Design of process parameters and trabecular-inspired hybrid structures in additive manufacturing of FeCrBSiC bulk metallic glasses

Design of process parameters and trabecular-inspired hybrid structures in additive manufacturing of FeCrBSiC bulk metallic glasses | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Design of process parameters and trabecular-inspired hybrid structures in additive manufacturing of FeCrBSiC bulk metallic glasses Seong Je Park, Sangjun Jeon, Poh Huat Nicholas Ng, Seung Ki Moon This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8288173/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the additive manufacturing (AM) of FeCrBSiC, a previously unstudied Fe-based bulk metallic glass (BMG), with the aim of exploring processing parameters and evaluating the mechanical performance of a trabecular-inspired hybrid structure. To establish the process window, various combinations of laser power and scan speed are applied in powder bed fusion (PBF), followed by assessments of surface density, hardness, and crystallinity. When the high laser power is applied, crystallization occurs at high energy density within the process window. In contrast, low laser power maintains the amorphous phase across the entire process window, even at high energy densities, which leads to superior hardness. Using laser parameters that result in high surface density, high hardness, and an amorphous phase, a body-centered cubic (BCC) is fabricated first. The BCC is then used to develop a metal-polymer hybrid structure (MPHS) by infiltrating melted acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) into the interstitial spaces of the BCC. The MPHS exhibits significantly improved compressive strength compared to the BCC and bulk ABS. Finite element analysis further demonstrates that the infiltrated ABS effectively suppresses brittle fracture and promotes internal stress dispersion. Furthermore, the stress-dispersing effect is more effective when high-performance polymers such as polyimide are used. Collectively, this study highlights the process parameter exploration and MPHS to advance the structural application of Fe-based BMGs, FeCrBSiC, in AM. Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Materials science Additive Manufacturing Bulk Metallic Glass FeCrBSiC Metal-Polymer Hybrid Structure Powder Bed Fusion Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1 Introduction Bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) are a unique class of metallic materials characterized by an amorphous structure [ 1 , 2 ]. This amorphous structure shows exceptional mechanical properties such as high strength, superior hardness, excellent corrosion resistance, and good wear resistance [ 3 – 5 ]. The first metallic glass was developed in the 1960s using gold and silicon alloys [ 6 ]. To form an amorphous phase, these early BMGs required extremely rapid cooling rates, typically around 10 6 K/s [ 7 ]. Such high cooling rates could only be achieved using specialized methods like melt spinning or suction casting [ 8 , 9 ]. These processes allowed only the fabrication of thin ribbons or very small components, often with critical casting thicknesses limited to less than 1 or 2 mm [ 10 , 11 ]. Thus, the geometry and size of early BMGs were severely constrained, making them unsuitable for load-bearing or large-scale structural applications. Subsequent advances in alloy design, particularly the development of multicomponent systems such as Zr-, Mg-, Ti-, and Fe-based BMGs, could lead to a reduction in the required cooling rate [ 12 – 15 ]. In some compositions, amorphous structures could be retained at cooling rates as low as several 10 2 K/s, allowing thicker castings to be achieved [ 16 ]. Nevertheless, materials development and traditional casting methods still imposed limitations on shape complexity, production repeatability, and component scalability. The development of additive manufacturing (AM) has expanded the possibilities for fabricating BMGs beyond the constraints of conventional casting techniques [ 17 ]. In particular, powder bed fusion (PBF), a laser-based additive process, offers several advantages for forming amorphous metals in terms of cooling rate [ 2 , 18 , 19 ]. In PBF, metal powders are selectively melted and solidified layer by layer using a focused laser beam. Because each melt pool is extremely small and localized, the molten metal cools rapidly, often exceeding cooling rates of 10 4 – 10 6 K/s [ 20 – 22 ]. This rapid solidification environment is favorable for suppressing crystallization and retaining the amorphous phase during fabrication [ 23 ]. Moreover, AM can design and produce complex geometries, such as internal channels, porous networks, and lattice structures, which are difficult or impossible to achieve with conventional casting techniques [ 24 – 26 ]. Despite AM benefits, manufacturing the BMGs using AM remains challenging because the processing window is narrow and the input energy must be carefully controlled. Insufficient energy can result in poor bonding and low density, while excessive energy promotes localized crystallization, reducing the amorphous phase and compromising mechanical performance. Therefore, exploration of process parameters such as laser power, scan speed, hatch spacing, and layer thickness is essential for achieving both high density and a stable amorphous phase [ 27 , 28 ]. In particular, when dealing with newly developed or unexplored Fe-based BMG powders, determining appropriate processing conditions becomes even more critical. New materials often lack established guidelines for AM, and their thermal behavior, glass-forming ability, and crystallization tendencies under laser exposure remain uncertain. As such, process development of unstudied powder is essential to ensure successful fabrication and retention of the amorphous phase in PBF. In addition to challenges related to processing, structural limitations associated with BMGs must also be considered. Although high strength can be achieved, ductility is typically lacking, resulting in brittle fracture under mechanical loading [ 29 – 31 ]. Brittle fracture issues become more severe in lattice structures, where thin struts and localized stress concentrations often cause premature failure and low compressive strength [ 24 , 32 , 33 ]. To address brittle shortcomings, a hybrid structure design strategy, like trabecular bone, that combines a brittle structure with a more ductile phase can offer the compensate for mechanical weaknesses and improve overall structural performance [ 34 , 35 ]. Trabecular bone, commonly located in areas such as vertebral bodies and the ends of long bones, features a porous, lattice structure-like architecture composed of interconnected struts [ 36 ]. Trabecular bone is surrounded and infiltrated by bone marrow, a soft and compliant tissue that contributes to load distribution and shock absorption [ 37 ]. Motivated by this biological inspiration and the need to overcome the intrinsic brittleness of BMGs, this study proposes a lattice-based hybrid approach tailored for AM. The objective of this research is to establish process parameters of FeCrBSiC, a previously unstudied Fe-based BMG via AM, and to demonstrate structural enhancement through a biomimetic hybrid architecture. First, we identify the process window by varying laser power and scan speed, followed by the evaluation of surface density, hardness, and crystallinity. Second, we fabricate a biomimetic metal-polymer hybrid structure (MPHS) by infiltrating melted polymer into latticed BMG and assessing its mechanical performance through compression testing. Finally, we perform finite element analysis (FEA) to evaluate the internal stress distribution in both the latticed BMG and the MPHS, and investigate the effect of using different polymer materials. This study is expected to provide fundamental guidelines for the processing optimization of unexplored BMGs via AM and for the design of MPHS. 2 Experimental setup 2.1 Target materials and machine for AM The FeCrBSiC powder (Dura-Metal, Singapore) was used as an unexplored Fe-based BMG in AM, which had a size of 45 ± 15 µm. The powder is composed of 6.35% silicon, 2.51% boron, 2.18% chromium, 0.61% carbon, and iron (balance). The D10, D50, and D90 of FeCrBSiC powder are 15.610 µm, 20.394 µm, and 46.599 µm, respectively. The apparent density and flow rate of FeCrBSiC powder are 4.20 g/cm 3 and 16.33 s/50g, respectively. For the AM machine to fabricate the FeCrBSiC samples, EOS M100 (EOS GmbH, Germany) was used. The maximum build size, laser power, and laser scan speed are ϕ 100 mm x 95 mm, 300 W, and 7000 mm/s, respectively. The Yb-fibre laser is set in the EOS M100. The ceramic recoater was used because of the magnetic characteristics of FeCrBSiC powder. EOSPRINT 2.8 was used as software for the 3D deposition. All 3D shapes were modelled via PTC Creo Parametric 11 software. 2.2 Design of process parameters 2.2.1 Specimen fabrication using PBF To identify the process parameters, the cubic samples (10 mm x 10 mm) were fabricated using a scan strategy of stripes and a 47º rotation angle. The laser power and laser scan speed were varied from 50 W to 150 W and from 600 mm/s to 4000 mm/s, respectively. The hatching distance and layer width were set to the values of 70 µm and 20 µm, respectively. All processes were carried out in an argon atmosphere with less than an oxygen concentration of 0.12% to prevent the oxidation of the material. During the PBF process, the conditions of each laser power and laser scan speed were visually checked, and PBF processing was stopped when collapses were detected. 2.2.2 Physical properties evaluation To measure the surface density, hardness, and crystallinity, the specimens were manufactured to 10 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm using samples without visible collapses under the conditions mentioned in Section 2.2.1 . The additive-manufactured (AMed) specimens were removed from the build plate via wire cutting and mounted for polishing. To measure surface density, the samples were ground to #200 - #2000 and polished up to 3 and 1 µm in a sequential manner. The Olympus DP22 (Evident, Japan) was used to observe the surface density. The acquired images were analyzed using ImageJ software to quantify the surface density. For hardness analysis, the Vickers hardness was measured using a Microscan hardness tester (Omron, Japan). The Vickers hardness values were obtained by analyzing the indentation dimensions using the microscope integrated into the equipment. For each specimen, three measurements were taken, and the average value was reported. To analyze the crystallinity, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using a SmartLab XRD system (Rigaku, Japan) equipped with a 3 kW X-ray source and an XSPA detector. 2.3 Development of the MPHS 2.3.1 MPHS fabrication and evaluation To form the interface between metal and polymer in MPHS, the lattice structures were fabricated using conditions of high surface density and hardness within the process window. The body-centered cubic (BCC), which is a representative bending-dominant structure [ 38 – 40 ], was used as a lattice structure for the interface between metal and polymer. The strut diameter of the BCC lattice was set to 3.72 mm so that the metallic lattice would occupy 50% of the total MPHS volume, with the remaining volume filled by polymer. The BCC was designed to fit within a 10 × 10 × 10 mm³ unit cell, and the final specimen was fabricated by combining three unit cells (Thus, 10 × 30 × 10 mm³). To fabricate MPHS, the BCC was inserted into a simplified mold placed on a hotplate. The acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS; HF380, LG Chem, Korea) pellets were then added into the mold. For the fabrication of MPHS, heat (300 ºC) of the hot plate was applied to melt and infiltrate the ABS into the interstitial spaces of the BCC for 30 minutes. The universal testing machine of Instron 5500 (Instron, USA) was used to measure the compressive strengths of BCC, bulk ABS, and MPHS. All specimens were tested at a compression speed of 2 mm/min at room temperature. The compressive strengths of BCC, bulk ABS, and MPHS were evaluated by averaging the results of three measurements. 2.3.2 FEA of the MPHS To compare the internal stress response, FEA was performed on the BCC and MPHS using Ansys Workbench 2023. The carbon steel and ABS were conducted using basic properties provided by Ansys Workbench. The interface between the lattice structure and polymer was defined using a bonded contact condition. To replicate the conditions of the compression test, the fixed support was assigned at the bottom of the BCC and the MPHS, while a displacement (0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.10 mm) was applied to the top surface of the BCC and the MPHS. To investigate the influence of polymer type on the mechanical response further, ABS was subsequently replaced with a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) as a commodity plastic and a polyimide (PI) as a super engineering plastic. The properties of HDPE and PI were also used basic properties provided by Ansys Workbench. The behavior of each MPHS configuration was then analyzed and compared. All models were meshed with a uniform element size of 0.5 mm. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Effect of laser power and laser scan speed for process optimization In traditional metallic materials such as titanium, stainless steel, cobalt chrome, and inconel, an increase in laser energy density generally leads to higher surface density and hardness [ 41 – 44 ]. However, when the energy density exceeds a certain threshold, a keyhole defect tends to form, resulting in porosity and a subsequent reduction in both density and mechanical properties [ 45 ]. Therefore, the optimal laser processing condition can typically be defined as the maximum energy density that avoids keyhole formation. In contrast, for BMG, determining the optimal processing window is more complex due to the need to preserve the amorphous structure [ 46 ]. While higher energy densities below the keyhole threshold can improve the surface density, higher energy densities also promote localized crystallization, which decreases the amorphous phase and reduces hardness [ 47 , 48 ]. Thus, for BMGs, the optimal condition must be carefully selected to ensure high surface density and low crystallinity, thereby preserving the superior mechanical properties associated with the amorphous structure [ 49 ]. 3.1.1 High laser power To investigate the AM-ability of FeCrBSiC powder, which had not previously been explored in AM, preliminary samples were fabricated across a wide range of process parameters. As shown on the left side of Fig. 1 , laser power was varied from 60 W to 140 W, and the laser scan speed ranged from 600 to 900 mm/s first. As observed in conventional PBF, higher laser power combined with lower scan speeds tends to result in over-melting and surface distortion due to excessive energy input [ 50 , 51 ]. In contrast to typical metals, however, the current study revealed fracture-like features caused by localized thermal accumulation. This behavior is characteristic of BMG, where excessive laser energy promotes crystallization-induced embrittlement and cracking. Such phenomena have been commonly reported in previous studies on laser-based AM of BMG [ 10 , 52 , 53 ]. Following the preliminary investigation, a laser power of 120 W was selected for further analysis as shown on the right side of Fig. 1 . Based on a laser power of 120 W, cubic samples with dimensions of 10 × 10 × 10 mm³ were fabricated with laser scan speeds ranging from 2000 mm/s to 4000 mm/s to study the effects of scan speed under high laser power input conditions. The collapse was observed at scan speeds up to 2400 mm/s, which is attributed to fracture induced by excessive thermal accumulation during the melting process. In contrast, stable builds were achieved at scan speeds above 2600 mm/s. Based on these observations, specimens fabricated within the scan speed range of 2400 mm/s to 3600 mm/s were selected for detailed analysis. As shown in Fig. 2 , surface density, Vickers hardness, and crystallization were measured to evaluate the effects of laser scan speed on the physical properties of the AMed samples. Although collapse occurred at a laser scan speed of 2400 mm/s, the sample still exhibited a relatively high surface density of 92.1%, as shown in Fig. 2 (a). As the laser scan speed increased, the surface density progressively declined, indicating insufficient energy distribution and incomplete melting during the fabrication process. As shown in Fig. 2 (b), the Vickers hardness showed a high value at lower energy densities (3000 mm/s and 3200 mm/s) compared to high energy densities (2400 mm/s, 2600 mm/s, and 2800 mm/s). This trend is consistent with previous findings that BMG exhibit higher hardness values when an amorphous structure is retained [ 48 ]. At lower laser scan speeds, the higher energy density promoted crystallization, leading to a reduction in hardness. In contrast, the relatively high hardness observed at 2400 mm/s can be attributed to the high surface density, despite partial crystallization. In addition, a brittle, glass-like fracture occurred near the indentation mark at laser scan speeds of 3200 mm/s and 3400 mm/s. As shown in the XRD results in Fig. 2 (c), samples processed at scan speeds up to 2800 mm/s exhibited a distinct crystallization peak near 41–43°. In contrast, laser scan speeds above 3000 mm/s showed broad amorphous peaks, confirming the preservation of the non-crystalline structure. 3.1.2 Low laser power While Section 3.1.1 analyzed the physical characteristics of samples fabricated at high laser power, this section focuses on those produced under low laser power conditions. Samples were AMed using laser powers of 60 W, 70 W, and 80 W, with scan speeds up to 1600 mm/s, as shown in Fig. 3 . At a laser power of 80 W, collapse occurred even at the relatively high laser scan speed of 1600 mm/s (Low energy density), indicating the accumulation of heat. In contrast, at 70 W, stable builds were achieved at scan speeds of 1500 mm/s and 1600 mm/s. When the laser power was further reduced to 60 W, stable fabrication was observed across a range of scan speeds, specifically from 1300 mm/s to 1600 mm/s, without collapse. The measurements of surface density, Vickers hardness, and crystallization for the samples that were fabricated without defects are presented in Fig. 4 . These samples correspond to the red boxed regions in Fig. 3 . As shown in Fig. 4 (a), the conditions with relatively high energy density, specifically 70 W − 1500 mm/s and 60 W − 1300 mm/s, resulted in surface densities exceeding 83% and 86%, respectively. In addition, all samples in this group showed higher Vickers hardness values compared to those presented in the high laser power experiment, shown in Fig. 4 (b). In particular, it showed a Vickers hardness of over 1010 HV in 60W − 1300mm/s. The relatively high Vickers hardness observed in all samples can be attributed to the retention of the amorphous structure as shown in Fig. 4 (c). In the high laser power experiment, as shown in Fig. 2 , samples with an amorphous structure exhibited glass-like fracture near the indentation mark, particularly at scan speeds of 3200 mm/s and 3400 mm/s. In contrast, in this low laser power experiment, although the samples also retained an amorphous structure, no glass-like fracture was observed around the indentation. Instead, slight cracks were present. This difference is attributed to the relatively higher surface density of the samples fabricated by low laser power compared to samples fabricated by high laser power. 3.2 Characterization of the MPHS BMG is known for exceptional mechanical properties, but the inherent brittleness of BMG severely limits in terms of structural applications [ 54 ]. The brittleness becomes even more critical when BMGs are fabricated in lattice structure forms, where localized stress concentrations and thin struts often lead to premature failure and extremely poor compressive performance [ 33 ]. Interestingly, nature offers a biological solution to this challenge. Inspired by trabecular bone, we developed MPHS by infiltrating melted polymer into a latticed BMG. 3.2.1 Comparison of the compressive strength To evaluate the mechanical performance of the proposed MPHS, compression tests were conducted on three different types of specimens: the BCC, the bulk ABS, and the MPHS fabricated by ABS infiltration into the BCC. The results are summarized in Fig. 5 . The BCC structure exhibited the lowest compressive strength of 10.4 MPa, primarily due to the intrinsic brittleness of the BMG and the presence of stress concentrations within the thin struts. Furthermore, the BCC is a bending-dominated structure, where compressive loads cause bending in the struts rather than axial compression [ 55 ]. Bending easily causes fractures in brittle materials such as BMGs [ 56 ]. In contrast, the bulk ABS specimen showed a compressive strength of 34.5 MPa, benefiting from its ductile and energy-absorbing characteristics. Notably, the MPHS with the BCC and ABS polymer infiltration achieved the highest compressive strength of 47.1 MPa. Significant enhancement of compressive strength confirms the synergistic effect of the MPHS design. The polymer phase effectively infiltrated the interstitial voids within the lattice, redistributed the applied loads, and mitigated localized stress concentrations, thereby delaying failure and improving overall structural integrity. The enhanced compressive performance of the MPHS originates from a ductile-phase toughening mechanism. The polymer phase inhibits catastrophic shear band propagation and bridges fractured ligaments. It also redistributes localized stress concentrations across the lattice nodes, thereby delaying brittle failure and promoting stable energy absorption. These findings highlight the possibility of hybridization strategies in overcoming the mechanical limitations of latticed BMG. However, a previous study has reported compressive strengths of approximately 40 MPa for BCC lattice structures fabricated using other Zr-based BMGs [ 32 ]. Compressive strength is substantially higher than the 10.4 MPa observed in this study. The BMG composition used in this work is novel and has not been previously studied in the context of additive manufacturing. Furthermore, there are significant differences in material type, unit cell geometry, lattice volume fraction, and the number of unit cells used in the test specimens. These variations in both material and structural design strongly influence the mechanical response of the lattice structures [ 57 , 58 ]. The enhanced compressive performance of the MPHS originates from a ductile-phase toughening mechanism, where the polymer phase inhibits catastrophic shear band propagation, bridges fractured ligaments, and redistributes localized stress concentrations across the lattice nodes. This significantly delays brittle failure and promotes stable energy absorption. 3.2.2 Mechanical characterization of the MPHS Figure 6 presents the FEA results for the BCC structure and the MPHS with ABS infiltration under compression loading. Figure 6 (a) shows the stress distribution of the BCC, while Fig. 6 (b) illustrates the stress distribution of the BCC inside the MPHS, with the ABS region hidden for clarity at the boundary condition of 0.02 mm displacement. Figure 6 (c) compares the maximum internal stress obtained through FEA for each structure under various displacement boundary conditions (0.02 mm, 0.04 mm, 0.06 mm, 0.08 mm, and 0.10 mm) and polymer. Notably, the internal maximum stress in the BCC is consistently higher than that in the MPHS. The lower internal maximum stress observed in the MPHS indicates that it is structurally stronger [ 40 ]. This suggests that the polymer in the MPHS contributes to stress distribution, thereby alleviating localized stress concentrations within the MPHS. The experimentally measured compressive strength in Section 3.1.1 revealed that the MPHS exhibited the highest mechanical performance among the specimens. This result is consistent with the FEA findings in Section 3.1.2 , where the internal maximum stress under compressive loading was lower in the MPHS than in the BCC. The aligned trends observed in both experimental and numerical analyses confirm that the polymer effectively mitigates stress concentration and enhances the structural safety of the MPHS. Furthermore, Fig. 6 (c) also presents the internal maximum stress in MPHSs incorporating different types of polymers, ranging from a commodity plastic, HDPE, to an engineering plastic, ABS, and a super engineering plastic, PI. The results indicate that as the mechanical properties of the polymer are superior, the internal stress within the MPHS under compressive loading decreases. The findings support the conclusion that polymers having superior properties can contribute to the superior compressive strength of the MPHS. Conclusion This study investigated the additive manufacturing of FeCrBSiC, a previously unexplored Fe-based BMG, and the application of BMG in terms of MPHS inspired by trabecular bone. It was found that crystallization occurred under high laser power of 120 W, while an amorphous phase with a Vickers hardness of 1010 HV was achieved under low laser power of 60 W, even at relatively high energy input. Furthermore, a BCC was fabricated at laser conditions of 60W-1300 mm/s and subsequently infiltrated with melted ABS to manufacture the MPHS. Compression testing showed that the MPHS achieved a compressive strength of 47.1 MPa, outperforming both the BCC of 10.4 MPa and bulk ABS of 34.5 MPa. Moreover, FEA further confirmed that the polymer infiltration alleviated the internal stress of BCC. Results of FEA, PI, a super engineering plastic, showed the most effective stress reduction, demonstrating the benefit of high-performance polymers in structural reinforcement. Future work will apply AI-based Bayesian optimization to efficiently find out laser parameters based on this study, which simultaneously achieves high surface density (more than 99%), superior hardness, and amorphous phase. In addition, the current hotplate-based polymer infiltration will be replaced with insert molding to improve manufacturing. The MPHS will also be adapted using various lattice structures and designs to further tailor structural performance for diverse industrial applications. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. Funding This research is conducted by the Industrial Technology Innovation Program (KEIT project no. 20024344, Development of AI-based high carbon steel alloy design and sintering-based additive manufacturing technology for 7.0 L/Hr-level high-speed production of powertrain components with tensile strength over 1.0 GPa in the next-generation mobility) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy of the Republic of Korea. It is supported by Singapore Centre for 3D Printing (SC3DP). Author Contribution S.J.P. proposed the research concept, wrote and edited the manuscript, and contributed to all experimental and analytical activities. S.J. and P.H.N.N. performed the additive manufacturing of the sample and assisted with data acquisition. S.K.M. acquired project funding, reviewed and edited the manuscript, guided the research direction, and provided overall supervision. Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. References Sohrabi S, Fu J, Li L, et al (2024) Manufacturing of metallic glass components: Processes, structures and properties. Progress in Materials Science 144:101283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2024.101283 Frey M, Wegner J, Ruschel LM, et al (2025) Additive manufacturing of Ni62Nb38 metallic glass via laser powder bed fusion. Prog Addit Manuf 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-025-01007-6 Xu T, Pang S, Li H, Zhang T (2015) Corrosion resistant Cr-based bulk metallic glasses with high strength and hardness. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 410:20–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2014.12.006 Lin B, Yang K, Bao X, et al (2022) Enhanced wear, corrosion, and corrosive-wear resistance of the biocompatible Ti-based bulk metallic glass by oxidation treatment. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 576:121231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2021.121231 Zhang G, Sun W, Xie L, et al (2022) Multicomponent Fe-Based Bulk Metallic Glasses with Excellent Corrosion and Wear Resistances. Metals 12:564. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12040564 Dmowski W, Yokoyama Y, Chuang A, et al (2010) Structural rejuvenation in a bulk metallic glass induced by severe plastic deformation. Acta Materialia 58:429–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2009.09.021 Kozieł T, Pajor K, Gondek Ł (2020) Cooling rate evaluation during solidification in the suction casting process. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9:13502–13508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.09.082 Chen FH, Chang KF, Tsao CYA, et al (2009) Microstructures and mechanical behaviors of Mg58Cu31Gd11 and Mg65Cu25Gd10 amorphous alloys synthesized by injection casting and melt spinning. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 483:32–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2008.08.101 Ouyang G, Macziewski CR, Jensen B, et al (2021) Effects of Solidification Cooling Rates on Microstructures and Physical Properties of Fe-6.5%Si Alloys. Acta Materialia 205:116575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2020.116575 Mahbooba Z, Thorsson L, Unosson M, et al (2018) Additive manufacturing of an iron-based bulk metallic glass larger than the critical casting thickness. Applied Materials Today 11:264–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2018.02.011 Wegner J, Bruckhaus L, Schroer MA, et al (2024) Zr-based bulk metallic glasses in PBF-LB/M: near-polished surface quality in the as-built state. Prog Addit Manuf 9:585–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00667-0 Gu J-L, Shao Y, Yao K-F (2019) The novel Ti-based metallic glass with excellent glass forming ability and an elastic constant dependent glass forming criterion. Materialia 8:100433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2019.100433 Li Y, Shen Y, Leu MC, Tsai H-L (2019) Mechanical properties of Zr-based bulk metallic glass parts fabricated by laser-foil-printing additive manufacturing. Materials Science and Engineering: A 743:404–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.11.056 Li HX, Lu ZC, Wang SL, et al (2019) Fe-based bulk metallic glasses: Glass formation, fabrication, properties and applications. Progress in Materials Science 103:235–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2019.01.003 Bin SJB, Fong KS, Chua BW, Gupta M (2022) Mg-based bulk metallic glasses: A review of recent developments. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 10:899–914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2021.10.010 Lucena FA de, Kiminami CS, Ramos Moreira Afonso C (2020) New compositions of Fe–Co–Nb–B–Y BMG with wide supercooled liquid range, over 100 K. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9:9174–9181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.06.035 Alami AH, Ghani Olabi A, Alashkar A, et al (2023) Additive manufacturing in the aerospace and automotive industries: Recent trends and role in achieving sustainable development goals. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14:102516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2023.102516 Sohrabi N, Ivas T, Jhabvala J, et al (2024) Quantitative prediction of crystallization in laser powder bed fusion of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass with high oxygen content. Materials & Design 239:112744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2024.112744 Yang Z, Markl M, Körner C (2022) Predictive simulation of bulk metallic glass crystallization during laser powder bed fusion. Additive Manufacturing 59:103121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.103121 Pauly S, Wang P, Kühn U, Kosiba K (2018) Experimental determination of cooling rates in selectively laser-melted eutectic Al-33Cu. Additive Manufacturing 22:753–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.05.034 Everton SK, Hirsch M, Stravroulakis P, et al (2016) Review of in-situ process monitoring and in-situ metrology for metal additive manufacturing. Materials & Design 95:431–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.01.099 Ghomashchi R, Nafisi S (2023) Solidification of Al12Si Melt Pool in Laser Powder Bed Fusion. J of Materi Eng and Perform 32:10943–10955. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-023-08502-3 Ren J, Wang D, Wu X, Yang Y (2025) Laser-based additive manufacturing of bulk metallic glasses: A review on principle, microstructure and performance. Materials & Design 252:113750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2025.113750 Park SJ, Lee JH, Yang J, et al (2022) Lightweight injection mold using additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V lattice structures. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 79:759–766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.05.022 Park SJ, Heogh W, Yang J, et al (2024) Meta-structure of amorphous-inspired 65.1Co28.2Cr5.3Mo lattices augmented by artificial intelligence. Adv Compos Hybrid Mater 7:224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42114-024-01039-6 Pham M-S, Liu C, Todd I, Lertthanasarn J (2019) Damage-tolerant architected materials inspired by crystal microstructure. Nature 565:305–311. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0850-3 Żrodowski Ł, Wróblewski R, Leonowicz M, et al (2023) How to control the crystallization of metallic glasses during laser powder bed fusion? Towards part-specific 3D printing of in situ composites. Additive Manufacturing 76:103775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103775 Sohrabi N, Jhabvala J, Logé RE (2021) Additive Manufacturing of Bulk Metallic Glasses—Process, Challenges and Properties: A Review. Metals 11:1279. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11081279 Yin J, Ma X, Zhou Z (2014) Composition and size dependent brittle-to-malleable transitions of Mg-based bulk metallic glasses. Materials Science and Engineering: A 605:286–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.03.065 Best JP, Ast J, Li B, et al (2020) Relating fracture toughness to micro-pillar compression response for a laser powder bed additive manufactured bulk metallic glass. Materials Science and Engineering: A 770:138535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.138535 Sun BA, Wang WH (2015) The fracture of bulk metallic glasses. Progress in Materials Science 74:211–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.05.002 Tan Z, Jiang X, Xi Z, et al (2024) Fabrication of Zr-based bulk metallic glass lattice structure with high specific strength by laser powder bed fusion. Additive Manufacturing 95:104556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104556 Thorsson L, Unosson M, Teresa Pérez-Prado M, et al (2022) Selective laser melting of a Fe-Si-Cr-B-C-based complex-shaped amorphous soft-magnetic electric motor rotor with record dimensions. Materials & Design 215:110483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110483 Tilton M, Borjali A, Isaacson A, et al (2021) On structure and mechanics of biomimetic meta-biomaterials fabricated via metal additive manufacturing. Materials & Design 201:109498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109498 Hameed P, Liu C-F, Ummethala R, et al (2021) Biomorphic porous Ti6Al4V gyroid scaffolds for bone implant applications fabricated by selective laser melting. Prog Addit Manuf 6:455–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-021-00210-5 Oftadeh R, Perez-Viloria M, Villa-Camacho JC, et al (2015) Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Trabecular Bone: A Review. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 137:. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4029176 Wang F, Metzner F, Osterhoff G, et al (2022) The role of bone marrow on the mechanical properties of trabecular bone: a systematic review. BioMed Eng OnLine 21:80. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-022-01051-1 Park SJ, Lee JH, Yang J, et al (2023) Enhanced Energy Absorption of Additive-Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V Parts via Hybrid Lattice Structures. Micromachines 14:1982. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14111982 Lee JH, Park SJ, Yang J, et al (2022) Crack Guidance Utilizing the Orientation of Additive Manufactured Lattice Structure. Int J Precis Eng Manuf 23:797–805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12541-022-00654-x Park SJ, Choi JP, Lee P-H, Moon SK (2025) Strategic design and simulation of interfaces for enhanced joint performance in metal–polymer hybrid structures. Journal of Computational Design and Engineering 12:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwaf029 Sun S-H, Hagihara K, Ishimoto T, et al (2021) Comparison of microstructure, crystallographic texture, and mechanical properties in Ti–15Mo–5Zr–3Al alloys fabricated via electron and laser beam powder bed fusion technologies. Additive Manufacturing 47:102329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102329 Yonehara M, Kato C, Ikeshoji T-T, et al (2021) Correlation between surface texture and internal defects in laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing. Sci Rep 11:22874. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02240-z Marin F, de Souza AF, Mikowski A, et al (2023) Energy Density Effect on the Interface Zone in Parts Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion on Machined Bases. Int J of Precis Eng and Manuf-Green Tech 10:905–923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40684-022-00470-8 Gu Z, Sharma S, Riley DA, et al (2023) A universal predictor-based machine learning model for optimal process maps in laser powder bed fusion process. J Intell Manuf 34:3341–3363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-022-02004-0 Guo L, Wang H, Liu H, et al (2023) Understanding keyhole induced-porosities in laser powder bed fusion of aluminum and elimination strategy. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 184:103977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2022.103977 Marattukalam JJ, Pacheco V, Karlsson D, et al (2020) Development of process parameters for selective laser melting of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass. Additive Manufacturing 33:101124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101124 Jang J-H, Kim H-G, Kim H-J, Lee D-G (2021) Crystallization and Hardness Change of the Ti-Based Bulk Metallic Glass Manufactured by a Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process. Metals 11:1049. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071049 Xie F, Chen Q, Gao J, Li Y (2019) Laser 3D Printing of Fe-Based Bulk Metallic Glass: Microstructure Evolution and Crack Propagation. J of Materi Eng and Perform 28:3478–3486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-019-04103-1 Sohrabi N, Jhabvala J, Kurtuldu G, et al (2021) Additive manufacturing of a precious bulk metallic glass. Applied Materials Today 24:101080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2021.101080 Kuntoğlu M, Salur E, Canli E, et al (2023) A state of the art on surface morphology of selective laser-melted metallic alloys. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 127:1103–1142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11534-7 Liu D, Yue W, Kang J, Wang C (2022) Effect of Laser Remelting Strategy on the Forming Ability of Cemented Carbide Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Materials 15:2380. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072380 Best JP, Ostergaard HE, Li B, et al (2020) Fracture and fatigue behaviour of a laser additive manufactured Zr-based bulk metallic glass. Additive Manufacturing 36:101416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101416 Madge SV, Greer AL (2021) Laser additive manufacturing of metallic glasses: issues in vitrification and mechanical properties. Oxford Open Materials Science 1:itab015. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfmat/itab015 Jafary-Zadeh M, Praveen Kumar G, Branicio PS, et al (2018) A Critical Review on Metallic Glasses as Structural Materials for Cardiovascular Stent Applications. Journal of Functional Biomaterials 9:19. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb9010019 Dash J, Lozanovski B, Downing D, et al (2025) A hybrid continuum-beam optimisation model: the virtual extensometer method for efficient optimisation of lattice materials. Prog Addit Manuf 10:2535–2557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00766-y Quintana-Alonso I, Fleck NA (2009) Fracture of Brittle Lattice Materials: A Review. In: Major Accomplishments in Composite Materials and Sandwich Structures. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 799–816 Maconachie T, Leary M, Lozanovski B, et al (2019) SLM lattice structures: Properties, performance, applications and challenges. Materials & Design 183:108137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108137 Mahmud MS, Hassan MS, Marinelarena-Diaz A, et al (2025) Design and evaluation of selective laser sintering of thermoset lattice structures. Prog Addit Manuf 10:2227–2246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00747-1 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8288173","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":561873093,"identity":"6622c0d2-0572-4122-997a-54f3b55dbdf7","order_by":0,"name":"Seong Je Park","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gyeongsang National University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seong","middleName":"Je","lastName":"Park","suffix":""},{"id":561873094,"identity":"3ae65539-a466-44f1-9622-9d1b2a3d01d1","order_by":1,"name":"Sangjun Jeon","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanyang Technological University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sangjun","middleName":"","lastName":"Jeon","suffix":""},{"id":561873097,"identity":"f9d697c4-9b66-46c4-97b9-f4054f81a729","order_by":2,"name":"Poh Huat Nicholas Ng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanyang Technological University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Poh","middleName":"Huat Nicholas","lastName":"Ng","suffix":""},{"id":561873099,"identity":"a7b9a2ce-4a9b-43d6-8dd0-6d4c5015f9f0","order_by":3,"name":"Seung Ki Moon","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHjBpg8whTksahCZFy2EStMj3nE588HHH+Tx7iQTGB2/bGOzlHQhoMTjbu9lw5pnbxTwSCcyGc9sYEjceIKSFn3ebNG/b7cQeiQQ2IIMhwbCBkMP6wVrOgbSw/wZqsSeoheFsL0jLAbAtzEAtjPMJ6TA4cxbol7bkxJ4zD5sl55yTSNxASIt8T+7GBx/b7BLb25MPfnhTZmMvT9BhCMAIUivBYHCAeC0we0mwZRSMglEwCkYGAADYTz0C7vRlPQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Nanyang Technological University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seung","middleName":"Ki","lastName":"Moon","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-05 13:23:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8288173/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8288173/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":98756846,"identity":"ad49d6bd-876f-411c-a786-a76ef97f59c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"doc","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1815040,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"RevisedManuscriptDataavailability.doc","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/845945e1dfd9316326424b74.doc"},{"id":98756845,"identity":"c2c6f595-a4ea-4aad-a863-455e20dbba67","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":6019,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"48c29dbb3f464d51b87bae5d1b2f599b.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/47aa25bc547ad7da6b3bbc13.json"},{"id":98756863,"identity":"4262fe3f-8b7c-4bf3-8013-a5781f011f8f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":118123,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"48c29dbb3f464d51b87bae5d1b2f599b1enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/b142de1b71897b9a24f056c6.xml"},{"id":98756859,"identity":"b4a5e87b-b448-4efc-ae95-f1018be2be49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":333975,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/d7141c4044ba999b11ee5bba.png"},{"id":98778527,"identity":"8c6e242b-1d91-45d1-920e-b63107841e12","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:29:24","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":189357,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/2d069147f01d429155f87031.png"},{"id":98756853,"identity":"919a6f0f-3823-4e0a-89cc-961ace4b4262","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":364051,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/1a6fc85a958bf961d69832eb.png"},{"id":98777965,"identity":"4b8ddc50-ba28-4c1e-86ec-ce625f38c6fd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:28:44","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":176658,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/8ee38c8ba57b1d6c943f9046.png"},{"id":98778574,"identity":"5b9e939a-90a0-4551-a97e-3fabbc42ec78","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:29:27","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":64806,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/e3efd9d0e2806a1e351ec905.png"},{"id":98756856,"identity":"036597b0-7d74-4e31-a23b-e6b8da298422","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":186096,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/149ec162ae559f16cbfb0b5f.png"},{"id":98756860,"identity":"7477d28b-0034-4cb5-a2d6-3debf8fb6b38","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":69878,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/bab1c01883ba338286f95030.png"},{"id":98777964,"identity":"234f888e-1f42-4152-b783-f02cd2b545f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:28:44","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":50331,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/56b4c1029f4a4128deb05ac2.png"},{"id":98756865,"identity":"56b1c72c-30df-41f9-b021-ad16d7f4c31a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":77536,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/8ba60582328aa84c9b556e31.png"},{"id":98778709,"identity":"182f3f86-389b-4937-a9d1-41c54a413556","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:29:32","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":46024,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/abc1110464d949538daaf0cf.png"},{"id":98756851,"identity":"16ff9603-1437-471e-9e46-6bea5cf1288a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":17926,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/9297fb6702ddfaad1e1a64c5.png"},{"id":98778671,"identity":"3c8f44ba-3773-4cfe-bcf7-4ac0fd1b6349","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:29:29","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":44434,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/b3a4074c0c95e31a14e531fc.png"},{"id":98756867,"identity":"a8b0b7f4-e3aa-4504-9045-a94eb462c996","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"xml","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":117026,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"48c29dbb3f464d51b87bae5d1b2f599b1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/49c196fd03377511fe3fe876.xml"},{"id":98778496,"identity":"9f474088-67c0-4107-837e-cb481d716de9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:29:22","extension":"html","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":130734,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/b067777d925a4c0193f6ced3.html"},{"id":98778193,"identity":"10cb3dc7-3af9-48e8-a0e3-f3886f08926f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:28:59","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":176410,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe fabricated FeCrBSiC cubes under high laser power conditions according to the various laser scan speeds\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/138ac1cd32aed9999593720d.png"},{"id":98779729,"identity":"10cf48d0-a364-4fce-a73e-5ec7a69270ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:30:40","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":195696,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe (a) surface densities, (b) Vickers hardness, and (c) crystallinity of the fabricated FeCrBSiC cubes under high laser power conditions\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/8b5833db5a51b7a0ce1e1187.png"},{"id":98779465,"identity":"2a46b534-2e47-4dbb-98a5-5ded19553794","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:30:22","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":239693,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe fabricated FeCrBSiC cubes under low laser power conditions according to the various laser scan speeds\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/848e5e9ce2695212f507c570.png"},{"id":98778292,"identity":"fd5d9319-1407-4114-85ef-cfbd63efd6fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:29:08","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":146215,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe (a) surface densities, (b) Vickers hardness, and (c) crystallinity of the fabricated FeCrBSiC cubes under low laser power conditions\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/c186b02624a95805dab2c56c.png"},{"id":98756848,"identity":"af2a90de-9087-4436-82a8-e379c5b1e266","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 09:35:46","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":111270,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResults for compressive test of BCC, bulk ABS, and MPHS\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/5c8abfda2467b4cb672ca75b.png"},{"id":98778137,"identity":"c624a828-fd72-4f5d-bd0e-369bcea6644f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:28:56","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":131050,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStress distribution in the (a) BCC and (b) MPHS under a boundary condition of 0.02 mm displacement. (c) Comparison of the internal maximum stress in the BCC and MPHS according to the displacement boundary conditions and polymer types.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/447362b2adc78be35da5d97d.png"},{"id":101751147,"identity":"e21fbc96-1960-4ffb-af85-9395d295da57","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 10:16:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1577656,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8288173/v1/5177ad5c-6099-4f1b-9a6c-75467b97f4c6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Design of process parameters and trabecular-inspired hybrid structures in additive manufacturing of FeCrBSiC bulk metallic glasses","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBulk metallic glasses (BMGs) are a unique class of metallic materials characterized by an amorphous structure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. This amorphous structure shows exceptional mechanical properties such as high strength, superior hardness, excellent corrosion resistance, and good wear resistance [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The first metallic glass was developed in the 1960s using gold and silicon alloys [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. To form an amorphous phase, these early BMGs required extremely rapid cooling rates, typically around 10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e K/s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Such high cooling rates could only be achieved using specialized methods like melt spinning or suction casting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. These processes allowed only the fabrication of thin ribbons or very small components, often with critical casting thicknesses limited to less than 1 or 2 mm [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the geometry and size of early BMGs were severely constrained, making them unsuitable for load-bearing or large-scale structural applications. Subsequent advances in alloy design, particularly the development of multicomponent systems such as Zr-, Mg-, Ti-, and Fe-based BMGs, could lead to a reduction in the required cooling rate [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13 CR14\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. In some compositions, amorphous structures could be retained at cooling rates as low as several 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e K/s, allowing thicker castings to be achieved [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, materials development and traditional casting methods still imposed limitations on shape complexity, production repeatability, and component scalability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe development of additive manufacturing (AM) has expanded the possibilities for fabricating BMGs beyond the constraints of conventional casting techniques [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. In particular, powder bed fusion (PBF), a laser-based additive process, offers several advantages for forming amorphous metals in terms of cooling rate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In PBF, metal powders are selectively melted and solidified layer by layer using a focused laser beam. Because each melt pool is extremely small and localized, the molten metal cools rapidly, often exceeding cooling rates of 10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; 10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e K/s [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. This rapid solidification environment is favorable for suppressing crystallization and retaining the amorphous phase during fabrication [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, AM can design and produce complex geometries, such as internal channels, porous networks, and lattice structures, which are difficult or impossible to achieve with conventional casting techniques [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite AM benefits, manufacturing the BMGs using AM remains challenging because the processing window is narrow and the input energy must be carefully controlled. Insufficient energy can result in poor bonding and low density, while excessive energy promotes localized crystallization, reducing the amorphous phase and compromising mechanical performance. Therefore, exploration of process parameters such as laser power, scan speed, hatch spacing, and layer thickness is essential for achieving both high density and a stable amorphous phase [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. In particular, when dealing with newly developed or unexplored Fe-based BMG powders, determining appropriate processing conditions becomes even more critical. New materials often lack established guidelines for AM, and their thermal behavior, glass-forming ability, and crystallization tendencies under laser exposure remain uncertain. As such, process development of unstudied powder is essential to ensure successful fabrication and retention of the amorphous phase in PBF.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to challenges related to processing, structural limitations associated with BMGs must also be considered. Although high strength can be achieved, ductility is typically lacking, resulting in brittle fracture under mechanical loading [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Brittle fracture issues become more severe in lattice structures, where thin struts and localized stress concentrations often cause premature failure and low compressive strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. To address brittle shortcomings, a hybrid structure design strategy, like trabecular bone, that combines a brittle structure with a more ductile phase can offer the compensate for mechanical weaknesses and improve overall structural performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Trabecular bone, commonly located in areas such as vertebral bodies and the ends of long bones, features a porous, lattice structure-like architecture composed of interconnected struts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Trabecular bone is surrounded and infiltrated by bone marrow, a soft and compliant tissue that contributes to load distribution and shock absorption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Motivated by this biological inspiration and the need to overcome the intrinsic brittleness of BMGs, this study proposes a lattice-based hybrid approach tailored for AM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe objective of this research is to establish process parameters of FeCrBSiC, a previously unstudied Fe-based BMG via AM, and to demonstrate structural enhancement through a biomimetic hybrid architecture. First, we identify the process window by varying laser power and scan speed, followed by the evaluation of surface density, hardness, and crystallinity. Second, we fabricate a biomimetic metal-polymer hybrid structure (MPHS) by infiltrating melted polymer into latticed BMG and assessing its mechanical performance through compression testing. Finally, we perform finite element analysis (FEA) to evaluate the internal stress distribution in both the latticed BMG and the MPHS, and investigate the effect of using different polymer materials. This study is expected to provide fundamental guidelines for the processing optimization of unexplored BMGs via AM and for the design of MPHS.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Experimental setup","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Target materials and machine for AM\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FeCrBSiC powder (Dura-Metal, Singapore) was used as an unexplored Fe-based BMG in AM, which had a size of 45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15 \u0026micro;m. The powder is composed of 6.35% silicon, 2.51% boron, 2.18% chromium, 0.61% carbon, and iron (balance). The D10, D50, and D90 of FeCrBSiC powder are 15.610 \u0026micro;m, 20.394 \u0026micro;m, and 46.599 \u0026micro;m, respectively. The apparent density and flow rate of FeCrBSiC powder are 4.20 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 16.33 s/50g, respectively. For the AM machine to fabricate the FeCrBSiC samples, EOS M100 (EOS GmbH, Germany) was used. The maximum build size, laser power, and laser scan speed are ϕ 100 mm x 95 mm, 300 W, and 7000 mm/s, respectively. The Yb-fibre laser is set in the EOS M100. The ceramic recoater was used because of the magnetic characteristics of FeCrBSiC powder. EOSPRINT 2.8 was used as software for the 3D deposition. All 3D shapes were modelled via PTC Creo Parametric 11 software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Design of process parameters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Specimen fabrication using PBF\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify the process parameters, the cubic samples (10 mm x 10 mm) were fabricated using a scan strategy of stripes and a 47\u0026ordm; rotation angle. The laser power and laser scan speed were varied from 50 W to 150 W and from 600 mm/s to 4000 mm/s, respectively. The hatching distance and layer width were set to the values of 70 \u0026micro;m and 20 \u0026micro;m, respectively. All processes were carried out in an argon atmosphere with less than an oxygen concentration of 0.12% to prevent the oxidation of the material. During the PBF process, the conditions of each laser power and laser scan speed were visually checked, and PBF processing was stopped when collapses were detected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Physical properties evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo measure the surface density, hardness, and crystallinity, the specimens were manufactured to 10 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm using samples without visible collapses under the conditions mentioned in Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2.2.1\u003c/span\u003e. The additive-manufactured (AMed) specimens were removed from the build plate via wire cutting and mounted for polishing. To measure surface density, the samples were ground to #200 - #2000 and polished up to 3 and 1 \u0026micro;m in a sequential manner. The Olympus DP22 (Evident, Japan) was used to observe the surface density. The acquired images were analyzed using ImageJ software to quantify the surface density. For hardness analysis, the Vickers hardness was measured using a Microscan hardness tester (Omron, Japan). The Vickers hardness values were obtained by analyzing the indentation dimensions using the microscope integrated into the equipment. For each specimen, three measurements were taken, and the average value was reported. To analyze the crystallinity, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using a SmartLab XRD system (Rigaku, Japan) equipped with a 3 kW X-ray source and an XSPA detector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Development of the MPHS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 MPHS fabrication and evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo form the interface between metal and polymer in MPHS, the lattice structures were fabricated using conditions of high surface density and hardness within the process window. The body-centered cubic (BCC), which is a representative bending-dominant structure [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], was used as a lattice structure for the interface between metal and polymer. The strut diameter of the BCC lattice was set to 3.72 mm so that the metallic lattice would occupy 50% of the total MPHS volume, with the remaining volume filled by polymer. The BCC was designed to fit within a 10 \u0026times; 10 \u0026times; 10 mm\u0026sup3; unit cell, and the final specimen was fabricated by combining three unit cells (Thus, 10 \u0026times; 30 \u0026times; 10 mm\u0026sup3;). To fabricate MPHS, the BCC was inserted into a simplified mold placed on a hotplate. The acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS; HF380, LG Chem, Korea) pellets were then added into the mold. For the fabrication of MPHS, heat (300 \u0026ordm;C) of the hot plate was applied to melt and infiltrate the ABS into the interstitial spaces of the BCC for 30 minutes. The universal testing machine of Instron 5500 (Instron, USA) was used to measure the compressive strengths of BCC, bulk ABS, and MPHS. All specimens were tested at a compression speed of 2 mm/min at room temperature. The compressive strengths of BCC, bulk ABS, and MPHS were evaluated by averaging the results of three measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 FEA of the MPHS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo compare the internal stress response, FEA was performed on the BCC and MPHS using Ansys Workbench 2023. The carbon steel and ABS were conducted using basic properties provided by Ansys Workbench. The interface between the lattice structure and polymer was defined using a bonded contact condition. To replicate the conditions of the compression test, the fixed support was assigned at the bottom of the BCC and the MPHS, while a displacement (0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.10 mm) was applied to the top surface of the BCC and the MPHS. To investigate the influence of polymer type on the mechanical response further, ABS was subsequently replaced with a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) as a commodity plastic and a polyimide (PI) as a super engineering plastic. The properties of HDPE and PI were also used basic properties provided by Ansys Workbench. The behavior of each MPHS configuration was then analyzed and compared. All models were meshed with a uniform element size of 0.5 mm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Effect of laser power and laser scan speed for process optimization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn traditional metallic materials such as titanium, stainless steel, cobalt chrome, and inconel, an increase in laser energy density generally leads to higher surface density and hardness [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR42 CR43\" citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. However, when the energy density exceeds a certain threshold, a keyhole defect tends to form, resulting in porosity and a subsequent reduction in both density and mechanical properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the optimal laser processing condition can typically be defined as the maximum energy density that avoids keyhole formation. In contrast, for BMG, determining the optimal processing window is more complex due to the need to preserve the amorphous structure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. While higher energy densities below the keyhole threshold can improve the surface density, higher energy densities also promote localized crystallization, which decreases the amorphous phase and reduces hardness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, for BMGs, the optimal condition must be carefully selected to ensure high surface density and low crystallinity, thereby preserving the superior mechanical properties associated with the amorphous structure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 High laser power\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate the AM-ability of FeCrBSiC powder, which had not previously been explored in AM, preliminary samples were fabricated across a wide range of process parameters. As shown on the left side of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, laser power was varied from 60 W to 140 W, and the laser scan speed ranged from 600 to 900 mm/s first. As observed in conventional PBF, higher laser power combined with lower scan speeds tends to result in over-melting and surface distortion due to excessive energy input [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast to typical metals, however, the current study revealed fracture-like features caused by localized thermal accumulation. This behavior is characteristic of BMG, where excessive laser energy promotes crystallization-induced embrittlement and cracking. Such phenomena have been commonly reported in previous studies on laser-based AM of BMG [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the preliminary investigation, a laser power of 120 W was selected for further analysis as shown on the right side of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Based on a laser power of 120 W, cubic samples with dimensions of 10 \u0026times; 10 \u0026times; 10 mm\u0026sup3; were fabricated with laser scan speeds ranging from 2000 mm/s to 4000 mm/s to study the effects of scan speed under high laser power input conditions. The collapse was observed at scan speeds up to 2400 mm/s, which is attributed to fracture induced by excessive thermal accumulation during the melting process. In contrast, stable builds were achieved at scan speeds above 2600 mm/s. Based on these observations, specimens fabricated within the scan speed range of 2400 mm/s to 3600 mm/s were selected for detailed analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, surface density, Vickers hardness, and crystallization were measured to evaluate the effects of laser scan speed on the physical properties of the AMed samples. Although collapse occurred at a laser scan speed of 2400 mm/s, the sample still exhibited a relatively high surface density of 92.1%, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(a). As the laser scan speed increased, the surface density progressively declined, indicating insufficient energy distribution and incomplete melting during the fabrication process. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(b), the Vickers hardness showed a high value at lower energy densities (3000 mm/s and 3200 mm/s) compared to high energy densities (2400 mm/s, 2600 mm/s, and 2800 mm/s). This trend is consistent with previous findings that BMG exhibit higher hardness values when an amorphous structure is retained [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. At lower laser scan speeds, the higher energy density promoted crystallization, leading to a reduction in hardness. In contrast, the relatively high hardness observed at 2400 mm/s can be attributed to the high surface density, despite partial crystallization. In addition, a brittle, glass-like fracture occurred near the indentation mark at laser scan speeds of 3200 mm/s and 3400 mm/s. As shown in the XRD results in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e(c), samples processed at scan speeds up to 2800 mm/s exhibited a distinct crystallization peak near 41\u0026ndash;43\u0026deg;. In contrast, laser scan speeds above 3000 mm/s showed broad amorphous peaks, confirming the preservation of the non-crystalline structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Low laser power\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.1.1\u003c/span\u003e analyzed the physical characteristics of samples fabricated at high laser power, this section focuses on those produced under low laser power conditions. Samples were AMed using laser powers of 60 W, 70 W, and 80 W, with scan speeds up to 1600 mm/s, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. At a laser power of 80 W, collapse occurred even at the relatively high laser scan speed of 1600 mm/s (Low energy density), indicating the accumulation of heat. In contrast, at 70 W, stable builds were achieved at scan speeds of 1500 mm/s and 1600 mm/s. When the laser power was further reduced to 60 W, stable fabrication was observed across a range of scan speeds, specifically from 1300 mm/s to 1600 mm/s, without collapse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measurements of surface density, Vickers hardness, and crystallization for the samples that were fabricated without defects are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. These samples correspond to the red boxed regions in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(a), the conditions with relatively high energy density, specifically 70 W \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1500 mm/s and 60 W \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1300 mm/s, resulted in surface densities exceeding 83% and 86%, respectively. In addition, all samples in this group showed higher Vickers hardness values compared to those presented in the high laser power experiment, shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(b). In particular, it showed a Vickers hardness of over 1010 HV in 60W \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1300mm/s. The relatively high Vickers hardness observed in all samples can be attributed to the retention of the amorphous structure as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(c). In the high laser power experiment, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, samples with an amorphous structure exhibited glass-like fracture near the indentation mark, particularly at scan speeds of 3200 mm/s and 3400 mm/s. In contrast, in this low laser power experiment, although the samples also retained an amorphous structure, no glass-like fracture was observed around the indentation. Instead, slight cracks were present. This difference is attributed to the relatively higher surface density of the samples fabricated by low laser power compared to samples fabricated by high laser power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Characterization of the MPHS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMG is known for exceptional mechanical properties, but the inherent brittleness of BMG severely limits in terms of structural applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. The brittleness becomes even more critical when BMGs are fabricated in lattice structure forms, where localized stress concentrations and thin struts often lead to premature failure and extremely poor compressive performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Interestingly, nature offers a biological solution to this challenge. Inspired by trabecular bone, we developed MPHS by infiltrating melted polymer into a latticed BMG.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Comparison of the compressive strength\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the mechanical performance of the proposed MPHS, compression tests were conducted on three different types of specimens: the BCC, the bulk ABS, and the MPHS fabricated by ABS infiltration into the BCC. The results are summarized in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The BCC structure exhibited the lowest compressive strength of 10.4 MPa, primarily due to the intrinsic brittleness of the BMG and the presence of stress concentrations within the thin struts. Furthermore, the BCC is a bending-dominated structure, where compressive loads cause bending in the struts rather than axial compression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. Bending easily causes fractures in brittle materials such as BMGs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, the bulk ABS specimen showed a compressive strength of 34.5 MPa, benefiting from its ductile and energy-absorbing characteristics. Notably, the MPHS with the BCC and ABS polymer infiltration achieved the highest compressive strength of 47.1 MPa. Significant enhancement of compressive strength confirms the synergistic effect of the MPHS design. The polymer phase effectively infiltrated the interstitial voids within the lattice, redistributed the applied loads, and mitigated localized stress concentrations, thereby delaying failure and improving overall structural integrity. The enhanced compressive performance of the MPHS originates from a ductile-phase toughening mechanism. The polymer phase inhibits catastrophic shear band propagation and bridges fractured ligaments. It also redistributes localized stress concentrations across the lattice nodes, thereby delaying brittle failure and promoting stable energy absorption. These findings highlight the possibility of hybridization strategies in overcoming the mechanical limitations of latticed BMG. However, a previous study has reported compressive strengths of approximately 40 MPa for BCC lattice structures fabricated using other Zr-based BMGs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Compressive strength is substantially higher than the 10.4 MPa observed in this study. The BMG composition used in this work is novel and has not been previously studied in the context of additive manufacturing. Furthermore, there are significant differences in material type, unit cell geometry, lattice volume fraction, and the number of unit cells used in the test specimens. These variations in both material and structural design strongly influence the mechanical response of the lattice structures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. The enhanced compressive performance of the MPHS originates from a ductile-phase toughening mechanism, where the polymer phase inhibits catastrophic shear band propagation, bridges fractured ligaments, and redistributes localized stress concentrations across the lattice nodes. This significantly delays brittle failure and promotes stable energy absorption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Mechanical characterization of the MPHS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e presents the FEA results for the BCC structure and the MPHS with ABS infiltration under compression loading. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(a) shows the stress distribution of the BCC, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(b) illustrates the stress distribution of the BCC inside the MPHS, with the ABS region hidden for clarity at the boundary condition of 0.02 mm displacement. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(c) compares the maximum internal stress obtained through FEA for each structure under various displacement boundary conditions (0.02 mm, 0.04 mm, 0.06 mm, 0.08 mm, and 0.10 mm) and polymer. Notably, the internal maximum stress in the BCC is consistently higher than that in the MPHS. The lower internal maximum stress observed in the MPHS indicates that it is structurally stronger [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. This suggests that the polymer in the MPHS contributes to stress distribution, thereby alleviating localized stress concentrations within the MPHS. The experimentally measured compressive strength in Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.1.1\u003c/span\u003e revealed that the MPHS exhibited the highest mechanical performance among the specimens. This result is consistent with the FEA findings in Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.1.2\u003c/span\u003e, where the internal maximum stress under compressive loading was lower in the MPHS than in the BCC. The aligned trends observed in both experimental and numerical analyses confirm that the polymer effectively mitigates stress concentration and enhances the structural safety of the MPHS. Furthermore, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(c) also presents the internal maximum stress in MPHSs incorporating different types of polymers, ranging from a commodity plastic, HDPE, to an engineering plastic, ABS, and a super engineering plastic, PI. The results indicate that as the mechanical properties of the polymer are superior, the internal stress within the MPHS under compressive loading decreases. The findings support the conclusion that polymers having superior properties can contribute to the superior compressive strength of the MPHS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the additive manufacturing of FeCrBSiC, a previously unexplored Fe-based BMG, and the application of BMG in terms of MPHS inspired by trabecular bone. It was found that crystallization occurred under high laser power of 120 W, while an amorphous phase with a Vickers hardness of 1010 HV was achieved under low laser power of 60 W, even at relatively high energy input. Furthermore, a BCC was fabricated at laser conditions of 60W-1300 mm/s and subsequently infiltrated with melted ABS to manufacture the MPHS. Compression testing showed that the MPHS achieved a compressive strength of 47.1 MPa, outperforming both the BCC of 10.4 MPa and bulk ABS of 34.5 MPa. Moreover, FEA further confirmed that the polymer infiltration alleviated the internal stress of BCC. Results of FEA, PI, a super engineering plastic, showed the most effective stress reduction, demonstrating the benefit of high-performance polymers in structural reinforcement. Future work will apply AI-based Bayesian optimization to efficiently find out laser parameters based on this study, which simultaneously achieves high surface density (more than 99%), superior hardness, and amorphous phase. In addition, the current hotplate-based polymer infiltration will be replaced with insert molding to improve manufacturing. The MPHS will also be adapted using various lattice structures and designs to further tailor structural performance for diverse industrial applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research is conducted by the Industrial Technology Innovation Program (KEIT project no. 20024344, Development of AI-based high carbon steel alloy design and sintering-based additive manufacturing technology for 7.0 L/Hr-level high-speed production of powertrain components with tensile strength over 1.0 GPa in the next-generation mobility) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry \u0026amp; Energy of the Republic of Korea. It is supported by Singapore Centre for 3D Printing (SC3DP).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.J.P. proposed the research concept, wrote and edited the manuscript, and contributed to all experimental and analytical activities. S.J. and P.H.N.N. performed the additive manufacturing of the sample and assisted with data acquisition. S.K.M. acquired project funding, reviewed and edited the manuscript, guided the research direction, and provided overall supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSohrabi S, Fu J, Li L, et al (2024) Manufacturing of metallic glass components: Processes, structures and properties. Progress in Materials Science 144:101283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2024.101283\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFrey M, Wegner J, Ruschel LM, et al (2025) Additive manufacturing of Ni62Nb38 metallic glass via laser powder bed fusion. Prog Addit Manuf 1\u0026ndash;8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-025-01007-6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu T, Pang S, Li H, Zhang T (2015) Corrosion resistant Cr-based bulk metallic glasses with high strength and hardness. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 410:20\u0026ndash;25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2014.12.006\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLin B, Yang K, Bao X, et al (2022) Enhanced wear, corrosion, and corrosive-wear resistance of the biocompatible Ti-based bulk metallic glass by oxidation treatment. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 576:121231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2021.121231\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang G, Sun W, Xie L, et al (2022) Multicomponent Fe-Based Bulk Metallic Glasses with Excellent Corrosion and Wear Resistances. Metals 12:564. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12040564\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDmowski W, Yokoyama Y, Chuang A, et al (2010) Structural rejuvenation in a bulk metallic glass induced by severe plastic deformation. Acta Materialia 58:429\u0026ndash;438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2009.09.021\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKozieł T, Pajor K, Gondek Ł (2020) Cooling rate evaluation during solidification in the suction casting process. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9:13502\u0026ndash;13508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.09.082\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen FH, Chang KF, Tsao CYA, et al (2009) Microstructures and mechanical behaviors of Mg58Cu31Gd11 and Mg65Cu25Gd10 amorphous alloys synthesized by injection casting and melt spinning. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 483:32\u0026ndash;36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2008.08.101\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOuyang G, Macziewski CR, Jensen B, et al (2021) Effects of Solidification Cooling Rates on Microstructures and Physical Properties of Fe-6.5%Si Alloys. Acta Materialia 205:116575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2020.116575\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMahbooba Z, Thorsson L, Unosson M, et al (2018) Additive manufacturing of an iron-based bulk metallic glass larger than the critical casting thickness. Applied Materials Today 11:264\u0026ndash;269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2018.02.011\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWegner J, Bruckhaus L, Schroer MA, et al (2024) Zr-based bulk metallic glasses in PBF-LB/M: near-polished surface quality in the as-built state. Prog Addit Manuf 9:585\u0026ndash;591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00667-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGu J-L, Shao Y, Yao K-F (2019) The novel Ti-based metallic glass with excellent glass forming ability and an elastic constant dependent glass forming criterion. Materialia 8:100433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2019.100433\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi Y, Shen Y, Leu MC, Tsai H-L (2019) Mechanical properties of Zr-based bulk metallic glass parts fabricated by laser-foil-printing additive manufacturing. Materials Science and Engineering: A 743:404\u0026ndash;411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.11.056\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi HX, Lu ZC, Wang SL, et al (2019) Fe-based bulk metallic glasses: Glass formation, fabrication, properties and applications. Progress in Materials Science 103:235\u0026ndash;318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2019.01.003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBin SJB, Fong KS, Chua BW, Gupta M (2022) Mg-based bulk metallic glasses: A review of recent developments. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 10:899\u0026ndash;914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2021.10.010\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLucena FA de, Kiminami CS, Ramos Moreira Afonso C (2020) New compositions of Fe\u0026ndash;Co\u0026ndash;Nb\u0026ndash;B\u0026ndash;Y BMG with wide supercooled liquid range, over 100 K. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9:9174\u0026ndash;9181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.06.035\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlami AH, Ghani Olabi A, Alashkar A, et al (2023) Additive manufacturing in the aerospace and automotive industries: Recent trends and role in achieving sustainable development goals. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14:102516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2023.102516\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSohrabi N, Ivas T, Jhabvala J, et al (2024) Quantitative prediction of crystallization in laser powder bed fusion of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass with high oxygen content. Materials \u0026amp; Design 239:112744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2024.112744\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYang Z, Markl M, K\u0026ouml;rner C (2022) Predictive simulation of bulk metallic glass crystallization during laser powder bed fusion. Additive Manufacturing 59:103121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.103121\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePauly S, Wang P, K\u0026uuml;hn U, Kosiba K (2018) Experimental determination of cooling rates in selectively laser-melted eutectic Al-33Cu. Additive Manufacturing 22:753\u0026ndash;757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.05.034\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEverton SK, Hirsch M, Stravroulakis P, et al (2016) Review of in-situ process monitoring and in-situ metrology for metal additive manufacturing. Materials \u0026amp; Design 95:431\u0026ndash;445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.01.099\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGhomashchi R, Nafisi S (2023) Solidification of Al12Si Melt Pool in Laser Powder Bed Fusion. J of Materi Eng and Perform 32:10943\u0026ndash;10955. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-023-08502-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRen J, Wang D, Wu X, Yang Y (2025) Laser-based additive manufacturing of bulk metallic glasses: A review on principle, microstructure and performance. Materials \u0026amp; Design 252:113750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2025.113750\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark SJ, Lee JH, Yang J, et al (2022) Lightweight injection mold using additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V lattice structures. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 79:759\u0026ndash;766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.05.022\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark SJ, Heogh W, Yang J, et al (2024) Meta-structure of amorphous-inspired 65.1Co28.2Cr5.3Mo lattices augmented by artificial intelligence. Adv Compos Hybrid Mater 7:224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42114-024-01039-6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePham M-S, Liu C, Todd I, Lertthanasarn J (2019) Damage-tolerant architected materials inspired by crystal microstructure. Nature 565:305\u0026ndash;311. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0850-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eŻrodowski Ł, Wr\u0026oacute;blewski R, Leonowicz M, et al (2023) How to control the crystallization of metallic glasses during laser powder bed fusion? Towards part-specific 3D printing of \u003cem\u003ein situ\u003c/em\u003e composites. Additive Manufacturing 76:103775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103775\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSohrabi N, Jhabvala J, Log\u0026eacute; RE (2021) Additive Manufacturing of Bulk Metallic Glasses\u0026mdash;Process, Challenges and Properties: A Review. Metals 11:1279. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11081279\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYin J, Ma X, Zhou Z (2014) Composition and size dependent brittle-to-malleable transitions of Mg-based bulk metallic glasses. Materials Science and Engineering: A 605:286\u0026ndash;293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.03.065\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBest JP, Ast J, Li B, et al (2020) Relating fracture toughness to micro-pillar compression response for a laser powder bed additive manufactured bulk metallic glass. Materials Science and Engineering: A 770:138535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.138535\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSun BA, Wang WH (2015) The fracture of bulk metallic glasses. Progress in Materials Science 74:211\u0026ndash;307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.05.002\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTan Z, Jiang X, Xi Z, et al (2024) Fabrication of Zr-based bulk metallic glass lattice structure with high specific strength by laser powder bed fusion. Additive Manufacturing 95:104556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104556\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThorsson L, Unosson M, Teresa P\u0026eacute;rez-Prado M, et al (2022) Selective laser melting of a Fe-Si-Cr-B-C-based complex-shaped amorphous soft-magnetic electric motor rotor with record dimensions. Materials \u0026amp; Design 215:110483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110483\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTilton M, Borjali A, Isaacson A, et al (2021) On structure and mechanics of biomimetic meta-biomaterials fabricated via metal additive manufacturing. Materials \u0026amp; Design 201:109498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109498\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHameed P, Liu C-F, Ummethala R, et al (2021) Biomorphic porous Ti6Al4V gyroid scaffolds for bone implant applications fabricated by selective laser melting. Prog Addit Manuf 6:455\u0026ndash;469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-021-00210-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOftadeh R, Perez-Viloria M, Villa-Camacho JC, et al (2015) Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Trabecular Bone: A Review. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 137:. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4029176\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang F, Metzner F, Osterhoff G, et al (2022) The role of bone marrow on the mechanical properties of trabecular bone: a systematic review. BioMed Eng OnLine 21:80. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-022-01051-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark SJ, Lee JH, Yang J, et al (2023) Enhanced Energy Absorption of Additive-Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V Parts via Hybrid Lattice Structures. Micromachines 14:1982. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14111982\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLee JH, Park SJ, Yang J, et al (2022) Crack Guidance Utilizing the Orientation of Additive Manufactured Lattice Structure. Int J Precis Eng Manuf 23:797\u0026ndash;805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12541-022-00654-x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark SJ, Choi JP, Lee P-H, Moon SK (2025) Strategic design and simulation of interfaces for enhanced joint performance in metal\u0026ndash;polymer hybrid structures. Journal of Computational Design and Engineering 12:1\u0026ndash;13. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwaf029\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSun S-H, Hagihara K, Ishimoto T, et al (2021) Comparison of microstructure, crystallographic texture, and mechanical properties in Ti\u0026ndash;15Mo\u0026ndash;5Zr\u0026ndash;3Al alloys fabricated via electron and laser beam powder bed fusion technologies. Additive Manufacturing 47:102329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102329\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYonehara M, Kato C, Ikeshoji T-T, et al (2021) Correlation between surface texture and internal defects in laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing. Sci Rep 11:22874. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02240-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarin F, de Souza AF, Mikowski A, et al (2023) Energy Density Effect on the Interface Zone in Parts Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion on Machined Bases. Int J of Precis Eng and Manuf-Green Tech 10:905\u0026ndash;923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40684-022-00470-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGu Z, Sharma S, Riley DA, et al (2023) A universal predictor-based machine learning model for optimal process maps in laser powder bed fusion process. J Intell Manuf 34:3341\u0026ndash;3363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-022-02004-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuo L, Wang H, Liu H, et al (2023) Understanding keyhole induced-porosities in laser powder bed fusion of aluminum and elimination strategy. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 184:103977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2022.103977\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarattukalam JJ, Pacheco V, Karlsson D, et al (2020) Development of process parameters for selective laser melting of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass. Additive Manufacturing 33:101124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101124\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJang J-H, Kim H-G, Kim H-J, Lee D-G (2021) Crystallization and Hardness Change of the Ti-Based Bulk Metallic Glass Manufactured by a Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process. Metals 11:1049. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071049\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXie F, Chen Q, Gao J, Li Y (2019) Laser 3D Printing of Fe-Based Bulk Metallic Glass: Microstructure Evolution and Crack Propagation. J of Materi Eng and Perform 28:3478\u0026ndash;3486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-019-04103-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSohrabi N, Jhabvala J, Kurtuldu G, et al (2021) Additive manufacturing of a precious bulk metallic glass. Applied Materials Today 24:101080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2021.101080\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKuntoğlu M, Salur E, Canli E, et al (2023) A state of the art on surface morphology of selective laser-melted metallic alloys. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 127:1103\u0026ndash;1142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11534-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu D, Yue W, Kang J, Wang C (2022) Effect of Laser Remelting Strategy on the Forming Ability of Cemented Carbide Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Materials 15:2380. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072380\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBest JP, Ostergaard HE, Li B, et al (2020) Fracture and fatigue behaviour of a laser additive manufactured Zr-based bulk metallic glass. Additive Manufacturing 36:101416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101416\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMadge SV, Greer AL (2021) Laser additive manufacturing of metallic glasses: issues in vitrification and mechanical properties. Oxford Open Materials Science 1:itab015. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfmat/itab015\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJafary-Zadeh M, Praveen Kumar G, Branicio PS, et al (2018) A Critical Review on Metallic Glasses as Structural Materials for Cardiovascular Stent Applications. Journal of Functional Biomaterials 9:19. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb9010019\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDash J, Lozanovski B, Downing D, et al (2025) A hybrid continuum-beam optimisation model: the virtual extensometer method for efficient optimisation of lattice materials. Prog Addit Manuf 10:2535\u0026ndash;2557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00766-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQuintana-Alonso I, Fleck NA (2009) Fracture of Brittle Lattice Materials: A Review. In: Major Accomplishments in Composite Materials and Sandwich Structures. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 799\u0026ndash;816\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaconachie T, Leary M, Lozanovski B, et al (2019) SLM lattice structures: Properties, performance, applications and challenges. Materials \u0026amp; Design 183:108137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108137\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMahmud MS, Hassan MS, Marinelarena-Diaz A, et al (2025) Design and evaluation of selective laser sintering of thermoset lattice structures. Prog Addit Manuf 10:2227\u0026ndash;2246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00747-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Additive Manufacturing, Bulk Metallic Glass, FeCrBSiC, Metal-Polymer Hybrid Structure, Powder Bed Fusion","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8288173/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8288173/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the additive manufacturing (AM) of FeCrBSiC, a previously unstudied Fe-based bulk metallic glass (BMG), with the aim of exploring processing parameters and evaluating the mechanical performance of a trabecular-inspired hybrid structure. To establish the process window, various combinations of laser power and scan speed are applied in powder bed fusion (PBF), followed by assessments of surface density, hardness, and crystallinity. When the high laser power is applied, crystallization occurs at high energy density within the process window. In contrast, low laser power maintains the amorphous phase across the entire process window, even at high energy densities, which leads to superior hardness. Using laser parameters that result in high surface density, high hardness, and an amorphous phase, a body-centered cubic (BCC) is fabricated first. The BCC is then used to develop a metal-polymer hybrid structure (MPHS) by infiltrating melted acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) into the interstitial spaces of the BCC. The MPHS exhibits significantly improved compressive strength compared to the BCC and bulk ABS. Finite element analysis further demonstrates that the infiltrated ABS effectively suppresses brittle fracture and promotes internal stress dispersion. Furthermore, the stress-dispersing effect is more effective when high-performance polymers such as polyimide are used. Collectively, this study highlights the process parameter exploration and MPHS to advance the structural application of Fe-based BMGs, FeCrBSiC, in AM.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Design of process parameters and trabecular-inspired hybrid structures in additive manufacturing of FeCrBSiC bulk metallic glasses","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-22 09:35:41","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8288173/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"31cdd3f7-c68d-4ffa-9c89-1f29508dc849","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":59831683,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":59831684,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-23T20:38:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-22 09:35:41","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8288173","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8288173","identity":"rs-8288173","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}