The Effects of Biochar on Soil Quality and Potato Yield in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions.

The Effects of Biochar on Soil Quality and Potato Yield in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Effects of Biochar on Soil Quality and Potato Yield in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. Jiawei Guo, Hui Zhou, Liguo Jia, Yongqiang Wang, Mingshou Fan, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6420178/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Plant and Soil → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Aims To evaluate the effects of biochar produced at different pyrolysis temperatures on soil quality and its regulatory factors, and to elucidate the relationship between soil quality and potato yield, thereby identifying the optimal pyrolysis temperature and application rate. Methods A two-year field experiment (2023–2024) was conducted in North China to investigate the impact of different biochar pyrolysis temperatures (T1: 300°C, T2: 500°C, T3: 700°C) and application rates (C1: 10 t·ha⁻¹, C2: 20 t·ha⁻¹, C3: 30 t·ha⁻¹) on soil quality and its synergistic effect on potato yield. Results 1) Biochar application effectively alleviated soil compaction and significantly increased soil aggregation; 2) The C2T2 treatment significantly improved soil moisture content (θ v ), organic carbon(SOC), available phosphorus(P), available potassium(K), total nitrogen(TN), microbial biomass carbon(MBC) and nitrogen(MBN), while reducing soil nitrate nitrogen(NO 3 – –N) content; 3) The soil quality index (SQI) calculated using a nonlinear scoring model more accurately evaluated soil quality, with the SQI of C2T2 treatment increasing by 1.08–1.30 times compared to other treatments over two years. Potato yield increased linearly with the SQI; 4) Structural equation modeling indicated that biochar application promoted potato yield by improving soil moisture and nutrients (such as SOC, NO 3 – –N, P, k, MBC, and MBN). Conclusions A soil quality evaluation method is developed for sandy loam soils in arid regions. The suitable biochar application is beneficial for SQI and potato yield improvement by optimizing soil moisture and nutrients. Biochar pyrolysis temperatures Soil physicochemical properties Soil quality assessment Soil remediation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Introduction Soil degradation is a widespread challenge, frequently resulting from intensive agricultural practices, overexploitation of land, and improper soil management (Timmis and Ramos, 2021 ). It is characterized by a decline in soil quality, which weakens crops' resilience to a range of stress factors, for instance, water scarcity and nutrient deficiencies, affecting crop yields (Lynch, 2022 ). Therefore, to satisfy the growing global need for food driven by rapid population expansion, the adoption of effective soil management strategies to enhance soil health and productivity is essential for ensuring the long-term viability of agricultural land and securing stable crop yields (Lal, 2016 ). Biochar has been extensively applied to enhance soil quality and boost agricultural productivity (Cui et al., 2020 ). Its unique physicochemical properties can effectively enhance soil structure (Kluepfel et al., 2014), influencing the transport of water and heat in the soil, along with its micro-ecological processes. This, in turn, alters nutrient transformation and utilization, ultimately boosting crop productivity (Biederman and Harpole, 2013). It has reported that biochar can increase total soil porosity (Burrell et al., 2016 ), improve soil hydraulic properties (Glab et al., 2018), and reduce soil bulk density (Blanco-Canqui, 2017 ), as well as expansion strength and compaction (Olmo et al., 2014 ), contributing to the formation of stable soil aggregates (Gaskin et al., 2008 ). Biochar can also improve the soil's capacity to retain ammonium and phosphate ions, thereby increasing the retention of exchangeable cations and reducing N and P losses from the soil (Van Zwieten et al., 2010; Solomon et al., 2016 ). In addition, biochar can provide a substantial amount of organic carbon (Nouri et al., 2017 ; Saifullah et al., 2018 ), improving soil fertility by altering the status of available nutrients (Lehmann and Joseph, 2015 ) while stabilizing soil microbial communities and increasing crop yields (Liu et al., 2021 ). There are also some potential negative impacts of biochar on soil health and crop growth. For instance, the carbonate compounds and oxygen-containing active groups in biochar may reduce soil permeability and nutrient supply imbalances, further diminishing soil productivity (Zhang et al., 2019 ). Additionally, excessive biochar application can increase pH and the C/N ratio, leading to the fixation of certain trace elements and nitrogen, adversely affecting soil health and crop growth (Hussain et al., 2017). Therefore, determining how to rationally utilize biochar to improve soil health and enhance crop yields is the focus for promoting the healthy development of agriculture in arid regions of China. The Soil Quality Index (SQI), which integrates multiple soil characteristics, has become a key tool for assessing soil quality (Zhang et al., 2020 ). Biochar has significantly improved the SQI by altering the soil's nutrient composition, microbial communities, and enzyme activities (Wang et al., 2024 ). Oladele et al. (2019) found that, in the long term, applying 6–12 t ha⁻¹ of biochar was more effective in improving the SQI. Additionally, research by Yan et al. ( 2022 ) indicated that within a range of 0–40 t ha⁻¹, the SQI showed a linear positive correlation with the amount of biochar applied. Overall, current research primarily focuses on the impact of biochar application rates on the SQI. However, the effects of biochar properties on soil and crop performance cannot be overlooked (Agnieszka et al., 2020). Pyrolysis temperature is critical in determining biochar properties, including yield, structure, and physicochemical characteristics (N et al., 2020). For example, biochar produced at higher temperatures exhibits superior soil porosity and water retention capacity (Domingues et al., 2020 ). In contrast, biochar produced at lower pyrolysis temperatures contains a higher amount of oxygen-containing functional groups, which can engage in ion exchange reactions with soil nutrients, particularly cations, thereby enhancing the biochar's capacity to retain soil nutrients (Choudhary et al., 2019 ). It is evident that variations in pyrolysis temperature result in notable differences in the physicochemical properties of biochar, which may subsequently affect its soil improvement effectiveness. Therefore, to ensure the sustainable use of farmland, it is important to take into account the influence of different biochar pyrolysis temperatures on the SQI. Overall, crop yields are significantly influenced by the SQI (Vasu et al., 2016 ). However, the relationship between these two factors under varying pyrolysis temperatures of biochar remains unclear. Consequently, it is crucial to further explore the relationship between the soil quality index (SQI) and crop yields under different biochar pyrolysis temperatures. In the arid and semi-arid regions of North China, potato is a major staple crop. However, soil degradation and low organic matter levels are significant challenges faced by local agriculture, while potatoes are highly sensitive to drought stress and nutrient deficiencies (Zaki and Radwan, 2022 ). Earlier research has demonstrated that biochar can regulate low-fertility farmland, effectively improving soil quality, thereby increasing crop yields (Palansooriya et al., 2019 ; Kandel et al., 2021 ). Currently, systematic research on the mechanisms driving the combined enhancement of soil quality and potato yield through biochar produced at varying pyrolysis temperatures in arid and semi-arid regions remains limited. Therefore, this study aiming to: 1) assess the impact of biochar produced at varying pyrolysis temperatures on soil quality parameters and soil quality indices; and 2) reveal the mechanisms of synergistic enhancement between SQI and potato yield, and determine the optimal biochar application model. Materials and methods Experimental Site A two-year field experiment was carried out from 2023 to 2024 at a Farm in Chayou Zhongqi, Ulanqab City, Inner Mongolia (41°17'59.81", 122°33'26.65"). An average annual temperature of 1.4°C, annual precipitation of approximately 300 mm, and average evaporation around 2000 mm (Fig. 1 ). The soil texture from 0–60 cm was classified as sandy loam, while that from 60–100 cm was loamy sand. The field capacity of the soil ranged from 21.3–26.0%, and the soil saturation water content varied between 29.8% and 32.6%. For details, refer to Tables S1 and S2. Biochar The biochar utilized was sourced from Zhengzhou Haosen Environmental Technology Co., Ltd., with wheat straw as the raw material. After being crushed, cleaned, the wheat straw was first oven-dried at 105°C for 5 hours to reach a constant weight. Following this, slow pyrolysis was performed in a muffle furnace using a sealed stainless steel container under anaerobic conditions to produce biochar. The heating rate was maintained at 10°C·min⁻¹, and the furnace temperature was gradually increased to 300°C, 500°C, and 700°C, with a dwell time of 0.5 hours at each temperature. See Table S3 for details. Experimental Design In 2023–2024, 10 treatments were set in potato farmland, including a control group (CK, without biochar application), along with treatments involving three pyrolysis temperatures (300°C, 500°C, 700°C) and three application rates (10, 20, 30 t ha − 1 ). Biochar was uniformly applied to the soil surface in each treatment plot and incorporated into the top 0–20 cm of soil using a rotary tiller. Each plot measured 4 m × 5 m, with three replications. The tested variety was Jinshu 16, with sowing dates of May 9, 2023, and May 9, 2024, and harvesting dates of September 13, 2023, and September 14, 2024, respectively. The cultivation mode was ridge planting, and ridge width of 30 cm. Drip irrigation was used as the irrigation method. The irrigation scheme was developed based on local farmers' experiences (Table S4). Fertilization used commonly used local fertilizers, including urea (N: 46%), with 30% applied at sowing and additional applications of 30% and 40% of total nitrogen during the tuberization and bulking stages, respectively; superphosphate (P 2 O 5 : 46%) and potassium sulfate (K 2 O: 45%) were used as base fertilizers, along with urea (30%), and applied using a fertilizer application machine. Measurements and Calculations Soil Bulk Density and Porosity At potato harvest, a 50 cm deep soil profile was excavated in each plot, and undisturbed soil samples were collected from the 0–40 cm depth (divided into 4 layers) with a soil core sampler (100 cm³) to measure soil bulk density (Gee et al., 1986 ). $$\:Sp\text{=}1\text{-}\frac{BD}{\text{P}\text{D}}$$ 1 Where SP represents soil porosity, BD denotes soil bulk density (g cm − 3 ), and PD is the soil particle density (2.65 g cm − 3 ). Soil Aggregate Measurement : Undisturbed soil samples from the 0–40 cm layer after the potato harvest in each plot were obtained using a five-point sampling method. The process for determining the composition of water-stable aggregates is as follows: 200 g of the sample was placed on a set of sieves with different mesh sizes The sample is slowly moistened with water for 10 minutes, followed by shaking 40 times per minute for 20 minutes. The particles retained on each sieve are rinsed into aluminum containers, dried, and then weighed. The content of water-stable aggregates greater than 0.25 mm (WR0.25) and the mean weight diameter (MWD) are calculated using the following formulas (Shang et al., 2015 ). $$\:{WR}_{0.25}=\underset{I=1}{\overset{N}{\int\:}}{W}_{I}$$ 2 $$\:MWD=\frac{\underset{I=1}{\overset{N}{\int\:}}{(R}_{I}\times\:{W}_{I})}{\underset{I=1}{\overset{N}{\int\:}}{W}_{I}}\times\:100\%$$ 3 Where WI is the mass fraction (%) of the aggregate size class I; RI is the mean diameter of the aggregate in that size class. Soil Moisture Content Samples were taken at potato harvest from beneath the drip emitters and from locations 15 cm and 30 cm away, at depths of 0-100 cm (divided into five layers). The determination was carried out using the oven-drying method (Liang et al., 2021 ). $$\:\text{θᵥ}\text{=}\text{w}\text{ₘ}\text{*}\text{BD}$$ 4 Where \(\:\text{θᵥ}\) represents volumetric water content, \(\:\text{w}\text{ₘ}\) is the gravimetric water content. Soil Nutrient Content During the potato harvest periods in 2023 and 2024, soil samples were taken from three locations in each plot (Under the dripper, at distances of 15 cm and 30 cm from the dripper.) at a depth of 40 cm, divided into two layers. Total nitrogen was determined using the Kjeldahl digestion method. Nitrate and ammonium nitrogen were extracted using a KCl solution and analyzed with an AA3 continuous flow analyzer (Bran + Luebbe, Germany). Soil available phosphorus content was measured using sodium bicarbonate extraction and the molybdenum-antimony colorimetric method. Available potassium was extracted with 1 mol·L⁻¹ NH 4 OAc and determined using the flame photometric (Bao, 2000 ). Soil organic carbon content was determined using the potassium dichromate oxidation-external heating method (Yao et al., 2021 ), and microbial biomass nitrogen and carbon were measured using the chloroform fumigation-extraction method (Horwath and Paul, 1994). Potato Yield Measurement At harvest, fresh potatoes from a 2 m (length) × 1.8 m (width) plot were weighed, with each plot being weighed three times. The tuber yield was converted to a yield per hectare (Wang et al., 2021 ). SQI Evaluation $$\:SQI=\sum\:_{i=1}^{n}(Wi\times\:Ii)$$ 5 Where Wi represents the weight of soil indicator i; Ii is the score of soil indicator i. Soil Indicator Weights Soil quality was evaluated based on 14 parameters using principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis (Table 3 ). For each selected principal component (PC), PC with eigenvalues ≥ 1 were chosen, and the top 10% of indicators with the highest absolute loadings were considered high factor load indicators. If multiple indicators were included in the PC, their relationships were evaluated. if the correlation between indicators exceeded 0.6, the indicators were removed from the minimum data set (MDS). Otherwise, all indicators remained in the MDS (Li et al., 2020). After selecting the MDS indicators, the indicators were classified into two types based on their positive and negative effects on soil quality: positive benefits ("the more, the better") and negative benefits ("the less, the better"). A linear and nonlinear scoring model converted each indicator into values between 0 and 1 (Liu et al., 2022 ). The linear scoring model: $$\:I=\left\{\begin{array}{c}0\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:x\le\:N\\\:\frac{x-N}{M-N}\:\:\:N＜x＜M\\\:1\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:x\ge\:M\end{array}\right.$$ 6 $$\:I=\left\{\begin{array}{c}1\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:x\le\:N\\\:\frac{M-x}{M-N}\:\:\:N＜x＜M\\\:0\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:x\ge\:M\end{array}\right.$$ 7 Where I denotes the soil quality score; x refers to the value of the soil indicator; M and N correspond to the maximum and minimum values of each soil indicator, respectively. Formula (5) is used for scoring indicators of the "higher is better" type, while Formula (6) is used for scoring indicators of the "lower is better" type. The nonlinear scoring model: $$\:I=\frac{M}{{\left(1+\frac{x}{{x}_{0}}\right)}^{c}}$$ 8 Where I represents the nonlinear indicator score; M represents the maximum score, set to 1; x is the observed value of the soil indicator; x₀ denotes the average value of the corresponding indicator; and c indicates the slope of the equation, with "the more, the better" indicators set to -2.5 and "the less, the better" indicators set to 2.5. Data Processing and Analysis Data was statistically organized using Excel 2016. SPSS 20.0 was employed for multiple comparisons (Least Significant Difference) Data visualization was performed using OriginPro 2021. Structural model analysis was conducted using SmartPLS 3.0. Results Soil Physical Properties Soil Bulk Density (BD) and Porosity (SP) In 2023, compared to CK, all biochar treatments reduced BD in the 0 ~ 20 cm soil layer by 4.35–14.49% while increasing SP in the corresponding layer by 4.72–15.87%; In 2024, reduced BD in the 0 ~ 30 cm soil layer by 3.57–17.27% and increased SP in the corresponding layer by 3.97–19.05%. Overall, with the increase in biochar application rate and pyrolysis temperature, BD decreased, while SP gradually increased. Among the treatments, the C3T3 treatment was the most optimal (Fig. 3). Soil Aggregates Biochar treatments led to significant increases in WR0.25 and MWD in the 0–20 cm soil layer, with improvements ranging from 7.13–31.19% for WR0.25 and 7.49–36.25% for MWD, compared to CK (average over two years).With higher WR0.25 and MWD values achieved at a high pyrolysis temperature (700°C) (Fig. 4 ). Soil Moisture Content (θ v ). In the vertical direction, The θ v in the 0–60 cm soil layer increases as soil depth increases under all biochar treatments (Fig. 5 ). The θ v on the ridges is significantly higher in the horizontal direction than in the furrows. Biochar has a significant impact on θ v in the 0 ~ 40 cm soil layer, with the C2T2 exhibiting the highest, which is 4.17–32.53% higher than that of the other treatments (average θ v for the 0 ~ 40 cm layer in 2023 and 2024). Soil Chemical Properties Applying biochar reduced NO 3 – –N content, displaying a trend of initially decreasing and then increasing with higher biochar pyrolysis temperatures. Under the same pyrolysis temperature conditions, NO 3 – –N content gradually decreases as the biochar application rate increases. The C3T2 treatment exhibited the lowest NO 3 – –N content, significantly decreasing by 34.64% compared to CK. Biochar application led to significant increases in SOC, Pₓ, Kₓ, and TN content, with the trend of change opposing that of NO 3 – –N content. The C3T2 treatment showed the most significant increases, enhancing by 50.50%, 33.62%, 28.78%, and 28.71%, respectively, compared to CK (average for 2023–2024 in the 0 ~ 40 cm layer, Tables 1 and 2 ). Both MBC and MBN initially increased and then decreased as the biochar pyrolysis temperature and application rate rose. Notably, the C2T2 treatment exhibited the highest soil MBC and MBN content, with significant increases of 6.46–31.93% and 8.93–30.51%, respectively, relative to the other treatments (averaged across 2023 and 2024 in the 0–40 cm layer). Table 1 Effects of biochar treatments in 2023 and 2024 on Soil Chemical Properties after potato harvest (mg·kg − 1 ) Years Treatments pH NH₄⁺–N NO 3 – –N Pₓ Kₓ 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 2023 CK 7.97a 7.74a 1.91a 0.72a 18.35a 5.23a 18.20f 7.25d 126.50e 80.32d C1T1 7.95a 7.73a 1.93a 0.72a 14.93c 4.58bc 19.58de 7.55cd 130.89de 82.23cd C2T1 7.91a 7.71a 1.94a 0.73a 14.01cd 4.31cd 20.12cde 7.73bcd 134.28de 83.44bcd C3T1 7.89a 7.70a 1.94a 0.73a 13.21d 4.12d 21.17c 8.05abc 142.49cd 86.83c C1T2 8.00a 7.75a 1.94a 0.75a 12.75de 3.98de 22.83b 8.02abc 153.68ab 88.83ab C2T2 8.02a 7.76a 1.95a 0.76a 12.31e 3.80e 23.52ab 8.22ab 158.54a 89.02ab C3T2 8.04a 7.78a 1.96a 0.77a 12.00e 3.78e 24.68a 8.48a 163.48a 90.02a C1T3 8.07a 7.80a 1.94a 0.74a 17.47ab 5.06a 19.12ef 7.36d 140.09cd 85.61bcd C2T3 8.10a 7.81a 1.95a 0.75a 16.75b 4.94ab 19.70de 7.5cd 145.14bc 87.13ab C3T3 8.12a 7.83a 1.95a 0.75a 16.21b 4.82ab 20.50cd 7.7bcd 147.85bc 88.33ab 2024 CK 8.07a 7.8a 1.72a 0.59a 20.25a 6.17a 16.65f 6.53f 120.57e 78.13e C1T1 7.99a 7.75a 1.74a 0.60a 16.28c 5.35bc 18.37de 7.05cde 126.81de 83.92de C2T1 7.95a 7.73a 1.75a 0.61a 15.19cd 5.02cd 19.67bc 7.22cd 130.87cd 85.96cd C3T1 7.93a 7.72a 1.77a 0.61a 14.31de 4.72de 20.62b 7.53bc 139.11c 89.83cd C1T2 8.11a 7.82a 1.80a 0.61a 13.62ef 4.55ef 20.40bc 7.52bc 153.73b 93.98ab C2T2 8.14a 7.84a 1.81a 0.62a 12.82f 4.31f 22.08a 7.8ab 160.4ab 96.51ab C3T2 8.16a 7.85a 1.81a 0.62a 12.65f 4.25f 23.67a 8.15a 169.89a 98.83a C1T3 8.17a 7.87a 1.77a 0.61a 19.23ab 5.95a 17.65ef 6.68ef 140.03c 89.35cd C2T3 8.19a 7.89a 1.78a 0.62a 18.33b 5.79ab 18.21de 6.85def 143.32bc 90.00b C3T3 8.20a 7.90a 1.80a 0.60a 17.71bc 5.64b 19.21cd 7.09cde 150.44b 92.39bc Note : Different letters indicate significant differences among all treatments at a significance level of P < 0.05. Data represent the means of three replications. Table 2 Effects of biochar treatments in 2023 and 2024 on Soil Chemical Properties after potato harvest Years Treatments SOC (g kg − 1 ) TN (g kg − 1 ) MBC (mg kg − 1 ) MBN (mg kg − 1 ) 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 0 ~ 20 20 ~ 40 2023 CK 10.27f 4.51f 2.17e 0.55d 260.56e 76.53d 28.17e 6.29d C1T1 12.38cd 5.15cd 2.54bc 0.62ab 292.22bc 83.27bc 32.18bc 6.85bc C2T1 13.00c 5.36c 2.67ab 0.64a 320.00ab 87.02ab 33.03bc 6.93ab C3T1 13.30bc 5.48bc 2.70ab 0.65a 276.37de 79.24cd 30.52cd 6.48bcd C1T2 14.27b 5.76b 2.72a 0.65a 310.15b 87.45ab 34.16b 6.90ab C2T2 15.10ab 6.05ab 2.75a 0.66a 342.17a 92.22a 37.22a 7.13a C3T2 15.46a 6.18a 2.78a 0.66a 283.43cd 81.26cd 31.32cd 6.76bc C1T3 10.85ef 4.65ef 2.30de 0.56cd 285.43cd 80.7cd 30.45de 6.55bcd C2T3 11.37e 4.82ef 2.43cd 0.58bcd 295.37bc 83.22bc 33.62b 6.89ab C3T3 11.68de 4.91de 2.45cd 0.59bc 270.33de 79.33cd 29.22de 6.42cd 2024 CK 11.28g 5.03g 2.09e 0.52e 256.37e 75.26d 27.25f 6.08d C1T1 13.76d 5.91cd 2.52bc 0.60bc 301.72bc 86.12b 31.42cd 7.00b C2T1 14.52cd 6.17c 2.63ab 0.62abc 330.18ab 91.45ab 34.10b 7.16ab C3T1 15.03c 6.32bc 2.65ab 0.63ab 270.12de 80.16cd 28.99ef 6.53c C1T2 16.21b 6.68b 2.71a 0.62ab 318.26b 88.37ab 33.55bc 7.15ab C2T2 17.36ab 7.09ab 2.74a 0.65a 353.22a 94.61a 36.62a 7.50b C3T2 17.80a 7.35a 2.76a 0.66a 276.13de 82.17bc 30.12de 6.80bc C1T3 11.95fg 5.25fg 2.27d 0.55de 282.45cd 82.55bc 30.00de 6.46cd C2T3 12.58ef 5.45ef 2.42cd 0.58cd 298.67bc 86.25b 32.80c 7.03b C3T3 12.95de 5.58de 2.44c 0.58cd 267.38de 78.00cd 28.68ef 6.38cd Note : Different letters indicate significant differences among all treatments at a significance level of P < 0.05. Data represent the means of three replications. Soil Quality Assessment PCA and Scoring of Each Indicator in the MDS Fourteen parameters were selected for soil quality evaluation, and three PCs with eigenvalues greater than 1 were identified using PCA in 2023, which accounted for 87.4% of the cumulative variance (Table 3 ). In PC-1, θ v , SOC, Pₓ, and kₓ exhibited high factor loadings, with θ v assigned the greatest weight (0.901). Due to a strong relationship between θ v , Pₓ, kₓ, and SOC (r > 0.70; Fig. 6 a), only θ v was included in the MDS. PC-2 selected WR0.25, and PC-3 retained BD and NO 3 – –N. In 2023, the four soil quality indicators selected were θ v , WR0.25, BD, and NO 3 – –N, with corresponding weights of 0.72, 0.13, 0.06, and 0.09. In 2024, the indicators retained in the MDS were θ v , MWD, BD, and NO 3 – –N, with weights of 0.75, 0.13, 0.04, and 0.08, respectively. Table 3 PCA Results of Soil Properties for 2023 and 2024. year 2023 2024 Principal components PC-1 PC-2 PC-3 PC-1 PC-2 PC-3 bulk density (0.323) (0.242) 0.801 (0.406) (0.164) 0.784 porosity 0.312 0.839 0.373 0.287 0.900 0.322 MWD 0.205 0.851 0.148 0.273 0.949 0.078 WR0.25 0.282 0.863 0.108 0.298 0.929 0.185 θ 0.901 0.135 0.387 0.939 0.310 0.092 pH 0.452 0.685 0.629 0.327 0.719 0.590 NH₄⁺–N 0.413 0.709 0.633 0.377 0.755 0.522 NO 3 – –N (0.475) 0.211 0.853 (0.498) 0.154 0.841 organic carbon 0.898 0.466 (0.177) 0.919 0.358 (0.318) available P 0.881 0.281 0.371 0.914 0.224 0.104 available K 0.808 0.350 0.249 0.917 0.326 0.083 total N 0.337 0.809 (0.121) 0.369 0.893 (0.133) MBC 0.713 0.316 0.224 0.721 0.364 0.287 MBN 0.733 0.315 0.283 0.816 0.356 0.242 eigenvalue 8.320 2.380 1.530 8.887 2.640 1.327 Rate of variance contribution(%) 0.594 0.170 0.109 0.635 0.189 0.095 Cumulative contribution to variance(%) 0.594 0.764 0.874 0.635 0.823 0.918 Weight value 0.680 0.195 0.125 0.691 0.205 0.103 Note : MWD stands for mean weight diameter of soil aggregates; WR0.25 stands for water-stable aggregates; MBC stands for microbial biomass carbon; and MBN stands for microbial biomass nitrogen. Soil quality index (SQI) The SQI values derived from the linear (L) and nonlinear (NL) scoring methods ranged from 0 to 0.95 and from 0.43 to 0.57, respectively. Biochar application notably enhanced SQI, with both L-SQI and NL-SQI exhibiting a downward-opening parabolic trend as pyrolysis temperature and application rates increased (Fig. 8 ), with the C2T2 treatment showing the highest values, significantly increasing by 1.27 to 2.84 times and 1.08 to 1.30 times compared to other therapies (average over two years). Relationship Between SQI and Soil Properties In 2023 and 2024, the SQI showed a positive correlation with θ v and soil nutrients (i.e., SOC, Pₓ, Kₓ, MBC and MBN, while exhibiting a negative correlation with NO 3 – –N (Fig. 9 ). Structural equation modeling indicated (Fig. 10 ) that soil moisture and soil nutrients could explain 78% − 81% of the variation in L-SQI and 87% − 89% in NL-SQI across various pyrolysis temperatures from 2023 to 2024. The standard path coefficients for soil moisture and microbial biomass indicators positively affected SQI (0.727, 0.775 for L-SQI and 0.886, 0.927 for NL-SQI). At the same time, the standard path coefficients for soil nutrient indicators were also positive (0.634, 0.657 for L-SQI and 0.691, 0.703 for NL-SQI). Overall, soil moisture and nutrients directly mediated the improvement of SQI. Impact of Biochar on Potato Yield and Its Relationship with SQI In 2023 and 2024, Potato yields under different biochar treatments exceeded those of CK by 1.47–23.93% and 4.35–30.69%, with the highest for C2T2 (p < 0.05). Linear regression analysis showed a significant positive relationship between SQI and potato yield (Fig. 11 c-f; p < 0.05). The L-SQI clarified 71.6% and 78.4% of the variability in potato yield for 2023 and 2024, respectively, with each unit increase in SQI corresponding to an increase in potato yield of 10.19 and 11.90 t ha⁻¹. The NL-SQI explained 85.9% and 89.3% of the variability in potato yield for 2023 and 2024, respectively, with each unit increase in SQI corresponding to an increase of 70.05 and 71.86 t ha⁻¹ in potato yield. Furthermore, regression analysis explored the association between L-SQI and NL-SQI with potato yield. The results showed that from 2023 to 2024, The SQI values obtained using the NL scoring method were consistently greater than those from the L method, indicating that the NL-SQI provides a more accurate assessment of soil quality in dryland potato farming. Discussion Soil Physical Properties The application of biochar can significantly reduce BD and increase SP in this study (Fig. 3), aligning with several earlier studies(Singh et al., 2022 ; An et al., 2022 ; Khaledi et al., 2023 ). The higher pyrolysis temperature biochar (700°C) under high application rates (30 t ha⁻¹) significantly decrease BD and enhance SP (Fig. 3). It may be attributed to the reduction in pore diameter and the enhancement of porosity and specific surface area with rising pyrolysis temperature, leading to lower weight and density characteristics, which dilute the soil volume, thereby reducing BD (Leng et al., 2021 ). Additionally, higher biochar application rates lead to an increase in the soil's non-capillary porosity, with more excellent biochar additions being more beneficial for improving total soil porosity (Qian et al., 2020 ). The study also revealed that biochar significantly enhances soil moisture (θ v ) at a medium pyrolysis temperature (500°C) and moderate application rate (20 t ha⁻¹) (Fig. 5 ). This may be because at moderate pyrolysis temperatures (below 500°C), the lignin in biochar does not convert into hydrophobic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, making it more hydrophilic and thus beneficial for enhancing soil moisture and water retention. Conversely, when pyrolysis temperatures exceed 650°C, Biochar demonstrates thermal stability and increased hydrophobicity (Ghani et al., 2013 ), which may reduce soil moisture. However, the study also found that at a biochar application rate of 30 t ha − 1 , θ v was significantly negatively affected. This may be attributed to the significant increase in hydrophobicity with higher biochar additions in sandy soils (Lustosa et al., 2020). Additionally, with high pyrolysis temperature biochar being more conducive to the formation of these aggregates (Fig. 4 ). This could be due to biochar produced at elevated pyrolysis temperatures, which tends to have a greater specific surface area and a more developed microporous structure, offering more attachment sites that promote the aggregation of soil particles into aggregates(Ren et al., 2021 ). Soil Chemical Properties It reported that the addition of biochar can enhance soil carbon storage (Yanardağ et al., 2017 ) and improve the availability of nutrients in the soil, thereby increasing crop yields (Alkharabsheh et al., 2021 ). No notable variations in the NH₄⁺-N content of the soil were found across the biochar treatments at harvest of potato (Table 1 ). This is primarily due to the strong nitrification in arid regions, leading to the nitrogen forms in the experimental area being predominantly in the NO₃⁻-N form. The application of biochar resulted in a reduction of the nitrate nitrogen content, with the C3T2 treatment showing the lowest levels (Table 1 ). This may be due to biochar produced at moderate high temperatures having a positive charge and larger pores, which increases its ability to adsorb soil NO₃⁻-N (He et al., 2023 ). However, excessively high pyrolysis temperatures can increase the water-repellent nature of biochar. surfaces (Mao et al., 2019 ), weakening the hydrogen bonding between biochar and NO₃⁻-N and reducing its adsorption capacity. This study also found that suitable applying biochar increased SOC, available P, K, and TN content. (Tables 1 and 2 ). This may be because, at moderate pyrolysis temperatures, biochar retains a larger quantity of nutrient components, which can be effectively released into the soil, At elevated pyrolysis temperatures, the aromatic structure of biochar becomes more pronounced, which greatly boosts its chemical stability, limits nutrient release, and reduces the availability of nutrients in the soil. The findings of this study demonstrate that biochar application notably increased the levels of soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) (Table 2 ), consistent with several earlier studies (Karimi et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2020 ). Biochar has the ability to absorb both cations and anions, and reduce nutrient leaching, indirectly improving microorganisms' nutrient utilization efficiency and increasing MBC and MBN (Xiao et al., 2022). The study also found that, under conditions of high pyrolysis temperature (700°C), MBC and MBN values decreased, likely due to the increased content of aromatic carbon in high-temperature biochar, which can inhibit soil microorganisms, thereby reducing their activity and biomass (Saleem et al., 2022 ). Relationship between potato yield and SQI Earlier research has shown that applying biochar can improve the soil quality index (SQI) (Wang et al., 2022 ; Yan et al., 2022 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ). In this study, the biochar application improved soil moisture retention, aeration, nutrient holding capacity, and microbial activity, ultimately contributing to an increase in the SQI based on both linear and nonlinear scoring functions. Compared to the linear scoring function, the correlation coefficients of NL-SQI with soil quality indicators were consistently higher (Fig. 11 c-f), indicating that NL-SQI can more accurately reflect the soil quality status. Therefore, soil quality indicators obtained using nonlinear scoring functions have greater representativeness and sensitivity in assessing SQI under varying biochar management strategies (Mamehpour et al., 2021 ). Additionally, our structural equation modeling analysis (Fig. 10 ) revealed that biochar's influence on SQI is primarily driven by its regulatory effects on soil moisture and nutrient content (organic carbon, available P, available K, nitrate nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, and nitrogen). This also explains why the C2T2 treatment achieved a higher SQI value. Sustainable planting systems require improvements in both crop yield and soil quality. Research has shown that biochar enhances soil quality, increasing potato yield (Mawof et al., 2021 ). In this study, based on the SQI and Potato yield, it is recommended to apply medium pyrolysis temperature biochar (500°C) at a moderate rate (20 t ha⁻¹), which can simultaneously enhance both crop yield and SQI, significantly outperforming other treatments (Figs. 8 and 11 a, b). In 2023–2024, L-SQI and NL-SQI explained 92.7–93.2% and 87.5–89.1% of the yield variations among different treatments, respectively. Other research showed that SQI explained only 46% of the variability in yield (Tommy et al., 2014) (Fig. 11 c-f). This suggests that the impact of biochar-mediated SQI on potato yield is more pronounced in North China. This study also found that in 2024, the influence of SQI on potato yield was more significant than in 2023 (Fig. 11 a, b), indicating that as the duration of biochar application increases, the yield increase in potatoes attributed to SQI becomes more pronounced. The enhancement of various soil nutrient indicators by biochar was significantly more significant in 2024 compared to 2023 (Fig. 10 ). Initially, during the early application of biochar, its large pore structure stored excess nutrients, which reduced the availability of nutrients for potatoes. Over time, however, the desorption characteristics of biochar enable it to release nutrients slowly, thereby creating better soil nutritional conditions (Yang et al., 2016). This gradual release process helps enhance the effectiveness of soil nutrients. However, this study was conducted only two years, and a deeper insight into the long-term impacts of biochar in potato fields in arid regions need to further investigation. Additionally, this study evaluated the SQI based solely on soil physical properties and chemical indicators; however, future research should consider incorporating biological parameters, such as microbial community abundance, into MDS for a more comprehensive assessment of soil quality. Conclusion Applying biochar produced at high pyrolysis temperatures effectively alleviates soil compaction and significantly improves soil aggregation. Under the medium pyrolysis temperature (500°C) and medium application rate (20 t·ha⁻¹), higher soil moisture and nutrient contents (organic carbon, available P, available K, total nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, and microbial biomass nitrogen) were observed, along with a higher soil quality index. Moreover, evaluating soil quality based on the nonlinear scoring function was more effective than using the linear scoring function. The soil quality index also strongly correlated with potato yield, primarily due to biochar application improving soil moisture and nutrient conditions (organic carbon, nitrate nitrogen, available phosphorus, potassium, and microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen). This study suggests that, in arid and semi-arid regions of China, biochar produced at a pyrolysis temperature of 500°C and applied at a rate of 20 t·ha⁻¹ is an appropriate strategy for improving soil quality and potato yield. Declarations Data availability: All data generated during manuscript analysis are included in the article. Further datasets are available from the corresponding author upon request. Declaration of Competing Interest : The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Informed Consent : Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study. Authors’ Contributions Jiawei Guo. and Liguo Jia. designed the research and prepared the manuscript. The data were prepared by Jiawei Guo, Yongqiang Wang, and Hui Zhou helped revise the manuscript. The manuscript was checked by Mingshou Fan. and Qin Yonglin. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32360536) and Basic Scientific Research Funds for universities in Inner Mongolia (BR 22-13-01). References Alkharabsheh HM, Seleiman MF, Battaglia ML, Shami A, Jalal RS, Alhammad BA, Almutairi KF, Al-Saif AM (2021) Biochar and its broad impacts in soil quality and fertility, nutrient leaching and crop productivity: a review. Agronomy 11:993. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050993 An N, Zhang L, Liu Y, Shen S, Li N, Wu Z, Yang J, Han W, Han X (2022) Biochar application with reduced chemical fertilizers improves soil pore structure and rice productivity. Chemosphere 298:134304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134304 Bao SD (2000) Soil and agricultural chemistry analysis. China Agriculture Press, Beijing, pp 151–166 Biederman LA, Harpole WS (2012) Biochar and its effects on plant productivity and nutrient cycling: a meta‐analysis. GCB Bioenergy 5:202–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12037 Bilgili AV, Aydemir S, Altun O, Sayğan EP, Yalçın H, Schindelbeck R (2019) The effects of biochars produced from the residues of locally grown crops on soil quality variables and indexes. Geoderma 345:123–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.03.010 Blanco-Canqui H (2017) Biochar and soil physical properties. Soil Sci Soc Am J 81:687–711. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2017.01.0017 Burrell LD, Zehetner F, Rampazzo N, Wimmer B, Soja G (2016) Long-term effects of biochar on soil physical properties. Geoderma 282:96–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.07.019 Choudhary TK, Khan KS, Hussain Q, Ahmad M, Ashfaq M (2019) Feedstock-induced changes in composition and stability of biochar derived from different agricultural wastes. Arab J Geosci 12:4735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4735-z Cui B, Hu C, Fan X, Gao F (2020) Effects of biochar application on rhizosphere microbial community structure and diversity of water spinach irrigated with reclaimed water. Environ Sci Technol 41:5636–5647. https://doi.org/10.13227/j.hjkx.202006087 D’Hose T, Cougnon M, De Vliegher A, Vandecasteele B, Viaene N, Cornelis W, Van Bockstaele E, Reheul D (2014) The positive relationship between soil quality and crop production: a case study on the effect of farm compost application. Appl Soil Ecol 75:189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2013.11.013 Ding Y, Liu Y, Liu S, Li Z, Tan X, Huang X, Zeng G, Zhou L, Zheng B (2016) Biochar to improve soil fertility: a review. Agron Sustain Dev 36:36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0372-z Domingues RR, Sánchez-Monedero MA, Spokas KA, Melo LCA, Trugilho PF, Valenciano MN, Silva CA (2020) Enhancing cation exchange capacity of weathered soils using biochar: feedstock, pyrolysis conditions and addition rate. Agronomy 10:824. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10060824 Downie A, Munroe P, Cowie A, Van Zwieten L, Lau DMS (2012) Biochar as a geoengineering climate solution: hazard identification and risk management. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 42:225–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.507980 Gaskin JW, Steiner C, Harris K, Das KC, Bibens B (2008) Effect of low-temperature pyrolysis conditions on biochar for agricultural use. Trans ASABE 51:2061–2069. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.25409 Gee GW, Bauder JW, Klute A (1986) Methods of soil analysis. Am Soc Agron 5:443–461 Ghani WAWAK, Mohd A, da Silva G, Bachmann RT, Taufiq-Yap YH, Rashid U, Al-Muhtaseb AAH (2013) Biochar production from waste rubber-wood-sawdust and its potential use in C sequestration: chemical and physical characterization. Ind Crops Prod 44:18–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.10.017 Głąb T, Żabiński A, Sadowska U, Gondek K, Kopeć M, Mierzwa–Hersztek M, Tabor S (2018) Effects of co-composted maize, sewage sludge, and biochar mixtures on hydrological and physical qualities of sandy soil. Geoderma 315:27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.11.034 Guillaume T, Ge T, Kurganova I, Ovsepyan L, Alharbi H, Aponte H, Yudina A, Xu X, Luo Y, Tian J, Zamanian K, Gunina A, Kuzyakov Y (2020) New approaches for evaluation of soil health, sensitivity and resistance to degradation. Front Agric Sci Eng 7:338. https://doi.org/10.15302/j-fase-2020338 Guo K, Zhao Y, Liu Y, Chen J, Wu Q, Ruan Y, Li S, Shi J, Zhao L, Sun X, Liang C, Xu Q, Qin H (2020) Pyrolysis temperature of biochar affects ecoenzymatic stoichiometry and microbial nutrient-use efficiency in a bamboo forest soil. Geoderma 363:114162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114162 Hagemann N, Harter J, Behrens S (2016) Elucidating the impacts of biochar applications on nitrogen cycling microbial communities. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S (eds) Biochar Application. Elsevier, pp 163–198 He Z, Wang C, Cao H, Liang J, Pei S, Li Z (2023) Nitrate absorption and desorption by biochar. Agronomy 13:2440. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13092440 Horwath WR, Paul EA (1994) Microbial biomass. In: Weaver RW et al. (eds) Methods of soil analysis: Part 2 microbiological and biochemical properties. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI, pp 753–773 Hussain M, Farooq M, Nawaz A, Al-Sadi AM, Solaiman ZM, Alghamdi SS, Ammara U, Ok YS, Siddique KHM (2016) Biochar for crop production: potential benefits and risks. J Soils Sediments 17:685–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1360-2 Igalavithana A, Ok Y, Niazi N, Rizwan M, Al-Wabel M, Usman A, Moon D, Lee S (2017) Effect of corn residue biochar on the hydraulic properties of sandy loam soil. Sustainability 9:266. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020266 Kandel A, Dahal S, Mahatara S (2021) A review on biochar as a potential soil fertility enhancer to agriculture. Arch Agric Environ Sci 6:108–113. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2021.0601014 Karimi A, Moezzi A, Chorom M, Enayatizamir N (2019) Application of biochar changed the status of nutrients and biological activity in a calcareous soil. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 20:450–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-019-00129-5 Khaledi S, Delbari M, Galavi H, Bagheri H, Chari MM (2023) Effects of biochar particle size, biochar application rate, and moisture content on thermal properties of an unsaturated sandy loam soil. Soil Tillage Res 226:105579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105579 Klüpfel L, Keiluweit M, Kleber M, Sander M (2014) Redox properties of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar). Environ Sci Technol 48:5601–5611. https://doi.org/10.1021/es500906d Lal R (2016) Soil health and carbon management. Food Energy Secur 5:212–222. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.96 Lehmann J, Joseph S (2015) Biochar for environmental management: an introduction. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S (eds) Biochar for environmental management: science, technology and implementation, 2nd edn. Routledge, London, pp 1–13 Leng L, Xiong Q, Yang L, Li H, Zhou Y, Zhang W, Jiang S, Li H, Huang H (2021) An overview on engineering the surface area and porosity of biochar. Sci Total Environ 763:144204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144204 Liang J, Li Y, Si B, Wang Y, Chen X, Wang X, Chen H, Wang H, Zhang F, Bai Y, Biswas A (2021) Optimizing biochar application to improve soil physical and hydraulic properties in saline–alkali soils. Sci Total Environ 771:144802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144802 Liu B, Li H, Li H, Zhang A, Rengel Z (2020) Long‐term biochar application promotes rice productivity by regulating root dynamic development and reducing nitrogen leaching. GCB Bioenergy 13:257–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12766 Liu L, Zhao G, An Z, Mu X, Jiao J, An S, Tian P (2022) Effect of grazing intensity on alpine meadow soil quality in the eastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, China. Ecol Indic 141:109111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109111 Liu Y, Chen H, Zhao L, Li Z, Yi X, Guo T, Cao X (2021) Enhanced trichloroethylene biodegradation: roles of biochar–microbial collaboration beyond adsorption. Sci Total Environ 792:148451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148451 Lustosa Carvalho M, Tuzzin de Moraes M, Cerri CEP, Cherubin MR (2020) Biochar amendment enhances water retention in a tropical sandy soil. Agriculture 10:62. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10030062 Lynch JP (2022) Edaphic stress interactions: important yet poorly understood drivers of plant production in future climates. Field Crops Res 283:108547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108547 Mamehpour N, Rezapour S, Ghaemian N (2021) Quantitative assessment of soil quality indices for urban croplands in a calcareous semi-arid ecosystem. Geoderma 382:114781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114781 Mao J, Zhang K, Chen B (2019) Linking hydrophobicity of biochar to the water repellency and water holding capacity of biochar-amended soil. Environ Pollut 253:779–789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.07.051 Mawof A, Prasher S, Bayen S, Nzediegwu C (2021) Effects of biochar and biochar–compost mix as soil amendments on soil quality and yield of potatoes irrigated with wastewater. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 21:2600–2612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-021-00549-2 Merighi S, Benini A, Mirandola P, Gessi S, Varani K, Leung E, MacLennan S, Baraldi PG, Borea PA (2005) A3 adenosine receptors modulate hypoxia-inducible factor-1α expression in human A375 melanoma cells. Neoplasia 7:894–903. https://doi.org/10.1593/neo.05334 Nouri H, Chavoshi Borujeni S, Nirola R, Hassanli A, Beecham S, Alaghmand S, Saint C, Mulcahy D (2017) Application of green remediation on soil salinity treatment: A review on halophytoremediation. Process Saf Environ Prot 107:94–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2017.01.021 Oladele SO (2019) Changes in physicochemical properties and quality index of an Alfisol after three years of rice husk biochar amendment in rainfed rice–maize cropping sequence. Geoderma 353:359–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.06.038 Olmo M, Alburquerque JA, Barrón V, del Campillo MC, Gallardo A, Fuentes M, Villar R (2014) Wheat growth and yield responses to biochar addition under Mediterranean climate conditions. Biol Fertil Soils 50:1177–1187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-014-0959-y Palansooriya KN, Ok YS, Awad YM, Lee SS, Sung JK, Koutsospyros A, Moon DH (2019) Impacts of biochar application on upland agriculture: A review. J Environ Manage 234:52–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.12.085 Qian Z, Tang L, Zhuang S, Zou Y, Fu D, Chen X (2020) Effects of biochar amendments on soil water retention characteristics of red soil at south China. Biochar 2:479–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-020-00068-w R IK (2006) Organic carbon content assessment methods. In: Lal R (ed) Encyclopedia of soil science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 1164–1168 Ren T, Li J, Feng H, Yun F, Chen N, Wang H, Yin Q, Liu H, Yek PNY, Lam SS, Liu G (2021) Micro-particle biochar for soil carbon pool management: Application and mechanism. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 157:105229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105229 Saffari N, Hajabbasi MA, Shirani H, Mosaddeghi MR, Mamedov AI (2020) Biochar type and pyrolysis temperature effects on soil quality indicators and structural stability. J Environ Manage 261:110190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110190 Saifullah, Dahlawi S, Naeem A, Rengel Z, Naidu R (2018) Biochar application for the remediation of salt-affected soils: Challenges and opportunities. Sci Total Environ 625:320–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.257 Saleem H, Ahmad M, Rashid J, Ahmad M, Al-Wabel MI, Amin M (2022) Carbon potentials of different biochars derived from municipal solid waste in a saline soil. Pedosphere 32:283–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1002-0160(21)60073-5 Shang J, Geng ZC, Zhao J, Geng R, Zhao YC (2015) Effects of biochar on water thermal properties and aggregate stability of Lou soil. J Appl Ecol 26:1969–1976. https://doi.org/10.13287/j.1001-9332.20150527.001 Singh BP, Hatton BJ, Singh B, Cowie AL, Kathuria A (2010) Influence of biochars on nitrous oxide emission and nitrogen leaching from two contrasting soils. J Environ Qual 39:1224–1235. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2009.0138 Singh H, Northup BK, Rice CW, Prasad PVV (2022) Biochar applications influence soil physical and chemical properties, microbial diversity, and crop productivity: A meta-analysis. Biochar 4:20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-022-00138-1 Solomon D, Lehmann J, Fraser JA, Leach M, Amanor K, Frausin V, Kristiansen SM, Millimouno D, Fairhead J (2016) Indigenous African soil enrichment as a climate-smart sustainable agriculture alternative. Front Ecol Environ 14:71–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1226 Timmis K, Ramos JL (2021) The soil crisis: the need to treat as a global health problem and the pivotal role of microbes in prophylaxis and therapy. Microb Biotechnol 14:769–797. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13771 Tomczyk A, Sokołowska Z, Boguta P (2020) Biochar physicochemical properties: pyrolysis temperature and feedstock kind effects. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 19:191–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-020-09523-3 Vasu D, Singh SK, Ray SK, Duraisami VP, Tiwary P, Chandran P, Nimkar AM, Anantwar SG (2016) Soil quality index (SQI) as a tool to evaluate crop productivity in semi-arid Deccan Plateau. Geoderma 282:70–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.07.010 Wang F, Zhang R, Donne SW, Beyad Y, Liu X, Duan X, Yang T, Su P, Sun H (2022) Co-pyrolysis of wood chips and bentonite/kaolin: Influence of temperatures and minerals on characteristics and carbon sequestration potential of biochar. Sci Total Environ 838:156081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156081 Wang H, Cheng M, Zhang S, Fan J, Feng H, Zhang F, Wang X, Sun L, Xiang Y (2021) Optimization of irrigation amount and fertilization rate of drip-fertigated potato based on Analytic Hierarchy Process and Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation methods. Agric Water Manag 256:107130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107130 Wang P, Wang S, Chen F, Zhang T, Kong W (2024) Preparation of two types plant biochars and application in soil quality improvement. Sci Total Environ 906:167334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167334 Yao BM, Chen P, Zhang HM, Sun GX (2021) A predictive model for arsenic accumulation in rice grains based on bioavailable arsenic and soil characteristics. J Hazard Mater 412:125131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125131 Yan S, Zhang S, Yan P, Aurangzeib M (2022) Effect of biochar application method and amount on the soil quality and maize yield in Mollisols of Northeast China. Biochar 4:100113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-022-00180-z Yanardağ IH, Zornoza R, Bastida F, Büyükkiliç-Yanardağ A, García C, Faz A, Mermut AR (2017) Native soil organic matter conditions the response of microbial communities to organic inputs with different stability. Geoderma 295:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.02.008 Zaki HEM, Radwan KSA (2022) Response of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars to drought stress under in vitro and field conditions. Chem Biol Technol Agric 9:23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-021-00266-z Zhang J, Bai Z, Huang J, Hussain S, Zhao F, Zhu C, Zhu L, Cao X, Jin Q (2019) Biochar alleviated the salt stress of induced saline paddy soil and improved the biochemical characteristics of rice seedlings differing in salt tolerance. Soil Tillage Res 195:104372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104372 Zhang J, Nie J, Cao W, Gao Y, Lu Y, Liao Y (2023) Long-term green manuring to substitute partial chemical fertilizer simultaneously improving crop productivity and soil quality in a double-rice cropping system. Eur J Agron 142:126641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2022.126641 Zhang X, Qu J, Li H, La S, Tian Y, Gao L (2020) Biochar addition combined with daily fertigation improves overall soil quality and enhances water-fertilizer productivity of cucumber in alkaline soils of a semi-arid region. Geoderma 363:114170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114170 Zheng X, Xu W, Dong J, Yang T, Shangguan Z, Qu J, Li X, Tan X (2022) The effects of biochar and its applications in the microbial remediation of contaminated soil: A review. J Hazard Mater 438:129557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129557 Supplementary Files SupportingInformation.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Plant and Soil → Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 08 May, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 08 May, 2025 Editor invited by journal 13 Apr, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 13 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 11 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6420178","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":453599694,"identity":"79347ec2-ff05-4a7d-aca1-4a97a7dce78d","order_by":0,"name":"Jiawei Guo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jiawei","middleName":"","lastName":"Guo","suffix":""},{"id":453599695,"identity":"98af2f62-96ef-4d17-89cd-b215dd231703","order_by":1,"name":"Hui Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hui","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":453599696,"identity":"5de81138-abaf-4e15-91d0-163023c12765","order_by":2,"name":"Liguo Jia","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACA4MEBgseIIPxQUJFDdFaJEBamA0enDlGnBYglgAx2CQftjATVm8u3byh4EGNhIx8RPKxisQGNgb+9u4EvFos5xwrMEg4JsFjeCMt7UbiDhkGiTNnN+B31Y0coF/YgFpm5JjdSDzDxmAgkUuMln8QLQWJbcxEaklsk+CRl8gxYyBSS1qBQWKfBI8Bz7NkiYQzx3iI8EvyNsMf32zs5duTD378UVEjx9/ei18LELAZgPUegPB4CCkHAeYHIFK+gRi1o2AUjIJRMCIBAHanRkM9gEtKAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Inner Mongolia Agricultural University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Liguo","middleName":"","lastName":"Jia","suffix":""},{"id":453599697,"identity":"667365dd-9da8-415a-9b74-6c7c4b1ce505","order_by":3,"name":"Yongqiang Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yongqiang","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":453599698,"identity":"30b639c3-54ac-46ff-8c67-a3db374c5a29","order_by":4,"name":"Mingshou Fan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mingshou","middleName":"","lastName":"Fan","suffix":""},{"id":453599699,"identity":"9ca121cb-0a6e-4a92-8b86-d0646ea33484","order_by":5,"name":"Yonglin Qin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yonglin","middleName":"","lastName":"Qin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-10 12:29:50","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6420178/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6420178/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-025-07832-6","type":"published","date":"2025-09-12T15:56:50+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82584568,"identity":"60e16289-9077-4473-9e42-0a36dce6c6c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:54:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":140577,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBasic Meteorological Data of the Experimental Area for 2023-2024\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/f745fb5f55064a40222602df.jpg"},{"id":82585044,"identity":"e760d5e4-6993-49a3-83df-466115c60b67","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 07:02:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56592,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic diagram (left) and example picture (right) of the traditional Potatoes system.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/0718d7937553bece1fbf6c34.jpg"},{"id":82585860,"identity":"12250df6-ec97-4fd1-b227-41fb5140e3a3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 07:10:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":116221,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of Biochar Application on BD and SP in 2023 and 2024. Significant differences between treatments are denoted by different lowercase letters (p\u0026lt;0.05). Values are expressed as mean ± standard error (n=3).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/bf0734592c23f5504be893e3.jpg"},{"id":82584562,"identity":"a97dd0e3-6aa4-49d8-bc08-ace660c25990","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:54:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72344,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpact of various biochar treatments on soil aggregate MWD and WR0.25 in 2023 and 2024. Different lowercase letters indicated significant differences between treatments (p\u0026lt;0.05). Standard error (n=3).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/4a07ebada53a6a5dc2db818b.jpg"},{"id":82585059,"identity":"d60f2709-8343-47cf-b40e-3ac7ce639b14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 07:02:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":206843,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of Different Biochars on the Two-Dimensional Soil Moisture Distribution at Potato Harvest in 2023 and 2024.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/1d06089c842b09c94944acc6.jpg"},{"id":82585055,"identity":"f4f9d3ab-3956-40b9-8f9d-644f77070a9d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 07:02:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":109744,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRelationship Between Soil Physicochemical Factors in 2023 and 2024. MWD stands for mean weight diameter of soil aggregates; WR0.25 stands for water-stable aggregates\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/bb5bd40b44f88614cb90d910.jpg"},{"id":82584569,"identity":"f02837e5-a3b4-4d59-8315-a7021bdd0ac7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:54:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":141360,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRadar Chart of Soil Indicator Scores under Linear and Nonlinear Scoring Functions for Different Pyrolysis Temperature Biochar Applications in 2023-2024\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMWD stands for mean weight diameter of soil aggregates; WR0.25 stands for water-stable aggregates.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/684afbb37b15e37766612ce1.jpg"},{"id":82584596,"identity":"6b0c8017-dbb7-429f-ac4b-b759b52c4aa6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:54:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":64685,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of Biochar Application on SQI in 2023 and 2024. Values are expressed as mean ± SE (n = 3). Different lowercase letters denote significant differences at p \u0026lt; 0.05. The solid lines and square frames in (a), (b), (c), and (d) represent the median and mean, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/f222cc35cf6173c28b2daba5.jpg"},{"id":82584573,"identity":"a71ee28d-b7b9-4916-99b4-a34a24995b65","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:54:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54336,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePearson Correlation Analysis Between Soil Properties and L-SQI and NL-SQI from 2023 to 2024. Positive correlations are shown in red, while negative correlations are in blue *, **, and *** represent p \u0026lt; 0.05, p \u0026lt; 0.01, and p \u0026lt; 0.001, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/d1917dbb67ac3d165363c19c.jpg"},{"id":82585057,"identity":"ea4d77e8-167c-4425-8e49-4015d288abee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 07:02:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67185,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Impact of Biochar Application on SQI in 2023-2024. The values on the arrow lines indicate standardized path coefficients. Red lines reflect positive effects, while blue lines indicate adverse effects. The explained variance (R²) is shown below SQI.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/703c6211a18a3a6c4729142c.jpg"},{"id":82584557,"identity":"cfa28470-23a8-4c7b-90f8-ad3f9986da31","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:54:14","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":115381,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpact of biochar application on potato yield in 2023 and 2024., as well as the relationship between SQI and yield. In panels (a) and (b), solid lines and boxed frames represent the median and mean, respectively. In panels (c), (d), (e), and (f), solid lines indicate linear regression, with shaded areas representing the 95% confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/9d6b0293d0e27dd2a03377f6.jpg"},{"id":91818352,"identity":"323dce52-48f7-4042-b447-84e9bb95b0d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 07:03:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2283735,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/2bbf70c0-7270-49cd-a631-cd00818ae4bc.pdf"},{"id":82584565,"identity":"80334753-82d6-43a9-9efd-10870d43a5c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 06:54:15","extension":"docx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":27409,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupportingInformation.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6420178/v1/49eaed2513e284aff5510018.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"The Effects of Biochar on Soil Quality and Potato Yield in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions.","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSoil degradation is a widespread challenge, frequently resulting from intensive agricultural practices, overexploitation of land, and improper soil management (Timmis and Ramos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It is characterized by a decline in soil quality, which weakens crops' resilience to a range of stress factors, for instance, water scarcity and nutrient deficiencies, affecting crop yields (Lynch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, to satisfy the growing global need for food driven by rapid population expansion, the adoption of effective soil management strategies to enhance soil health and productivity is essential for ensuring the long-term viability of agricultural land and securing stable crop yields (Lal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiochar has been extensively applied to enhance soil quality and boost agricultural productivity (Cui et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Its unique physicochemical properties can effectively enhance soil structure (Kluepfel et al., 2014), influencing the transport of water and heat in the soil, along with its micro-ecological processes. This, in turn, alters nutrient transformation and utilization, ultimately boosting crop productivity (Biederman and Harpole, 2013). It has reported that biochar can increase total soil porosity (Burrell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), improve soil hydraulic properties (Glab et al., 2018), and reduce soil bulk density (Blanco-Canqui, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), as well as expansion strength and compaction (Olmo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), contributing to the formation of stable soil aggregates (Gaskin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Biochar can also improve the soil's capacity to retain ammonium and phosphate ions, thereby increasing the retention of exchangeable cations and reducing N and P losses from the soil (Van Zwieten et al., 2010; Solomon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, biochar can provide a substantial amount of organic carbon (Nouri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Saifullah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), improving soil fertility by altering the status of available nutrients (Lehmann and Joseph, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) while stabilizing soil microbial communities and increasing crop yields (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). There are also some potential negative impacts of biochar on soil health and crop growth. For instance, the carbonate compounds and oxygen-containing active groups in biochar may reduce soil permeability and nutrient supply imbalances, further diminishing soil productivity (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, excessive biochar application can increase pH and the C/N ratio, leading to the fixation of certain trace elements and nitrogen, adversely affecting soil health and crop growth (Hussain et al., 2017). Therefore, determining how to rationally utilize biochar to improve soil health and enhance crop yields is the focus for promoting the healthy development of agriculture in arid regions of China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Soil Quality Index (SQI), which integrates multiple soil characteristics, has become a key tool for assessing soil quality (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Biochar has significantly improved the SQI by altering the soil's nutrient composition, microbial communities, and enzyme activities (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Oladele et al. (2019) found that, in the long term, applying 6\u0026ndash;12 t ha⁻\u0026sup1; of biochar was more effective in improving the SQI. Additionally, research by Yan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) indicated that within a range of 0\u0026ndash;40 t ha⁻\u0026sup1;, the SQI showed a linear positive correlation with the amount of biochar applied. Overall, current research primarily focuses on the impact of biochar application rates on the SQI. However, the effects of biochar properties on soil and crop performance cannot be overlooked (Agnieszka et al., 2020). Pyrolysis temperature is critical in determining biochar properties, including yield, structure, and physicochemical characteristics (N et al., 2020). For example, biochar produced at higher temperatures exhibits superior soil porosity and water retention capacity (Domingues et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, biochar produced at lower pyrolysis temperatures contains a higher amount of oxygen-containing functional groups, which can engage in ion exchange reactions with soil nutrients, particularly cations, thereby enhancing the biochar's capacity to retain soil nutrients (Choudhary et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It is evident that variations in pyrolysis temperature result in notable differences in the physicochemical properties of biochar, which may subsequently affect its soil improvement effectiveness. Therefore, to ensure the sustainable use of farmland, it is important to take into account the influence of different biochar pyrolysis temperatures on the SQI. Overall, crop yields are significantly influenced by the SQI (Vasu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, the relationship between these two factors under varying pyrolysis temperatures of biochar remains unclear. Consequently, it is crucial to further explore the relationship between the soil quality index (SQI) and crop yields under different biochar pyrolysis temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the arid and semi-arid regions of North China, potato is a major staple crop. However, soil degradation and low organic matter levels are significant challenges faced by local agriculture, while potatoes are highly sensitive to drought stress and nutrient deficiencies (Zaki and Radwan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Earlier research has demonstrated that biochar can regulate low-fertility farmland, effectively improving soil quality, thereby increasing crop yields (Palansooriya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kandel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, systematic research on the mechanisms driving the combined enhancement of soil quality and potato yield through biochar produced at varying pyrolysis temperatures in arid and semi-arid regions remains limited. Therefore, this study aiming to: 1) assess the impact of biochar produced at varying pyrolysis temperatures on soil quality parameters and soil quality indices; and 2) reveal the mechanisms of synergistic enhancement between SQI and potato yield, and determine the optimal biochar application model.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExperimental Site\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA two-year field experiment was carried out from 2023 to 2024 at a Farm in Chayou Zhongqi, Ulanqab City, Inner Mongolia (41\u0026deg;17'59.81\", 122\u0026deg;33'26.65\"). An average annual temperature of 1.4\u0026deg;C, annual precipitation of approximately 300 mm, and average evaporation around 2000 mm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe soil texture from 0\u0026ndash;60 cm was classified as sandy loam, while that from 60\u0026ndash;100 cm was loamy sand. The field capacity of the soil ranged from 21.3\u0026ndash;26.0%, and the soil saturation water content varied between 29.8% and 32.6%. For details, refer to Tables S1 and S2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBiochar\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe biochar utilized was sourced from Zhengzhou Haosen Environmental Technology Co., Ltd., with wheat straw as the raw material. After being crushed, cleaned, the wheat straw was first oven-dried at 105\u0026deg;C for 5 hours to reach a constant weight. Following this, slow pyrolysis was performed in a muffle furnace using a sealed stainless steel container under anaerobic conditions to produce biochar. The heating rate was maintained at 10\u0026deg;C\u0026middot;min⁻\u0026sup1;, and the furnace temperature was gradually increased to 300\u0026deg;C, 500\u0026deg;C, and 700\u0026deg;C, with a dwell time of 0.5 hours at each temperature. See Table S3 for details.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExperimental Design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2023\u0026ndash;2024, 10 treatments were set in potato farmland, including a control group (CK, without biochar application), along with treatments involving three pyrolysis temperatures (300\u0026deg;C, 500\u0026deg;C, 700\u0026deg;C) and three application rates (10, 20, 30 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). Biochar was uniformly applied to the soil surface in each treatment plot and incorporated into the top 0\u0026ndash;20 cm of soil using a rotary tiller. Each plot measured 4 m \u0026times; 5 m, with three replications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tested variety was Jinshu 16, with sowing dates of May 9, 2023, and May 9, 2024, and harvesting dates of September 13, 2023, and September 14, 2024, respectively. The cultivation mode was ridge planting, and ridge width of 30 cm. Drip irrigation was used as the irrigation method. The irrigation scheme was developed based on local farmers' experiences (Table S4). Fertilization used commonly used local fertilizers, including urea (N: 46%), with 30% applied at sowing and additional applications of 30% and 40% of total nitrogen during the tuberization and bulking stages, respectively; superphosphate (P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e: 46%) and potassium sulfate (K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO: 45%) were used as base fertilizers, along with urea (30%), and applied using a fertilizer application machine.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasurements and Calculations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSoil Bulk Density and Porosity\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt potato harvest, a 50 cm deep soil profile was excavated in each plot, and undisturbed soil samples were collected from the 0\u0026ndash;40 cm depth (divided into 4 layers) with a soil core sampler (100 cm\u0026sup3;) to measure soil bulk density (Gee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:Sp\\text{=}1\\text{-}\\frac{BD}{\\text{P}\\text{D}}$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003eSP\u003c/em\u003e represents soil porosity, \u003cem\u003eBD\u003c/em\u003e denotes soil bulk density (g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e), and \u003cem\u003ePD\u003c/em\u003e is the soil particle density (2.65 g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSoil Aggregate Measurement\u003c/b\u003e: Undisturbed soil samples from the 0\u0026ndash;40 cm layer after the potato harvest in each plot were obtained using a five-point sampling method. The process for determining the composition of water-stable aggregates is as follows: 200 g of the sample was placed on a set of sieves with different mesh sizes The sample is slowly moistened with water for 10 minutes, followed by shaking 40 times per minute for 20 minutes. The particles retained on each sieve are rinsed into aluminum containers, dried, and then weighed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe content of water-stable aggregates greater than 0.25 mm (WR0.25) and the mean weight diameter (MWD) are calculated using the following formulas (Shang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{WR}_{0.25}=\\underset{I=1}{\\overset{N}{\\int\\:}}{W}_{I}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:MWD=\\frac{\\underset{I=1}{\\overset{N}{\\int\\:}}{(R}_{I}\\times\\:{W}_{I})}{\\underset{I=1}{\\overset{N}{\\int\\:}}{W}_{I}}\\times\\:100\\%$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003eWI\u003c/em\u003e is the mass fraction (%) of the aggregate size class I; \u003cem\u003eRI\u003c/em\u003e is the mean diameter of the aggregate in that size class.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSoil Moisture Content\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples were taken at potato harvest from beneath the drip emitters and from locations 15 cm and 30 cm away, at depths of 0-100 cm (divided into five layers). The determination was carried out using the oven-drying method (Liang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{\u0026theta;ᵥ}\\text{=}\\text{w}\\text{ₘ}\\text{*}\\text{BD}$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\text{\u0026theta;ᵥ}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e represents volumetric water content, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\text{w}\\text{ₘ}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the gravimetric water content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSoil Nutrient Content\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the potato harvest periods in 2023 and 2024, soil samples were taken from three locations in each plot (Under the dripper, at distances of 15 cm and 30 cm from the dripper.) at a depth of 40 cm, divided into two layers. Total nitrogen was determined using the Kjeldahl digestion method. Nitrate and ammonium nitrogen were extracted using a KCl solution and analyzed with an AA3 continuous flow analyzer (Bran\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Luebbe, Germany). Soil available phosphorus content was measured using sodium bicarbonate extraction and the molybdenum-antimony colorimetric method. Available potassium was extracted with 1 mol\u0026middot;L⁻\u0026sup1; NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eOAc and determined using the flame photometric (Bao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Soil organic carbon content was determined using the potassium dichromate oxidation-external heating method (Yao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and microbial biomass nitrogen and carbon were measured using the chloroform fumigation-extraction method (Horwath and Paul, 1994).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ePotato Yield Measurement\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt harvest, fresh potatoes from a 2 m (length) \u0026times; 1.8 m (width) plot were weighed, with each plot being weighed three times. The tuber yield was converted to a yield per hectare (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSQI Evaluation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equ5\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ5\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:SQI=\\sum\\:_{i=1}^{n}(Wi\\times\\:Ii)$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e5\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003eWi\u003c/em\u003e represents the weight of soil indicator i; \u003cem\u003eIi\u003c/em\u003e is the score of soil indicator i.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSoil Indicator Weights\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil quality was evaluated based on 14 parameters using principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). For each selected principal component (PC), PC with eigenvalues\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1 were chosen, and the top 10% of indicators with the highest absolute loadings were considered high factor load indicators. If multiple indicators were included in the PC, their relationships were evaluated. if the correlation between indicators exceeded 0.6, the indicators were removed from the minimum data set (MDS). Otherwise, all indicators remained in the MDS (Li et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter selecting the MDS indicators, the indicators were classified into two types based on their positive and negative effects on soil quality: positive benefits (\"the more, the better\") and negative benefits (\"the less, the better\"). A linear and nonlinear scoring model converted each indicator into values between 0 and 1 (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe linear scoring model:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ6\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ6\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:I=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{c}0\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:x\\le\\:N\\\\\\:\\frac{x-N}{M-N}\\:\\:\\:N＜x＜M\\\\\\:1\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:x\\ge\\:M\\end{array}\\right.$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e6\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ7\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ7\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:I=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{c}1\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:x\\le\\:N\\\\\\:\\frac{M-x}{M-N}\\:\\:\\:N＜x＜M\\\\\\:0\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:x\\ge\\:M\\end{array}\\right.$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e7\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003eI\u003c/em\u003e denotes the soil quality score; \u003cem\u003ex\u003c/em\u003e refers to the value of the soil indicator; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e correspond to the maximum and minimum values of each soil indicator, respectively. Formula (5) is used for scoring indicators of the \"higher is better\" type, while Formula (6) is used for scoring indicators of the \"lower is better\" type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nonlinear scoring model:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ8\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ8\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:I=\\frac{M}{{\\left(1+\\frac{x}{{x}_{0}}\\right)}^{c}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e8\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003eI\u003c/em\u003e represents the nonlinear indicator score; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e represents the maximum score, set to 1; \u003cem\u003ex\u003c/em\u003e is the observed value of the soil indicator; \u003cem\u003ex₀\u003c/em\u003e denotes the average value of the corresponding indicator; and c indicates the slope of the equation, with \"the more, the better\" indicators set to -2.5 and \"the less, the better\" indicators set to 2.5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Processing and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData was statistically organized using Excel 2016. SPSS 20.0 was employed for multiple comparisons (Least Significant Difference) Data visualization was performed using OriginPro 2021. Structural model analysis was conducted using SmartPLS 3.0.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Physical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil Bulk Density (BD) and Porosity (SP)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2023, compared to CK, all biochar treatments reduced BD in the 0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20 cm soil layer by 4.35\u0026ndash;14.49% while increasing SP in the corresponding layer by 4.72\u0026ndash;15.87%; In 2024, reduced BD in the 0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;30 cm soil layer by 3.57\u0026ndash;17.27% and increased SP in the corresponding layer by 3.97\u0026ndash;19.05%. Overall, with the increase in biochar application rate and pyrolysis temperature, BD decreased, while SP gradually increased. Among the treatments, the C3T3 treatment was the most optimal (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil Aggregates\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiochar treatments led to significant increases in WR0.25 and MWD in the 0\u0026ndash;20 cm soil layer, with improvements ranging from 7.13\u0026ndash;31.19% for WR0.25 and 7.49\u0026ndash;36.25% for MWD, compared to CK (average over two years).With higher WR0.25 and MWD values achieved at a high pyrolysis temperature (700\u0026deg;C) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil Moisture Content (θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the vertical direction, The θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e in the 0\u0026ndash;60 cm soil layer increases as soil depth increases under all biochar treatments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e on the ridges is significantly higher in the horizontal direction than in the furrows. Biochar has a significant impact on θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e in the 0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40 cm soil layer, with the C2T2 exhibiting the highest, which is 4.17\u0026ndash;32.53% higher than that of the other treatments (average θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e for the 0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40 cm layer in 2023 and 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Chemical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplying biochar reduced NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N content, displaying a trend of initially decreasing and then increasing with higher biochar pyrolysis temperatures. Under the same pyrolysis temperature conditions, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N content gradually decreases as the biochar application rate increases. The C3T2 treatment exhibited the lowest NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N content, significantly decreasing by 34.64% compared to CK. Biochar application led to significant increases in SOC, Pₓ, Kₓ, and TN content, with the trend of change opposing that of NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N content. The C3T2 treatment showed the most significant increases, enhancing by 50.50%, 33.62%, 28.78%, and 28.71%, respectively, compared to CK (average for 2023\u0026ndash;2024 in the 0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40 cm layer, Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth MBC and MBN initially increased and then decreased as the biochar pyrolysis temperature and application rate rose. Notably, the C2T2 treatment exhibited the highest soil MBC and MBN content, with significant increases of 6.46\u0026ndash;31.93% and 8.93\u0026ndash;30.51%, respectively, relative to the other treatments (averaged across 2023 and 2024 in the 0\u0026ndash;40 cm layer).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects of biochar treatments in 2023 and 2024 on Soil Chemical Properties after potato harvest (mg\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNH₄⁺\u0026ndash;N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePₓ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKₓ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.97a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.74a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.91a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.35a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.23a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.20f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.25d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126.50e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.32d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.95a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.73a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.93a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.93c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.58bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.58de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.55cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130.89de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.23cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.91a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.71a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.01cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.31cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.12cde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.73bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134.28de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.44bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.89a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.70a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.21d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.12d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.17c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.05abc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142.49cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.83c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.00a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.75a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.75de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.98de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.83b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.02abc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153.68ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.83ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.02a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.76a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.31e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.80e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.52ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.22ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158.54a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.02ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.04a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.78a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.00e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.78e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.68a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.48a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163.48a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.02a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.07a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.80a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.47ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.06a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.12ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.36d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140.09cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.61bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.10a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.81a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.75b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.94ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.70de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e145.14bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.13ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.12a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.83a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.21b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.82ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.50cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e147.85bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.33ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.07a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.72a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.25a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.17a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.65f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.53f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120.57e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.13e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.99a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.75a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.74a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.28c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.35bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.37de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.05cde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126.81de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.92de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.95a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.73a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.19cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.02cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.67bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.22cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130.87cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.96cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.93a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.72a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.31de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.72de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.62b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.53bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139.11c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.83cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.11a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.82a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.62ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.55ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.40bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.52bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153.73b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.98ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.14a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.84a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.82f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.31f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.08a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160.4ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.51ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.16a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.85a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.65f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.25f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.67a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.15a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169.89a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.83a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.17a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.87a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.23ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.95a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.65ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.68ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140.03c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.35cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.19a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.89a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.78a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.33b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.79ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.21de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.85def\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.32bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.00b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.20a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.90a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.71bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.64b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.21cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.09cde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150.44b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.39bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote\u003c/b\u003e: Different letters indicate significant differences among all treatments at a significance level of P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Data represent the means of three replications.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects of biochar treatments in 2023 and 2024 on Soil Chemical Properties after potato harvest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSOC (g kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTN (g kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMBC (mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMBN (mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.27f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.51f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.17e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260.56e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.53d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.17e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.29d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.38cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.15cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.54bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e292.22bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.27bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.18bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.85bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.00c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.36c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e320.00ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.02ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.03bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.93ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.30bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.48bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.70ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e276.37de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.24cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.52cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.48bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.27b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.76b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.72a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e310.15b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.45ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.16b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.10ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.05ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.75a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e342.17a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.22a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.22a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.13a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.46a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.18a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.78a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e283.43cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.26cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.32cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.76bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.85ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.65ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e285.43cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.7cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.45de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.55bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.37e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.82ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.43cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e295.37bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.22bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.62b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.89ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.68de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.91de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.45cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e270.33de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.33cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.22de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.42cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.28g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.03g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e256.37e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.26d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.25f\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.08d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.76d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.91cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.52bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e301.72bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.12b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.42cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.00b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.52cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.17c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62abc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330.18ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.45ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.10b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.16ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.03c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.32bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.65ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e270.12de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.16cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.99ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.53c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.21b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.68b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.71a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e318.26b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.37ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.55bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.15ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.36ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.09ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.74a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e353.22a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.61a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.62a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.80a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.35a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.76a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e276.13de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.17bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.12de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.80bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.95fg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.25fg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.27d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e282.45cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.55bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.00de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.46cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.58ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.45ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.42cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e298.67bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.25b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.80c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.03b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3T3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.95de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.58de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e267.38de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.00cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.68ef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.38cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote\u003c/b\u003e: Different letters indicate significant differences among all treatments at a significance level of P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Data represent the means of three replications.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Quality Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCA and Scoring of Each Indicator in the MDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourteen parameters were selected for soil quality evaluation, and three PCs with eigenvalues greater than 1 were identified using PCA in 2023, which accounted for 87.4% of the cumulative variance (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). In PC-1, θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e, SOC, Pₓ, and kₓ exhibited high factor loadings, with θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e assigned the greatest weight (0.901). Due to a strong relationship between θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e, Pₓ, kₓ, and SOC (r\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.70; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea), only θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e was included in the MDS. PC-2 selected WR0.25, and PC-3 retained BD and NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N. In 2023, the four soil quality indicators selected were θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e, WR0.25, BD, and NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N, with corresponding weights of 0.72, 0.13, 0.06, and 0.09. In 2024, the indicators retained in the MDS were θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e, MWD, BD, and NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N, with weights of 0.75, 0.13, 0.04, and 0.08, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCA Results of Soil Properties for 2023 and 2024.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eyear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrincipal components\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebulk density\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.323)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.242)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.801\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.406)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.164)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.784\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eporosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.312\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.839\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.287\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.900\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.322\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMWD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.205\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.851\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.273\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.949\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWR0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.282\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.863\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.298\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.929\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.185\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eθ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.901\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.387\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.939\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.310\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.685\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.629\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.719\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.590\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNH₄⁺\u0026ndash;N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.709\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.633\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.377\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.755\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.522\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.475)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.853\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.498)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.841\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eorganic carbon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.898\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.177)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.919\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.358\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.318)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eavailable P\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.881\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.281\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.371\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.914\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eavailable K\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.808\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.249\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.917\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.326\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etotal N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.337\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.809\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.121)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.369\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e0.893\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.133)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMBC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.713\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.316\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.721\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.364\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.287\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMBN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.733\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.315\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.816\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.356\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.242\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eeigenvalue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.320\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.380\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.530\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.887\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.640\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.327\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRate of variance contribution(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.594\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.635\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCumulative contribution to variance(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.594\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.764\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.874\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.635\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.823\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.918\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.680\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.195\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.691\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.205\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote\u003c/b\u003e: MWD stands for mean weight diameter of soil aggregates; WR0.25 stands for water-stable aggregates; MBC stands for microbial biomass carbon; and MBN stands for microbial biomass nitrogen.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil quality index (SQI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SQI values derived from the linear (L) and nonlinear (NL) scoring methods ranged from 0 to 0.95 and from 0.43 to 0.57, respectively. Biochar application notably enhanced SQI, with both L-SQI and NL-SQI exhibiting a downward-opening parabolic trend as pyrolysis temperature and application rates increased (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), with the C2T2 treatment showing the highest values, significantly increasing by 1.27 to 2.84 times and 1.08 to 1.30 times compared to other therapies (average over two years).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRelationship Between SQI and Soil Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2023 and 2024, the SQI showed a positive correlation with θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e and soil nutrients (i.e., SOC, Pₓ, Kₓ, MBC and MBN, while exhibiting a negative correlation with NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Structural equation modeling indicated (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) that soil moisture and soil nutrients could explain 78% \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;81% of the variation in L-SQI and 87% \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;89% in NL-SQI across various pyrolysis temperatures from 2023 to 2024. The standard path coefficients for soil moisture and microbial biomass indicators positively affected SQI (0.727, 0.775 for L-SQI and 0.886, 0.927 for NL-SQI). At the same time, the standard path coefficients for soil nutrient indicators were also positive (0.634, 0.657 for L-SQI and 0.691, 0.703 for NL-SQI). Overall, soil moisture and nutrients directly mediated the improvement of SQI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImpact of Biochar on Potato Yield and Its Relationship with SQI\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2023 and 2024, Potato yields under different biochar treatments exceeded those of CK by 1.47\u0026ndash;23.93% and 4.35\u0026ndash;30.69%, with the highest for C2T2 (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLinear regression analysis showed a significant positive relationship between SQI and potato yield (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ec-f; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The L-SQI clarified 71.6% and 78.4% of the variability in potato yield for 2023 and 2024, respectively, with each unit increase in SQI corresponding to an increase in potato yield of 10.19 and 11.90 t ha⁻\u0026sup1;. The NL-SQI explained 85.9% and 89.3% of the variability in potato yield for 2023 and 2024, respectively, with each unit increase in SQI corresponding to an increase of 70.05 and 71.86 t ha⁻\u0026sup1; in potato yield. Furthermore, regression analysis explored the association between L-SQI and NL-SQI with potato yield. The results showed that from 2023 to 2024, The SQI values obtained using the NL scoring method were consistently greater than those from the L method, indicating that the NL-SQI provides a more accurate assessment of soil quality in dryland potato farming.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Physical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe application of biochar can significantly reduce BD and increase SP in this study (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3), aligning with several earlier studies(Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; An et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Khaledi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The higher pyrolysis temperature biochar (700°C) under high application rates (30 t ha⁻¹) significantly decrease BD and enhance SP (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). It may be attributed to the reduction in pore diameter and the enhancement of porosity and specific surface area with rising pyrolysis temperature, leading to lower weight and density characteristics, which dilute the soil volume, thereby reducing BD (Leng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, higher biochar application rates lead to an increase in the soil's non-capillary porosity, with more excellent biochar additions being more beneficial for improving total soil porosity (Qian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study also revealed that biochar significantly enhances soil moisture (θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e) at a medium pyrolysis temperature (500°C) and moderate application rate (20 t ha⁻¹) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This may be because at moderate pyrolysis temperatures (below 500°C), the lignin in biochar does not convert into hydrophobic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, making it more hydrophilic and thus beneficial for enhancing soil moisture and water retention. Conversely, when pyrolysis temperatures exceed 650°C, Biochar demonstrates thermal stability and increased hydrophobicity (Ghani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), which may reduce soil moisture. However, the study also found that at a biochar application rate of 30 t ha\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e, θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e was significantly negatively affected. This may be attributed to the significant increase in hydrophobicity with higher biochar additions in sandy soils (Lustosa et al., 2020). Additionally, with high pyrolysis temperature biochar being more conducive to the formation of these aggregates (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This could be due to biochar produced at elevated pyrolysis temperatures, which tends to have a greater specific surface area and a more developed microporous structure, offering more attachment sites that promote the aggregation of soil particles into aggregates(Ren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Chemical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt reported that the addition of biochar can enhance soil carbon storage (Yanardağ et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and improve the availability of nutrients in the soil, thereby increasing crop yields (Alkharabsheh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). No notable variations in the NH₄⁺-N content of the soil were found across the biochar treatments at harvest of potato (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This is primarily due to the strong nitrification in arid regions, leading to the nitrogen forms in the experimental area being predominantly in the NO₃⁻-N form. The application of biochar resulted in a reduction of the nitrate nitrogen content, with the C3T2 treatment showing the lowest levels (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This may be due to biochar produced at moderate high temperatures having a positive charge and larger pores, which increases its ability to adsorb soil NO₃⁻-N (He et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, excessively high pyrolysis temperatures can increase the water-repellent nature of biochar. surfaces (Mao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), weakening the hydrogen bonding between biochar and NO₃⁻-N and reducing its adsorption capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also found that suitable applying biochar increased SOC, available P, K, and TN content. (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This may be because, at moderate pyrolysis temperatures, biochar retains a larger quantity of nutrient components, which can be effectively released into the soil, At elevated pyrolysis temperatures, the aromatic structure of biochar becomes more pronounced, which greatly boosts its chemical stability, limits nutrient release, and reduces the availability of nutrients in the soil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate that biochar application notably increased the levels of soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), consistent with several earlier studies (Karimi et al., 2020; Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Biochar has the ability to absorb both cations and anions, and reduce nutrient leaching, indirectly improving microorganisms' nutrient utilization efficiency and increasing MBC and MBN (Xiao et al., 2022). The study also found that, under conditions of high pyrolysis temperature (700°C), MBC and MBN values decreased, likely due to the increased content of aromatic carbon in high-temperature biochar, which can inhibit soil microorganisms, thereby reducing their activity and biomass (Saleem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRelationship between potato yield and SQI\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarlier research has shown that applying biochar can improve the soil quality index (SQI) (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, the biochar application improved soil moisture retention, aeration, nutrient holding capacity, and microbial activity, ultimately contributing to an increase in the SQI based on both linear and nonlinear scoring functions. Compared to the linear scoring function, the correlation coefficients of NL-SQI with soil quality indicators were consistently higher (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ec-f), indicating that NL-SQI can more accurately reflect the soil quality status. Therefore, soil quality indicators obtained using nonlinear scoring functions have greater representativeness and sensitivity in assessing SQI under varying biochar management strategies (Mamehpour et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, our structural equation modeling analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that biochar's influence on SQI is primarily driven by its regulatory effects on soil moisture and nutrient content (organic carbon, available P, available K, nitrate nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, and nitrogen). This also explains why the C2T2 treatment achieved a higher SQI value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainable planting systems require improvements in both crop yield and soil quality. Research has shown that biochar enhances soil quality, increasing potato yield (Mawof et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, based on the SQI and Potato yield, it is recommended to apply medium pyrolysis temperature biochar (500°C) at a moderate rate (20 t ha⁻¹), which can simultaneously enhance both crop yield and SQI, significantly outperforming other treatments (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ea, b). In 2023–2024, L-SQI and NL-SQI explained 92.7–93.2% and 87.5–89.1% of the yield variations among different treatments, respectively. Other research showed that SQI explained only 46% of the variability in yield (Tommy et al., 2014) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ec-f). This suggests that the impact of biochar-mediated SQI on potato yield is more pronounced in North China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also found that in 2024, the influence of SQI on potato yield was more significant than in 2023 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ea, b), indicating that as the duration of biochar application increases, the yield increase in potatoes attributed to SQI becomes more pronounced. The enhancement of various soil nutrient indicators by biochar was significantly more significant in 2024 compared to 2023 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Initially, during the early application of biochar, its large pore structure stored excess nutrients, which reduced the availability of nutrients for potatoes. Over time, however, the desorption characteristics of biochar enable it to release nutrients slowly, thereby creating better soil nutritional conditions (Yang et al., 2016). This gradual release process helps enhance the effectiveness of soil nutrients. However, this study was conducted only two years, and a deeper insight into the long-term impacts of biochar in potato fields in arid regions need to further investigation. Additionally, this study evaluated the SQI based solely on soil physical properties and chemical indicators; however, future research should consider incorporating biological parameters, such as microbial community abundance, into MDS for a more comprehensive assessment of soil quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eApplying biochar produced at high pyrolysis temperatures effectively alleviates soil compaction and significantly improves soil aggregation. Under the medium pyrolysis temperature (500°C) and medium application rate (20 t·ha⁻¹), higher soil moisture and nutrient contents (organic carbon, available P, available K, total nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, and microbial biomass nitrogen) were observed, along with a higher soil quality index. Moreover, evaluating soil quality based on the nonlinear scoring function was more effective than using the linear scoring function. The soil quality index also strongly correlated with potato yield, primarily due to biochar application improving soil moisture and nutrient conditions (organic carbon, nitrate nitrogen, available phosphorus, potassium, and microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen). This study suggests that, in arid and semi-arid regions of China, biochar produced at a pyrolysis temperature of 500°C and applied at a rate of 20 t·ha⁻¹ is an appropriate strategy for improving soil quality and potato yield.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eData availability:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll data generated during manuscript analysis are included in the article. Further datasets are available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/b\u003e: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/b\u003e: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eJiawei Guo. and Liguo Jia. designed the research and prepared the manuscript. The data were prepared by Jiawei Guo, Yongqiang Wang, and Hui Zhou helped revise the manuscript. The manuscript was checked by Mingshou Fan. and Qin Yonglin. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32360536) and Basic Scientific Research Funds for universities in Inner Mongolia (BR 22-13-01).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlkharabsheh HM, Seleiman MF, Battaglia ML, Shami A, Jalal RS, Alhammad BA, Almutairi KF, Al-Saif AM (2021) Biochar and its broad impacts in soil quality and fertility, nutrient leaching and crop productivity: a review. Agronomy 11:993. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050993\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAn N, Zhang L, Liu Y, Shen S, Li N, Wu Z, Yang J, Han W, Han X (2022) Biochar application with reduced chemical fertilizers improves soil pore structure and rice productivity. Chemosphere 298:134304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134304\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBao SD (2000) Soil and agricultural chemistry analysis. China Agriculture Press, Beijing, pp 151\u0026ndash;166\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBiederman LA, Harpole WS (2012) Biochar and its effects on plant productivity and nutrient cycling: a meta‐analysis. GCB Bioenergy 5:202\u0026ndash;214. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12037\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBilgili AV, Aydemir S, Altun O, Sayğan EP, Yal\u0026ccedil;ın H, Schindelbeck R (2019) The effects of biochars produced from the residues of locally grown crops on soil quality variables and indexes. Geoderma 345:123\u0026ndash;133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.03.010\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlanco-Canqui H (2017) Biochar and soil physical properties. Soil Sci Soc Am J 81:687\u0026ndash;711. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2017.01.0017\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBurrell LD, Zehetner F, Rampazzo N, Wimmer B, Soja G (2016) Long-term effects of biochar on soil physical properties. Geoderma 282:96\u0026ndash;102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.07.019\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChoudhary TK, Khan KS, Hussain Q, Ahmad M, Ashfaq M (2019) Feedstock-induced changes in composition and stability of biochar derived from different agricultural wastes. Arab J Geosci 12:4735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4735-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCui B, Hu C, Fan X, Gao F (2020) Effects of biochar application on rhizosphere microbial community structure and diversity of water spinach irrigated with reclaimed water. Environ Sci Technol 41:5636\u0026ndash;5647. https://doi.org/10.13227/j.hjkx.202006087\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eD\u0026rsquo;Hose T, Cougnon M, De Vliegher A, Vandecasteele B, Viaene N, Cornelis W, Van Bockstaele E, Reheul D (2014) The positive relationship between soil quality and crop production: a case study on the effect of farm compost application. Appl Soil Ecol 75:189\u0026ndash;198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2013.11.013\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDing Y, Liu Y, Liu S, Li Z, Tan X, Huang X, Zeng G, Zhou L, Zheng B (2016) Biochar to improve soil fertility: a review. Agron Sustain Dev 36:36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0372-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDomingues RR, S\u0026aacute;nchez-Monedero MA, Spokas KA, Melo LCA, Trugilho PF, Valenciano MN, Silva CA (2020) Enhancing cation exchange capacity of weathered soils using biochar: feedstock, pyrolysis conditions and addition rate. Agronomy 10:824. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10060824\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDownie A, Munroe P, Cowie A, Van Zwieten L, Lau DMS (2012) Biochar as a geoengineering climate solution: hazard identification and risk management. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 42:225\u0026ndash;250. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.507980\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGaskin JW, Steiner C, Harris K, Das KC, Bibens B (2008) Effect of low-temperature pyrolysis conditions on biochar for agricultural use. Trans ASABE 51:2061\u0026ndash;2069. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.25409\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGee GW, Bauder JW, Klute A (1986) Methods of soil analysis. Am Soc Agron 5:443\u0026ndash;461\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGhani WAWAK, Mohd A, da Silva G, Bachmann RT, Taufiq-Yap YH, Rashid U, Al-Muhtaseb AAH (2013) Biochar production from waste rubber-wood-sawdust and its potential use in C sequestration: chemical and physical characterization. Ind Crops Prod 44:18\u0026ndash;24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.10.017\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGłąb T, Żabiński A, Sadowska U, Gondek K, Kopeć M, Mierzwa\u0026ndash;Hersztek M, Tabor S (2018) Effects of co-composted maize, sewage sludge, and biochar mixtures on hydrological and physical qualities of sandy soil. Geoderma 315:27\u0026ndash;35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.11.034\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuillaume T, Ge T, Kurganova I, Ovsepyan L, Alharbi H, Aponte H, Yudina A, Xu X, Luo Y, Tian J, Zamanian K, Gunina A, Kuzyakov Y (2020) New approaches for evaluation of soil health, sensitivity and resistance to degradation. Front Agric Sci Eng 7:338. https://doi.org/10.15302/j-fase-2020338\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuo K, Zhao Y, Liu Y, Chen J, Wu Q, Ruan Y, Li S, Shi J, Zhao L, Sun X, Liang C, Xu Q, Qin H (2020) Pyrolysis temperature of biochar affects ecoenzymatic stoichiometry and microbial nutrient-use efficiency in a bamboo forest soil. Geoderma 363:114162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114162\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHagemann N, Harter J, Behrens S (2016) Elucidating the impacts of biochar applications on nitrogen cycling microbial communities. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S (eds) Biochar Application. Elsevier, pp 163\u0026ndash;198\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHe Z, Wang C, Cao H, Liang J, Pei S, Li Z (2023) Nitrate absorption and desorption by biochar. Agronomy 13:2440. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13092440\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHorwath WR, Paul EA (1994) Microbial biomass. In: Weaver RW et al. (eds) Methods of soil analysis: Part 2 microbiological and biochemical properties. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI, pp 753\u0026ndash;773\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHussain M, Farooq M, Nawaz A, Al-Sadi AM, Solaiman ZM, Alghamdi SS, Ammara U, Ok YS, Siddique KHM (2016) Biochar for crop production: potential benefits and risks. J Soils Sediments 17:685\u0026ndash;716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1360-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIgalavithana A, Ok Y, Niazi N, Rizwan M, Al-Wabel M, Usman A, Moon D, Lee S (2017) Effect of corn residue biochar on the hydraulic properties of sandy loam soil. Sustainability 9:266. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020266\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKandel A, Dahal S, Mahatara S (2021) A review on biochar as a potential soil fertility enhancer to agriculture. Arch Agric Environ Sci 6:108\u0026ndash;113. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2021.0601014\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarimi A, Moezzi A, Chorom M, Enayatizamir N (2019) Application of biochar changed the status of nutrients and biological activity in a calcareous soil. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 20:450\u0026ndash;459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-019-00129-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhaledi S, Delbari M, Galavi H, Bagheri H, Chari MM (2023) Effects of biochar particle size, biochar application rate, and moisture content on thermal properties of an unsaturated sandy loam soil. Soil Tillage Res 226:105579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105579\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKl\u0026uuml;pfel L, Keiluweit M, Kleber M, Sander M (2014) Redox properties of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar). Environ Sci Technol 48:5601\u0026ndash;5611. https://doi.org/10.1021/es500906d\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLal R (2016) Soil health and carbon management. Food Energy Secur 5:212\u0026ndash;222. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.96\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLehmann J, Joseph S (2015) Biochar for environmental management: an introduction. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S (eds) Biochar for environmental management: science, technology and implementation, 2nd edn. Routledge, London, pp 1\u0026ndash;13\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeng L, Xiong Q, Yang L, Li H, Zhou Y, Zhang W, Jiang S, Li H, Huang H (2021) An overview on engineering the surface area and porosity of biochar. Sci Total Environ 763:144204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144204\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiang J, Li Y, Si B, Wang Y, Chen X, Wang X, Chen H, Wang H, Zhang F, Bai Y, Biswas A (2021) Optimizing biochar application to improve soil physical and hydraulic properties in saline\u0026ndash;alkali soils. Sci Total Environ 771:144802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144802\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu B, Li H, Li H, Zhang A, Rengel Z (2020) Long‐term biochar application promotes rice productivity by regulating root dynamic development and reducing nitrogen leaching. GCB Bioenergy 13:257\u0026ndash;268. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12766\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu L, Zhao G, An Z, Mu X, Jiao J, An S, Tian P (2022) Effect of grazing intensity on alpine meadow soil quality in the eastern Qinghai\u0026ndash;Tibet Plateau, China. Ecol Indic 141:109111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109111\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu Y, Chen H, Zhao L, Li Z, Yi X, Guo T, Cao X (2021) Enhanced trichloroethylene biodegradation: roles of biochar\u0026ndash;microbial collaboration beyond adsorption. Sci Total Environ 792:148451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148451\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLustosa Carvalho M, Tuzzin de Moraes M, Cerri CEP, Cherubin MR (2020) Biochar amendment enhances water retention in a tropical sandy soil. Agriculture 10:62. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10030062\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLynch JP (2022) Edaphic stress interactions: important yet poorly understood drivers of plant production in future climates. Field Crops Res 283:108547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108547\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMamehpour N, Rezapour S, Ghaemian N (2021) Quantitative assessment of soil quality indices for urban croplands in a calcareous semi-arid ecosystem. Geoderma 382:114781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114781\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMao J, Zhang K, Chen B (2019) Linking hydrophobicity of biochar to the water repellency and water holding capacity of biochar-amended soil. Environ Pollut 253:779\u0026ndash;789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.07.051\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMawof A, Prasher S, Bayen S, Nzediegwu C (2021) Effects of biochar and biochar\u0026ndash;compost mix as soil amendments on soil quality and yield of potatoes irrigated with wastewater. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 21:2600\u0026ndash;2612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-021-00549-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMerighi S, Benini A, Mirandola P, Gessi S, Varani K, Leung E, MacLennan S, Baraldi PG, Borea PA (2005) A3 adenosine receptors modulate hypoxia-inducible factor-1\u0026alpha; expression in human A375 melanoma cells. Neoplasia 7:894\u0026ndash;903. https://doi.org/10.1593/neo.05334\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNouri H, Chavoshi Borujeni S, Nirola R, Hassanli A, Beecham S, Alaghmand S, Saint C, Mulcahy D (2017) Application of green remediation on soil salinity treatment: A review on halophytoremediation. Process Saf Environ Prot 107:94\u0026ndash;107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2017.01.021\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOladele SO (2019) Changes in physicochemical properties and quality index of an Alfisol after three years of rice husk biochar amendment in rainfed rice\u0026ndash;maize cropping sequence. Geoderma 353:359\u0026ndash;371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.06.038\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOlmo M, Alburquerque JA, Barr\u0026oacute;n V, del Campillo MC, Gallardo A, Fuentes M, Villar R (2014) Wheat growth and yield responses to biochar addition under Mediterranean climate conditions. Biol Fertil Soils 50:1177\u0026ndash;1187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-014-0959-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePalansooriya KN, Ok YS, Awad YM, Lee SS, Sung JK, Koutsospyros A, Moon DH (2019) Impacts of biochar application on upland agriculture: A review. J Environ Manage 234:52\u0026ndash;64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.12.085\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQian Z, Tang L, Zhuang S, Zou Y, Fu D, Chen X (2020) Effects of biochar amendments on soil water retention characteristics of red soil at south China. Biochar 2:479\u0026ndash;488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-020-00068-w\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR IK (2006) Organic carbon content assessment methods. In: Lal R (ed) Encyclopedia of soil science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 1164\u0026ndash;1168\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRen T, Li J, Feng H, Yun F, Chen N, Wang H, Yin Q, Liu H, Yek PNY, Lam SS, Liu G (2021) Micro-particle biochar for soil carbon pool management: Application and mechanism. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 157:105229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105229\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSaffari N, Hajabbasi MA, Shirani H, Mosaddeghi MR, Mamedov AI (2020) Biochar type and pyrolysis temperature effects on soil quality indicators and structural stability. J Environ Manage 261:110190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110190\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSaifullah, Dahlawi S, Naeem A, Rengel Z, Naidu R (2018) Biochar application for the remediation of salt-affected soils: Challenges and opportunities. Sci Total Environ 625:320\u0026ndash;335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.257\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSaleem H, Ahmad M, Rashid J, Ahmad M, Al-Wabel MI, Amin M (2022) Carbon potentials of different biochars derived from municipal solid waste in a saline soil. Pedosphere 32:283\u0026ndash;293. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1002-0160(21)60073-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShang J, Geng ZC, Zhao J, Geng R, Zhao YC (2015) Effects of biochar on water thermal properties and aggregate stability of Lou soil. J Appl Ecol 26:1969\u0026ndash;1976. https://doi.org/10.13287/j.1001-9332.20150527.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingh BP, Hatton BJ, Singh B, Cowie AL, Kathuria A (2010) Influence of biochars on nitrous oxide emission and nitrogen leaching from two contrasting soils. J Environ Qual 39:1224\u0026ndash;1235. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2009.0138\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingh H, Northup BK, Rice CW, Prasad PVV (2022) Biochar applications influence soil physical and chemical properties, microbial diversity, and crop productivity: A meta-analysis. Biochar 4:20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-022-00138-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSolomon D, Lehmann J, Fraser JA, Leach M, Amanor K, Frausin V, Kristiansen SM, Millimouno D, Fairhead J (2016) Indigenous African soil enrichment as a climate-smart sustainable agriculture alternative. Front Ecol Environ 14:71\u0026ndash;76. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1226\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTimmis K, Ramos JL (2021) The soil crisis: the need to treat as a global health problem and the pivotal role of microbes in prophylaxis and therapy. Microb Biotechnol 14:769\u0026ndash;797. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13771\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTomczyk A, Sokołowska Z, Boguta P (2020) Biochar physicochemical properties: pyrolysis temperature and feedstock kind effects. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 19:191\u0026ndash;215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-020-09523-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVasu D, Singh SK, Ray SK, Duraisami VP, Tiwary P, Chandran P, Nimkar AM, Anantwar SG (2016) Soil quality index (SQI) as a tool to evaluate crop productivity in semi-arid Deccan Plateau. Geoderma 282:70\u0026ndash;79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.07.010\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang F, Zhang R, Donne SW, Beyad Y, Liu X, Duan X, Yang T, Su P, Sun H (2022) Co-pyrolysis of wood chips and bentonite/kaolin: Influence of temperatures and minerals on characteristics and carbon sequestration potential of biochar. Sci Total Environ 838:156081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156081\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang H, Cheng M, Zhang S, Fan J, Feng H, Zhang F, Wang X, Sun L, Xiang Y (2021) Optimization of irrigation amount and fertilization rate of drip-fertigated potato based on Analytic Hierarchy Process and Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation methods. Agric Water Manag 256:107130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107130\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang P, Wang S, Chen F, Zhang T, Kong W (2024) Preparation of two types plant biochars and application in soil quality improvement. Sci Total Environ 906:167334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167334\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYao BM, Chen P, Zhang HM, Sun GX (2021) A predictive model for arsenic accumulation in rice grains based on bioavailable arsenic and soil characteristics. J Hazard Mater 412:125131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125131\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYan S, Zhang S, Yan P, Aurangzeib M (2022) Effect of biochar application method and amount on the soil quality and maize yield in Mollisols of Northeast China. Biochar 4:100113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-022-00180-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYanardağ IH, Zornoza R, Bastida F, B\u0026uuml;y\u0026uuml;kkili\u0026ccedil;-Yanardağ A, Garc\u0026iacute;a C, Faz A, Mermut AR (2017) Native soil organic matter conditions the response of microbial communities to organic inputs with different stability. Geoderma 295:1\u0026ndash;9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.02.008\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZaki HEM, Radwan KSA (2022) Response of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars to drought stress under in vitro and field conditions. Chem Biol Technol Agric 9:23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-021-00266-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang J, Bai Z, Huang J, Hussain S, Zhao F, Zhu C, Zhu L, Cao X, Jin Q (2019) Biochar alleviated the salt stress of induced saline paddy soil and improved the biochemical characteristics of rice seedlings differing in salt tolerance. Soil Tillage Res 195:104372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104372\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang J, Nie J, Cao W, Gao Y, Lu Y, Liao Y (2023) Long-term green manuring to substitute partial chemical fertilizer simultaneously improving crop productivity and soil quality in a double-rice cropping system. Eur J Agron 142:126641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2022.126641\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang X, Qu J, Li H, La S, Tian Y, Gao L (2020) Biochar addition combined with daily fertigation improves overall soil quality and enhances water-fertilizer productivity of cucumber in alkaline soils of a semi-arid region. Geoderma 363:114170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114170\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZheng X, Xu W, Dong J, Yang T, Shangguan Z, Qu J, Li X, Tan X (2022) The effects of biochar and its applications in the microbial remediation of contaminated soil: A review. J Hazard Mater 438:129557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129557\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"plant-and-soil","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"plso","sideBox":"Learn more about [Plant and Soil](https://www.springer.com/journal/11104)","snPcode":"11104","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11104/3","title":"Plant and Soil","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Biochar pyrolysis temperatures, Soil physicochemical properties, Soil quality assessment, Soil remediation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6420178/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6420178/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAims\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the effects of biochar produced at different pyrolysis temperatures on soil quality and its regulatory factors, and to elucidate the relationship between soil quality and potato yield, thereby identifying the optimal pyrolysis temperature and application rate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMethods\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA two-year field experiment (2023\u0026ndash;2024) was conducted in North China to investigate the impact of different biochar pyrolysis temperatures (T1: 300\u0026deg;C, T2: 500\u0026deg;C, T3: 700\u0026deg;C) and application rates (C1: 10 t\u0026middot;ha⁻\u0026sup1;, C2: 20 t\u0026middot;ha⁻\u0026sup1;, C3: 30 t\u0026middot;ha⁻\u0026sup1;) on soil quality and its synergistic effect on potato yield.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResults\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1) Biochar application effectively alleviated soil compaction and significantly increased soil aggregation; 2) The C2T2 treatment significantly improved soil moisture content (θ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e), organic carbon(SOC), available phosphorus(P), available potassium(K), total nitrogen(TN), microbial biomass carbon(MBC) and nitrogen(MBN), while reducing soil nitrate nitrogen(NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N) content; 3) The soil quality index (SQI) calculated using a nonlinear scoring model more accurately evaluated soil quality, with the SQI of C2T2 treatment increasing by 1.08\u0026ndash;1.30 times compared to other treatments over two years. Potato yield increased linearly with the SQI; 4) Structural equation modeling indicated that biochar application promoted potato yield by improving soil moisture and nutrients (such as SOC, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;N, P, k, MBC, and MBN).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConclusions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA soil quality evaluation method is developed for sandy loam soils in arid regions. The suitable biochar application is beneficial for SQI and potato yield improvement by optimizing soil moisture and nutrients.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Effects of Biochar on Soil Quality and Potato Yield in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-13 06:54:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6420178/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-05-08T07:00:46+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-08T06:33:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Plant and Soil","date":"2025-04-14T02:39:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-14T02:36:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Plant and Soil","date":"2025-04-11T07:55:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"plant-and-soil","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"plso","sideBox":"Learn more about [Plant and Soil](https://www.springer.com/journal/11104)","snPcode":"11104","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11104/3","title":"Plant and Soil","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"76a47be3-397f-4f55-8f10-8b7ed0709499","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-22T06:59:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6420178","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-025-07832-6","journal":{"identity":"plant-and-soil","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Plant and Soil"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-12 15:56:50","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 12th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-13 06:54:09","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11104-025-07832-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-025-07832-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6420178","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6420178","identity":"rs-6420178","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}