safety concerns were particularly elevated among those with more marginalized LBGTQ identities (e.g., cisgender LGBQ women, transgender people) (Stults et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). LGBTQ+ people were again targets of anti-LGBTQ+ violence in 2022 when Club Q, another popular gay bar in Colorado Springs, Colorado, experienced a mass shooting, highlighting that this subgroup of the population continues to experience high rates of victimization and threats of gun violence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween 2017 and 2019, LGBTQ+ people experienced 6.6 violent hate crime victimizations per 1,000 people, compared to 0.8 victimizations per 1,000 for non-LGBTQ+ people (Flores et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In general, LGBTQ+ people are disproportionately more likely to be victims of violent crime relative to cisgender, heterosexual people (Flores et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Victimization experiences have been associated with plans to purchase a firearm, as well as firearm acquisition (Kleck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In response to high rates of victimization and related sequelae, recent calls to action (Correll-King et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) implore additional research on LGBTQ+ firearm ownership, firearm violence victimization, and vicarious firearm exposure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe political system embodies another component of structural violence against LGBTQ+ people. Civil rights organizations, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and the Human Rights Campaign (HRC) tracked between 558 (ACLU, 2024) and more than 750 (HRC, 2024) pieces of anti-LGBTQ+ legislative bills in 2024, an increase of between 173% (ACLU, 2021) and 203% (HRC, 2024) since 2021, respectively. Social and political uncertainty and opposition faced by the LGBTQ+ community are positively associated with increased rates of distress (Monk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Responses to anti-LGBTQ+ policies (e.g., shock, fear, hopelessness, etc.) (Russell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), mirror reactions to vicarious hate crime victimization of LGBTQ+ people (Jackson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). LGBTQ+ people additionally report elevated levels of everyday discrimination (Kolysh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Increased risk of violent victimization and hate crimes, coupled with structural and interpersonal homophobia and transphobia, constitute unique stressors experienced by LGBTQ+ people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUncertainty is inherently threatening and may produce defensive reactions (Tanovic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) such as firearm acquisition for purposes of self-protection (Warner \u0026amp; Steidley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Increased access to firearms and the unique series of threat-related stressors increases the risk of suicide and homicide death while the sense of security firearms affords LGBTQ+ people may lessen negative emotional reactions, such as fear and anxiety (Anestis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Bryan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This is especially true among firearm owners who report owning a firearm for self-protection and who are hypervigilant to perceived or actual safety threats (Bryan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Semenza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In line with this, research has also found that a low ability to tolerate uncertainty is associated with plans to acquire a firearm in the next year (Anestisv\u0026amp; Bryan, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the unique stressors experienced by LGBTQ+ people, and the dearth of research on firearm ownership and behaviors within this community, the present study was designed to examine associations between violent victimization, vicarious victimization, discrimination, and related psychological sequelae and the following outcomes: firearm ownership and carrying behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe survey was designed by the authors and fielded online by the survey research firm Ipsos between April 30 and May 13, 2024, and again from August 8 to 14, 2024 to reach the sampling quota. The [redacted for peer review] Institutional Review Board reviewed and approved the study and determined it was exempt as non-human subjects\u0026rsquo; research. Prior to accessing the survey, participants provided informed consent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll participants who were residents of the United States, 18 years and older, and self-identified as LGBTQ+ were eligible to participate in the study. Participants received an email recruiting participation; the topic was not described until qualified respondents opted in to the survey to minimize self-selection bias. Ipsos uses a predominantly points-based incentive program to promote participation. Recruitment remained open until a pre-specified sample size of LGBTQ+ firearm owners and non-owners was obtained. Participants were compensated at an individually agreed upon price with Ipsos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive survey response options in order from negative to positive valence (e.g., from \u0026lsquo;do not agree\u0026rsquo; to \u0026lsquo;strongly agree\u0026rsquo;) or in the reverse sequence, except for response options such as \u0026ldquo;none of the above\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSexual Orientation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents indicated their sexual identity in response to the following question: \u0026ldquo;How do you define your sexual orientation?\u0026rdquo;. After excluding those who responded \u0026ldquo;Heterosexual\u0026rdquo;, the recoded sexual orientation variable comprised the following categories: \u0026ldquo;Gay\u0026rdquo; (1), \u0026ldquo;Lesbian\u0026rdquo; (2), \u0026ldquo;Bisexual\u0026rdquo; (3), \u0026ldquo;Pansexual\u0026rdquo; (4), \u0026ldquo;Queer\u0026rdquo; (5), or \u0026ldquo;Asexual\u0026rdquo; (6).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGender Identity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants reported their gender identity in response to the following question: \u0026ldquo;How do you define your gender?\u0026rdquo;. Response options included the following: \u0026ldquo;Cisgender male\u0026rdquo; (1), \u0026ldquo;Cisgender female\u0026rdquo; (2), \u0026ldquo;Transgender male\u0026rdquo; (3), \u0026ldquo;Transgender female\u0026rdquo; (4), \u0026ldquo;Non-binary\u0026rdquo;, or (5) \u0026ldquo;Other\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eOwnership and Carrying\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirearm ownership was assessed using the following question: \u0026ldquo;Do you personally own a gun or have you owned a gun in the past?\u0026rdquo;, with the following response options: \u0026ldquo;No\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Yes, I currently own a gun\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;Yes, I owned a gun in the past but do not currently own one\u0026rdquo;. Responses were collapsed into two categories: not a current gun owner (0), and current gun owner (1). Carrying behaviors were indicated by current owners reporting \u0026ldquo;Yes\u0026rdquo; (1) in response to the question: \u0026ldquo;In the past 30 days, have you carried a loaded handgun on your person away from your home?\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eVictimization, Threat, and Psychosocial Factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo measure victimization, we used the following question: \u0026ldquo;While you have lived in your current neighborhood, has anyone ever used violence, such as in a robbery, physical assault or sexual assault, or rape against you or any member of your household?\u0026rdquo;, with the following response options: \u0026ldquo;No\u0026rdquo; (0) and \u0026ldquo;Yes\u0026rdquo; (1). The question \u0026ldquo;How many people do you know personally who have been verbally harassed, threatened with violence, or physically attacked because of their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression?\u0026rdquo; was used as an indicator of vicarious victimization by a hate crime. Response options included \u0026ldquo;None\u0026rdquo; (1), \u0026ldquo;One\u0026rdquo; (2), \u0026ldquo;Two or three\u0026rdquo; (3), and \u0026ldquo;Four or more\u0026rdquo; (4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used questions from the Experiences of Discrimination scale (Krieger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) to measure whether respondents had \u0026ldquo;ever experienced discrimination, been prevented from doing something, or been hassled or made to feel inferior\u0026rdquo; in 9 different settings due to their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. Respondents indicated \u0026ldquo;No\u0026rdquo; (0) or \u0026ldquo;Yes\u0026rdquo; (1) to discrimination experiences in education, employment, housing, medical care, customer service, finances, public, and criminal justice settings. We created an indicator representing the proportion of affirmative responses by averaging response values (alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.833).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used the following question to measure concerns about victimization by firearm violence: \u0026ldquo;In general, how worried are you about gun violence happening to you?\u0026rdquo;. Response options comprised \u0026ldquo;Not at all worried\u0026rdquo; (1), \u0026ldquo;Somewhat worried\u0026rdquo; (2), \u0026ldquo;Moderately worried\u0026rdquo; (3), and \u0026ldquo;Very worried\u0026rdquo; (4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used a modified version of the Heightened Vigilance Scale (Hicken et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) to measure anticipation of and preparation for discrimination. Respondents were asked to indicate how often they do the following things: (1) try to prepare for possible insults from other people before leaving home; (2) feel that you always have to be very careful about your appearance to get good service or avoid being harassed; (3) carefully watch what you say and how you say it; (4) carefully observe what happens around you; and (5) try to avoid certain social situations and places. Response options included \u0026ldquo;Never\u0026rdquo; (1), \u0026ldquo;Hardly ever\u0026rdquo; (2), \u0026ldquo;Not too often\u0026rdquo; (3), \u0026ldquo;Fairly often\u0026rdquo; (4), and \u0026ldquo;Very often\u0026rdquo; (5). We derived an indicator by averaging responses across items (alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.869).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used items from the Post Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (Foa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) to measure threat sensitivity. Using a Likert scale ranging from \u0026ldquo;Totally disagree\u0026rdquo; (1) to \u0026ldquo;Totally agree\u0026rdquo; (7), respondents reported how much they agreed or disagreed with three statements: (1) people can\u0026rsquo;t be trusted, (2) I can\u0026rsquo;t rely on other people, and (3) people are not what they seem. We developed a threat sensitivity indicator based on the mean of the response values (alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.909).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo measure respondents\u0026rsquo; emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to ambiguous situations, we used the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (Buhr \u0026amp; Dugas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The scale comprises 27 items, such as \u0026ldquo;Uncertainty makes life intolerable,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;One should always look ahead so as to avoid surprises\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;When it\u0026rsquo;s time to act, uncertainty paralyses me.\u0026rdquo; Respondents indicated agreement with the items on a scale ranging from \u0026ldquo;Not at all characteristic of me\u0026rdquo; (1) to \u0026ldquo;Entirely characteristic of me\u0026rdquo; (5). We averaged response values across scale items to create an intolerance of uncertainty indicator (alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.959).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDemographics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsistent with prior research on firearm ownership and behaviors and their association with victimization, threat, and psychosocial factors (Bond et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kleck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Semenza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Warner \u0026amp; Steidley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) adjusted models include the following control variables: age, race and ethnicity, gender, relationship status, education, income, political ideology, and urbanicity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePatient and Public Involvement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeither patients nor the public were involved in the development of the survey, research question, or outcome measures. Similarly, they were not involved in the design and conducting of the study or the recruitment of participants. However, we anticipate disseminating the study results to LGBTQ+ health and firearm advocacy organizations, as well as to legislators responsible for enacting legislation which protects LGBTQ+ people. Additionally, we intend to disseminate results broadly through press releases and mass media.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe summarized sample demographics using descriptive statistics. We used logistic regression to examine the associations between victimization, threat, and psychosocial factors and current firearm ownership. Within the sample of current owners, we used logistic regression to examine associations between exposure variables and carrying behaviors. All analyses were conducted using Stata 15.1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eOf the individuals invited to participate who met eligibility requirements (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1,419), 329 (23.2%) started and did not complete the survey, and another 247 (17.4%) failed the attention check. Variance inflation factors for education and political ideology had values greater than 4.0 in both samples, indicating moderate collinearity (Glantz et al., 2026; O\u0026rsquo;brien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), and were excluded from the adjusted models as covariates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCharacteristics of the Study Sample\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e describes the overall sample, firearm owners, and non-owners. Owners appeared to be somewhat younger than non-owners (38.88 vs 43.93). A higher proportion of owners than non-owners were gay (40.87% vs 28.11%), married (39.42% vs 21.89%), and somewhat conservative (13.52% vs 6.02%) or moderate (43.19% vs 34.74%). Owners tended to have higher incomes than non-owners.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample demographics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFull sample (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;843)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOwners (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;345)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-owners (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;498)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean age (SD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.86 (14.89)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.88 (12.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.93 (16.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRace and ethnicity, \u003cem\u003en(%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite, non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e560 (66.43%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230 (66.67%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330 (66.27%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack, non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112 (13.29%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (13.91%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64 (12.85%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsian/NHPI, non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (2.02%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (2.03%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (2.01%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAIAN, non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (0.95%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (1.45%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (0.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103 (12.22%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44 (12.75%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59 (11.85%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiracial, non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (4.86%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (3.19%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (6.02%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther, non-Hispanic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (0.24%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (0.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender identity, \u003cem\u003en(%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCisgender male\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e308 (36.54%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133 (38.55%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175 (35.14%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCisgender female\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e399 (47.33%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168 (48.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e231 (46.39%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransgender male\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23 (2.73%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (2.32%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (3.01%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransgender female\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (2.49%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (3.77%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (1.61%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-binary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (4.74%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (2.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (6.02%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52 (6.17%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (3.77%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (7.83%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual orientation, \u003cem\u003en(%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e281 (33.33%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141 (40.87%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140 (28.11%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLesbian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e131 (15.54%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (13.04%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86 (17.27%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBisexual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e395 (46.86%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151 (43.77%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e244 (49%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePansexual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (0.83%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (1.45%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (0.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQueer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (2.25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (0.58%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (3.41%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsexual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (1.19%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (0.29%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (1.81%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelationship status, \u003cem\u003en(%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e266 (31.55%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64 (18.55%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202 (40.56%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e254 (30.13%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112 (32.46%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142 (28.51%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245 (29.06%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136 (39.42%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109 (21.89%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDivorced or widowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78 (9.25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33 (9.57%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (9.04%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than high school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (2.25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (2.32%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (2.21%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh school or equivalent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187 (22.18%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (20.29%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117 (23.49%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome college\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e181 (21.47%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65 (18.84%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116 (23.29%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociate's degree (2-year\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003edegree)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112 (13.29%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 (15.65%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58 (11.65%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrade school (e.g., electrician,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewelding, etc.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 (3.08%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (4.35%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (2.21%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBachelor's degree (4-year degree)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e193 (22.89%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84 (24.35%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109 (21.89%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster's degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 (10.68%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (10.14%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55 (11.04%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctorate/Professional degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (4.15%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (4.06%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (4.22%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual household income, \u003cem\u003en(%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e10,000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (5.34%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (2.32%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37 (7.43%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e10,001 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e19,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61 (7.24%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (2.61%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52 (10.44%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e20,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e29,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101 (11.98%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 (9.28%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (13.86%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e30,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e39,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 (8.66%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23 (6.67%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (10.04%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e40,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e49,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68 (8.07%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (5.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (9.64%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e50,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e59,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89 (10.56%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38 (11.01%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51 (10.24%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e60,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e69,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (5.69%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22 (6.38%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 (5.22%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e70,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e79,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 (8.66%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34 (9.86%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (7.83%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e80,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e89,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52 (6.17%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 (8.12%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (4.82%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e90,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e99,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (7.12%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (8.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (6.02%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e100,000 - \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e149,999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110 (13.05%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67 (19.42%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43 (8.63%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e150,000 or more\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63 (7.47%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34 (9.86%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29 (5.82%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolitical ideology, \u003cem\u003en(%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighly conservative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38 (4.51%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (5.51%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (3.82%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSomewhat conservative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77 (9.13%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47 (13.62%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (6.02%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e322 (38.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149 (43.19%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173 (34.74%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSomewhat liberal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e186 (22.06%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71 (20.58%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115 (23.09%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighly liberal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220 (26.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59 (17.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e161 (32.33%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrbanicity, \u003cem\u003en(%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177 (21.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (24.85%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92 (18.51%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e662 (78.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e257 (75.15%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e405 (81.49%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFactors Associated with Ownership\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models examining associations between victimization, threat, and psychosocial factors and current ownership. None of the exposures were significantly related to firearm ownership in the adjusted model, apart from anti-LGBTQ+ vicarious victimization, where respondents who indicated they knew four or more people who had experienced victimization had lower odds of firearm ownership relative to those in the reference category (\u0026ldquo;None\u0026rdquo;) (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 0.55 [95% CI, 0.31 to 0.99]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociations between victimization, threat, psychosocial factors and firearm ownership\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnadjusted\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjusted\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAOR (95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.29 (0.82\u0026ndash;2.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.26 (0.76\u0026ndash;2.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti-LGBTQ+ vicarious victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47 (0.93\u0026ndash;2.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30 (0.78\u0026ndash;2.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo or three\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81 (0.55\u0026ndash;1.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76 (0.49\u0026ndash;1.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour or more\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59 (0.35\u0026ndash;0.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55 (0.31\u0026ndash;0.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGun violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot at all worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSomewhat worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96 (0.67\u0026ndash;1.37)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91 (0.61\u0026ndash;1.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerately worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67 (0.41\u0026ndash;1.09)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59 (0.35\u0026ndash;1.01)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47 (0.24\u0026ndash;0.90)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52 (0.25\u0026ndash;1.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti-LGBTQ+ discrimination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79 (0.59\u0026ndash;1.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70 (0.82\u0026ndash;3.52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVigilance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97 (0.09\u0026ndash;0.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04 (0.85\u0026ndash;1.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreat sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87 (0.04\u0026ndash;2.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92 (0.83\u0026ndash;1.03)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntolerance of uncertainty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39 (0.14\u0026ndash;3.34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11 (0.88\u0026ndash;1.39)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;adjusted odds ratio; CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;confidence interval; OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;odds ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026dagger;Adjusted for age, race and ethnicity, gender identity, relationship status, income, and urbanicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFactors Associated with Carrying\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings from the unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models predicting carrying a loaded firearm in the prior 30 days are displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Results from the adjusted model indicate respondents who experienced personal or household violent victimization ([AOR], 2.64 [95% CI, 1.17 to 5.97]) and reported higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination ([AOR], 4.59 [95% CI, 1.48 to 14.28]) had increased odds of carrying.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociations between victimization, threat, psychosocial factors and firearm carrying\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnadjusted\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjusted\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.94 (1.42\u0026ndash;6.08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64 (1.17\u0026ndash;5.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti-LGBTQ+ vicarious victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94 (0.47\u0026ndash;1.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02 (0.48\u0026ndash;2.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo or three\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89 (0.46\u0026ndash;1.74)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93 (0.45\u0026ndash;1.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour or more\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74 (0.30\u0026ndash;1.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67 (0.25\u0026ndash;1.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGun violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot at all worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00 (reference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSomewhat worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70 (0.40\u0026ndash;1.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62 (0.34\u0026ndash;1.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerately worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77 (0.35\u0026ndash;1.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80 (0.34\u0026ndash;1.90)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery worried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69 (0.21\u0026ndash;2.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92 (0.25\u0026ndash;3.44)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti-LGBTQ+ discrimination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.31 (1.71\u0026ndash;2.32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.59 (1.48\u0026ndash;14.28)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVigilance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10 (0.17\u0026ndash;0.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07 (0.76\u0026ndash;1.50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreat sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.19 (0.09\u0026ndash;2.21)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.18 (0.99\u0026ndash;1.40)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntolerance of uncertainty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95 (0.14\u0026ndash;0.36)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83 (0.59\u0026ndash;1.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;adjusted odds ratio; CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;confidence interval; OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;odds ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026dagger;Adjusted for age, race and ethnicity, gender identity, relationship status, income, and urbanicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study sought to examine firearm ownership within the LGBTQ+ community and determine the association between experiences of victimization, firearm ownership, and firearm behaviors. We found that higher proportions of LGBTQ+ firearm owners were married, identified as White, non-Hispanic, gay, cisgender, and male, aligned with moderate to conservative political views, and reported higher incomes. On average, owners were somewhat younger than their non-firearm owning LGBTQ+ peers. These demographics are congruent with longstanding trends in the demographics of firearm ownership (e.g., white, older, politically conservative, cisgender men) (Warner et al., 2022) and reflective of emerging trends observed among underrepresented populations of firearm owners (Bond et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wolfson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior research on the association between victimization and firearm ownership has been inconclusive. Recent studies of Black (Bond et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Semenza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and female (Kelley, 2022) samples found significant associations between victimization and ownership, while others conducted in the general population did not (Kleck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Our findings suggest that among LGBTQ+ individuals there is no association between victimization and firearm ownership. However, it is important to note that our findings indicate the odds of owning a firearm were significantly lower among LGBTQ+ people who reported knowing four or more people who personally experienced a hate crime. One explanation for this is that higher rates of exposure to vicarious victimization are associated with increased threat sensitivity, which has been found to decrease the odds of firearm ownership (Bond et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it may be that as an LGBTQ+ person becomes increasingly exposed to vicarious victimization, their odds of owning a firearm decrease. However, given this, future research is needed to examine how threat sensitivity, and its responsiveness to violent victimization and vicarious hate crime victimization, among LGBTQ+ people may differ from the general population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile victimization experiences were not associated with firearm ownership, we did find that among firearm owners, experiencing violent victimization was associated with increased odds of carrying a firearm outside the home. This finding deviates from previous research which suggests no association between victimization and carrying behaviors (Semenza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, and importantly, earlier work did not include sexual orientation variables. Research indicates that higher proportions of LGBTQ+ people own firearms for self-protection and report carrying in the prior month relative to the general population (Tomsich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Our finding suggests that LGBTQ+ firearm owners who have experienced a personal or household violent victimization may feel a need to protect themselves in public spaces, resulting in them carrying a firearm outside of the home.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, and congruent with previous research (Semenza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), we found that higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination were associated with increased odds of firearm carrying behavior outside the home. One interpretation of this finding is that as LGBTQ+ firearm owners weigh the risks and benefits of carrying a firearm outside of the home, respondents reporting higher levels of discrimination may see the benefits of having access to a means of self-protection as outweighing the risk associated with carrying a firearm. In summary, LGBTQ+ firearm owners who have experienced personal or household violent victimization and higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination may perceive greater risk in public than those without these experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications for Social Policy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, our findings indicate associations between carrying firearms outside the home and victimization and higher levels of discrimination among LGBTQ+ owners. Carrying a firearm outside of the home introduces risk. However, as explained above there are real threats to the safety of LGBTQ+ people in the US. Therefore, systemic policy level interventions are needed to ensure LGBTQ+ people are safe from victimization and discrimination, which then may alter their carrying behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifically, programs such as educating law enforcement personnel on the threats of victimization and discrimination to LGBTQ+ people, and ways to protect LGBTQ+ individuals\u0026rsquo; livelihoods, wellbeing, and personal safety may help initiate systemic level policy change. Research suggests that LGBTQ+ people regularly experience law enforcement personnel as rude, mean, or judgmental (Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This is especially true for LGBTQ+ people of color (Goodman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and transgender people, who often report experiences discomfort and abuse by law enforcement personnel (Meyer \u0026amp; Paige, 2025). In addition to ensuring law enforcement personnel are trained to protect LGBTQ+ people, so too should their policies ensure appropriate consequences when they are responsible for discriminatory practices towards LGBTQ+ people. Such changes are necessary to reduce the fear of secondary victimization and mistrust LGBTQ+ people have in law enforcement which have led to underreporting of hate crime incidents in the US (Girardi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognizing the underreporting of hate crimes experienced by LGBTQ+ people is important to developing appropriate policy solutions. In addition to fear among the LGBTQ+ community it has also been suggested that many law enforcement agencies and prosecutors are ill equipped to detect hate crimes and meaningfully engage with LGBTQ+ crime victims (Palmer \u0026amp; Luka Kutateladze, 2021). Such problems require federal policy solutions and direction; however, current hate crimes legislation is variable across different states and jurisdictions (Bills \u0026amp; Vaughn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This variability is often responsible for many of the most marginalized people being omitted from protection and law enforcement personnel being unprepared to adequately intervene. While there is a need for systemic social and structural change that prioritizes the actual and perceived safety and wellbeing of LGBTQ+ firearm owners, there is also a need for policies and practices that reduce the burden of firearm violence on the LGBTQ+ community. However, it is important to consider that these policies and practices must be reflective and responsive to the unique needs and characteristics of the communities they seek to impact. \u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study\u0026rsquo;s limitations include that it was cross-sectional, and thus causation and the direction of effects cannot be determined, and reverse-causality is a possibility. Second, our survey collected self-report data, which may be subject to bias. Third, results are not generalizable due to convenience sampling. Lastly, our low completion rate, potentially related to the survey involving sensitive topics and a marginalized population, may contribute to selection bias. However, this study represents the first of its kind to explore LGBTQ+ firearm ownership and carrying behaviors and their unique victimization and discrimination experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eFirearm violence is a serious threat to LGBTQ+ people in the United States. While experiences of victimization did not relate to firearm ownership, findings indicated associations between victimization and higher levels of discrimination and firearm carrying. It is imperative that victimization and discrimination of LGBTQ+ people be addressed with meaningful policy interventions and as a public health problem to better understand firearm ownership and carrying behaviors, lessen fear, and enhance the overall health and wellbeing of this marginalized population. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCode Availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCode is available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eC.C. and A.B. wrote the main manuscript text and E.T. completed all data analysis and prepared tables 1-3.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlvarez, L., \u0026amp; P\u0026eacute;rez-Pe\u0026ntilde;a, R. 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Gun ownership among US women. \u003cem\u003eInjury Prevention\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e(1), 49\u0026ndash;54. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2018-042991\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"carrying behaviors, discrimination, firearm ownership, LGBTQ+, threat sensitivity, violent victimization","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673724/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673724/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eIntroduction.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirearm violence and victimization are a serious public health issue and yet little is known about the victimization and discrimination experiences, as well as the firearm ownership and carrying behaviors, of LGBTQ+ people.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study included 843 LGBTQ+ adults. Cross-sectional survey data were collected in the United States from April 30 to May 13, 2024, and from August 8 to August 14, 2024. Quantitative analyses were conducted using Stata 15.1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong participants, firearm owners appeared to be younger than non-owners (38.88 vs 43.93). A higher proportion of firearm owners than non-owners self-identified as gay (40.87% vs 28.11%), married (39.42% vs 21.89%), and somewhat politically conservative (13.52% vs 6.02%) or moderate (43.19% vs 34.74%). Firearm owners tended to have higher incomes than non-owners. Participants who indicated they knew four or more people who had experienced anti-LGBTQ+ victimization had lower odds of firearm ownership relative to those in the reference category. Among firearm owners, participants who experienced violent victimization reported higher levels of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination and had increased odds of carrying a firearm in public.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe factors related to firearm ownership and carrying behaviors among LGBTQ+ people could be used to plan and implement systemic level interventions to ensure LGBTQ+ people are safe from victimization and discrimination, which then may alter their carrying behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePolicy Implications.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study helps to identify the rationale for why some LGBTQ+ people are more likely to carry firearms to inform public health policy interventions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Firearm Ownership, Victimization Experience, and Threat Sensitivity Among LGBTQ+ People","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-11 18:30:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673724/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b9d89ea8-9845-4661-b002-e203ac1770aa","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 11th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-01T17:47:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-19T01:24:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-11 18:30:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8673724","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8673724","identity":"rs-8673724","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}