Moral Changes at Post-COVID Atmosphere: A Generational Study of Freshman Iranian University Students

Moral Changes at Post-COVID Atmosphere: A Generational Study of Freshman Iranian University Students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Moral Changes at Post-COVID Atmosphere: A Generational Study of Freshman Iranian University Students Alireza Azimpour, Alireza Rasti, Fatemeh Heidari Sourshejani, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4454762/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Since the COVID-19 pandemic began in 2020, some psychological changes have been tracked and reported across the world. Post-COVID-19 freshman university students can be classified as generation Z. The aim of this study was to examine changes in moral and moral-related variables among Iranian freshman university students in generation Z compared with generation Y in the post-COVID-19 era. Variables, including prosocial behaviors, types of prosocial moral reasoning, dimensions of moral identity and religiosity, identity styles, empathy, and social desirability, were assessed among 212 freshman students at …. University of ….. in 2014. However, another assessment of those variables by the same measures and methods was performed among 114 similar students in 2022. Social desirability and lie/nonsense responses were statistically controlled by multiple analysis of covariance and partial correlation methods. Among the post-COVID group, there was less total prosocial moral reasoning, hedonistic, approval-oriented and internalized prosocial moral reasoning, normative identity, symbolization of moral identity, public prosocial behavior, and total, ideological and experimental religiosity; additionally, there was more needs-oriented and stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, informational identity, altruistic prosocial behaviors, consequential and ritualistic religiosity and empathy. There were different correlations among the two groups, whereas religiosity and its dimensions were positively correlated with many moral variables in the 2014 group, the correlations were negative in the 2022 group. The findings indicate that in post-COVID-19 generation Z, sentimental aspects (e.g., empathy and altruism) of morality increased and that rational (e.g., prosocial moral reasoning) or traditional (e.g., religiosity) aspects decreased. Empathy Identity styles Moral identity Prosocial behaviors Prosocial moral reasoning Religiosity Introduction In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared that the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) can be considered a pandemic (World Health Organization, 2020). Reviews have indicated that the pandemic and the resulting quarantine have led to the prevalence of mental health problems worldwide (Bonati et al., 2022; Dubey et al., 2020). These problems have also been reported in Iran (Zakeri et al., 2021). However, few studies have examined changes in sociomoral variables during pandemics and quarantines. Some studies have addressed increases in gender inequity and violence (Chu et al., 2020), anger (Brooks et al., 2020), racism, stigmatization, and xenophobia against particular communities (Dubey et al., 2020). Nevertheless, other studies (Donkers et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2020) have shown that different levels of engagement in COVID-19 have led to different outcomes for moral variables. Donkers et al. (2021) reported that moral distress during the COVID-19 epidemic was lower for intensive care unit (ICU) professionals than for those in a historical control group. Mazza et al. (2020) showed that front-line health workers, more than second-line workers and university students, choose utilitarian solutions in their moral judgments. In addition, front–line workers experience less of an emotional reaction to empathy, such as anxiety, and more cognitive empathy. Mazza et al. (2020) showed that university students experienced more stress than did front-line workers despite being more likely to be removed from COVID-19 problems. It is possible to imagine some causes for probable moral changes in the atmosphere of the COVID-19 pandemic among university students. As can be concluded from previous studies (Donkers et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2020), groups with greater helplessness and stress related to the disease, despite their distance from danger (e.g., university students), may experience increased moral distress or decreased morality. Another cause may be a decrease in cognitive development in the atmosphere of the pandemic (Deoni et al., 2021) and the effect of this decrease on morality due to the linkage between morality and cognitive development (Author et al., 2017). Loneliness resulting from quarantine may also play a role in this regard. The association of loneliness with physical and mental health problems is well established in the literature (Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017). Although there is a theorization that suggests that voluntary use of solitude may sometimes increase the opportunity for reflection and can promote moral reasoning (Akrivou et al., 2011), to become experts in moral functioning, day-to-day experience through social interactions is needed (Narvaez & Lapsley, 2014). Finally, the disruption of education, which is one of the outcomes of the pandemic (Brooks et al., 2020), may affect students' morality. Although there is evidence that shows that morality can be virtually taught (Van Fossen et al., 2022), moral education may be defected because Iranian education (in schools and universities) became suddenly virtual in the time of quarantine. Iranian freshman university students in the 2022-2023 academic year had been in a quarantine atmosphere and had experienced virtual education at their high school age since February 2020. There was an assessment of some moral variables among other generations of freshman students at a university in Iran in 2014 (Author et al., 2019; Author et al., 2023). If they are considered a historical control group, assessing those variables among freshman students at that university may provide an opportunity to compare pre- and post-COVID-19 students. The moral variables that were assessed in 2014 included prosocial behaviors (altruistic, anonymous, dire, emotional, compliant and public prosocial behaviors), prosocial moral reasoning and its types (hedonistic, needs-oriented, stereotypic and internalized prosocial moral reasoning), dimensions of moral identity (internalization and symbolization), and empathy. The importance of these variables, especially the fundamental role of the internalization of moral identity in predicting other aspects of moral variables, was confirmed in some previous studies among Iranian university students (Author et al., 2012; Author et al., 2017). This finding was also confirmed for empathy as an emotional source of moral behavior (Author et al., 2012). The moral-related variables that were assessed in the historical control groups included religiosity and its dimensions (experimental, ritualistic, ideological, and consequential religiosity), aspects of identity styles (informational identity, normative identity, confused/avoidance identity, and commitment) and social desirability. The relationships between moral variables and identity styles (Author et al., 2017) and religiosity (Author et al., 2012) among Iranian university students were confirmed in previous studies. Due to the emphasis on religious and moral values in the curriculum of Iran education (Mehran, 1990), any change in religiosity may have implications for other moral variables. Despite this, the probable differences in moral and moral related variables between these two groups may be an effect of causes other than the COVID-19 pandemic; one of them may be universal generational differences. The new freshman students can be considered generation Z, and the historical control group can be considered generation Y (alternatively known as Millennials). Generation Z, who was born in 1997 or later, worked excessively with computers and the internet. Millennials, or generation Y, were born between 1981 and 1996 and were the first to grow up with almost lifelong access to the internet (Marshall & Wolanskyj-Spinner, 2020). The effect of generation on moral development is not obvious, and the evidence that moral development is influenced by digital communication is conflicting (Bassiouni & Hackley, 2014). Weber and Elm (2018), while compairing the moral reasoning of Millennial business students and that of a previous generation (i. e., 1960s–1970s business students), arrived at lower levels of Millennials’ moral reasoning. However, some evidence has indicated that the rates of crime decreased among Generation Z (Bassiouni & Hackley, 2014). In addition to this possible cause, other temporary conditions such as a widespread sociopolitical protest (Oxford Analytica, 2020) that was synchronous with the testing in 2022 may have had a role in the styles of the students' responses to moral-related questionnaires. Whether because of COVID-19 or the characteristics of Generation Z or other factors, any changes in moral-related variables among freshman students can prompt educators and teachers to coordinate their moral education strategies with the generation. Method Participants The testing in 2014 included 212 freshman students at …… University of ……, a local southern Iranian university, (M of age: 19, Sd of age: 1.61, females: 77.4%). However, the testing in 2022 involved 114 freshman students (M of age: 19.47, Sd of age: 1.31, Females: 79.8%) at the same university and in the same fields of study. The conditions of the testing for the two groups were similar; both were performed in the classrooms collectively by named sheets. The students were motivated to respond carefully by knowing their individual results several months after testing via an email. The students and testers were blinded to the subject of the study. As part of the ethical considerations of the study, the participants in the two groups were assured that their individual results would be private. In addition, they would be free to participate in the project. The fields of the participants (and the percentage of numbers for the recent group and the historical control group) were Persian literature (12.3%, 7.5%), teaching English as a foreign language (17.5%, 13.7%), psychology (19.3%, 13.7%), engineering sciences (3.5%, 24.5%), computer sciences (10.5%, 11.8%), physics (1.8%, 10.4%), mathematics (12.3%, 9.9%), and information technology or computer engineering (17.5%, 8.5%). Notably, in Iran’s higher education system and at the university where the inestigation was conducted, information technology as a field of study was replaced by computer engineering at a bachelor’s degree; therefore, the two can be considered to be matched fields. Measures Prosocial Tendencies Measure This measure includes 23 items that assess six types of prosocial behaviors (Carlo & Randall, 2002 ). It has been validated among Iranian university students (Author et al., 2012). The Cronbach’s alpha of the present data (collected data of the two groups) was 0.862 for anonymous, 0.723 for dire, 0.715 for emotional, and 0.720 for public prosocial behavior. However, it was only 0.597 for altruistic prosocial behavior. For compliant prosocial behavior with two items, the Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.645. The Adult Version of the Prosocial Reasoning Objective Measure The measure has seven stories each, including a moral dilemma and 9 main items for any story. The measure assesses 5 types of prosocial reasoning, overall prosocial moral reasoning and lie/nonsense responding (Carlo & Randall, 2002 ). It was validated by Author et al. (2013) among Iranian university students. The Cronbach’s alphas of the present data were 0.797 for hedonistic reasoning, 0.895 for approval-oriented reasoning, 0.708 for needs-oriented reasoning, 0.728 for stereotypic reasoning, 0.808 for internalized prosocial reasoning, 0.733 for lie/nonsense responding, and 0.920 for overall prosocial moral reasoning. Self-importance of Moral Identity This scale assesses the internalization and symbolization of moral identity with 10 items (Aquino & Reed II, 2002) and was validated among Iranian university students (Author et al., 2014). The Cronbach’s alpha of the present data for internalization was 0.761, and it was 0.695 for symbolization. Toronto Empathy Questionnaire This 16-item questionnaire that assesses general empathy (Spreng et al., 2009 ) was validated in Persian by Author (2021). The Cronbach’s alpha in the present study was 0.731. Glock and Stark Religiosity Questionnaire This measure was originally used to assess five dimensions of religiosity (Robbins, 1966 ). In its 26-item Persian replica (Serajzadeh & Pouyafar, 2008 ), the intellectual dimension was eliminated. The Cronbach’s alpha of the present data was 0.891 for total religiosity, 0.907 for experimental religiosity, 0.741 for ritualistic religiosity, and 0.949 for ideological religiosity. However, for consequential religiosity, it was only 0.206. The Sixth Revised Identity Style Inventory This inventory consists of 40 items for assessing commitment to identify and four identity styles (White et al., 1998 ) and has a Persian validation version (Ghazanfari, 2004 ). The Cronbach’s alphas were 0.686 for informational identity, 0.634 for normative identity, 0.508 for confused/avoidance identity, and 0.607 for commitment. Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale This scale originally has 13 items to assess social desirability (Reynolds, 1982 ). In a Persian validation (Author et al., 2023), it was reduced to 7 items. The 13-item version was used in both groups. Kuder-Richardson's coefficient of only the 7-item version via the present data was 0.585, and for all 13 items, it was 0.596. Consequently, the version with the 13 items with the highest validity was used for analysis. Findings Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the variables for both 2014 and 2022. The skew of the variables was between ± 2, and their kurtosis was between ± 7; therefore, the distribution of the variables can be considered normal. Table 1 also shows the Pearson correlation coefficients between lie/nonsense responding, social desirability and the other variables. As shown in the table, several variables had significant correlations with these two variables. Then, the statistical control of the lie/nonsense responding and social desirability was considered. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of the Variables in Groups of 2014 and 2022 and Pearson Correlations between Lie/nonsense Responding, Social Desirability and the Other Variables in All Populations Descriptive Pearson Correlation (r) Mean Standard deviation Skeweness Kurtosis r to Social Desirability r to Lie/nonsense Responding Altruistic prosocial behaviors 20.01, 21.06 3.52, 3.17 -0.61, -1.05 0.27, 1.692 0.11 * 0.14 * Anonymous prosocial behaviors 18.22, 18.19 5.01, 4.78 -0.32, -0.30 -0.93, -0.67 0.36 ** 0.28 ** Dire prosocial behaviors 10.06, 9.71 2.92, 2.74 -0.215, 0.030 -0.52, -0.32 -0.01 -0.04 Emotional prosocial behaviors 14.13, 13.88 3.52, 3.17 -0.270, 0.214 -0.43, -0.8 -0.04 -0.04 Compliant prosocial behaviors 7.1, 7.09 2.08, 1.94 -0.21, -0.11 -0.74, -0.6 0.28 ** 0.07 public prosocial behaviors 6.32, 5.75 2.7, 2.56 1.39, 2.57 2.23, 9.65 -0.15 ** -0.05 Total score of prosocial reasoning 190.79, 170.87 9.5, 10.75 -0.42, -0.07 -0.32, -0.27 0.11 * -0.56 ** Hedonistic prosocial reasoning 23.94, 16.81 3.55, 2.47 0.49, -0.3 0.59, 0.32 -0.07 -0.05 ** Approval-oriented prosocial reasoning 16.25, 9.73 4.62, 3.39 0.01, 0.15 -0.46, -0.91 0.03 -0.22 ** Needs-oriented prosocial reasoning 14.94, 21.02 2.29, 3.23 0.77, -0.16 2.85, -0.65 -0.07 0.12 * Stereotypic prosocial reasoning 13.89, 19.18 2.16, 2.64 0.21, -0.02 2.31, − .09 -0.03 0.29 ** Internalized prosocial reasoning 30.97, 21.31 4.11, 2.58 0.45, 0.4 0.00, .55 0.14 * -0.41 ** Internalization of moral identity 30.24, 29.75 4.52, 5.33 -1.16, -1.82 0.7, 4.46 0.14 * -0.04 Symbolization of moral identity 20.6, 19 5.87, 5.52 0.06, 0.33 -0.53, -0.13 0.26 ** 0.09 Empathy 49.66, 51.91 5.62, 5.83 -0.42, -0.36 − .02, -0.33 0.16 ** 0.2 ** Total score of religiosity 72.6, 48.46 12.44, 19.74 -0.65, -0.69 -0.37, -0.59 0.11 * 0.14 * Experimental religiosity 19.43, 8.39 3.74, 5.53 -1.1, − .65 1.63, .37 0.12 * 0.15 ** Ritualistic religiosity 15.40, 17.79 5.14, 6.8 -0.1, -0.04 -0.37, -0.59 0.01 0.02 Ideological religiosity 24.7, 8.26 3.71, 6.6 -1.72, -0.77 3.46, -0.13 0.09 0.133 * Consequential religiosity 13.01, 14.02 3.72, 4.16 -0.09, -0.27 -0.59, 0.08 0.10 0.070 Informational identity 37.45, 39.73 5.92, 5.38 -0.18, -0.19 .21, .00 0.24 ** 0.15 ** Normative identity 33.12, 30.47 4.43, 5.64 -0.38, -0.64 0.86, 0.89 0.28 ** -0.01 Confused/avoidance identity 25.60, 25.83 5.29, 4.74 0.29, 0.08 -0.09, -0.7 -0.16 ** 0.05 Commitment (to identity) 36.12, 37.35 5.13, 5.93 -0.09, -0.17 0.30, -0.41 0.34 ** 0.14 ** Social desirability 8.12, 7.74 2.25, 2.29 -0.45, -0.41 -0.38, 0.16 - 0.097 Lie/nonsense responding 8.36, 11.94 2.48, 4.24 -0.42, − .03 -0.59, -0.80 0.097 - Note: The first scores are for group 2014 (N: 212), the second are for group 2022 (N: 114); correlations are from all populations (N: 326); **: p < 0.001, *: p < 0.01 In addition, comparing the two groups in terms of lying/nonsense responses and social desirability via independent t tests indicated greater lie/nonsense responses (t=-8.29; p 0.05). Table 2 represents the relationships of the variables after controlling for Lie/nonsense response and social desirability by partial correlation coefficients in both the 2014 and 2022 groups. As the table indicates, there were different patterns of correlations among the two groups. Due to the unequal sample sizes of the two groups, an emphasis on significance may not provide accurate information, and an emphasis on effect size could be helpful (especially for the 2022 group, which has fewer participants). A coefficient of .1 to .3 represents a small effect size, a coefficient of 30 to .05 represents a moderate correlation, and a coefficient of .05 or greater represents a large effect size (Cohen, 2013 ). The considerable differences in the correlations were for religiosity and its dimensions. In the 2014 group, religiosity had significantly positive correlations (chieflies with small effect sizes) with high moral or moral-related variables (i.e., internalization and symbolization of moral identity, empathy, anonymous and compliant prosocial behaviors, informational, normative identities, and commitment), and it had a significantly negative correlation with low moral variables of hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning. However, in group 2022, the correlations were significantly negative to high moral variables (i.e., anonymous prosocial behavior, stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, internalization and symbolization of moral identity, informational, normative identity, and commitment). The correlation was also significantly positive with the weak moral variables of hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning. The patterns of correlations were more or less similar for dimensions of religiosity. Table 2 The Relationships of the Variables after Controlling Lie/nonsense Responding and Social Desirability by Partial Correlation Coefficients in Both the 2014 and 2022 Groups. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 1 .11 .06 − .00 − .02 − .57 .12 .12 − .13 .02 − .21 .25 .15 − .02 .00 .03 .06 .03 − .00 .02 .01 − .04 − .16 .24 2 .05 1 .24 .32 .37 − .05 .44 − .28 − .31 .06 .19 .45 .28 .18 .29 − .11 − .07 − .12 − .11 − .06 .37 .2 − .19 .31 3 − .28 .33 1 .41 .19 − .01 .02 .03 − .05 .04 − .02 .01 .04 .09 .07 .07 .08 .05 .04 .05 .23 .1 − .1 .00 4 − .33 .25 .54 1 .47 .00 .28 − .16 − .22 .14 .04 .26 .23 .15 .27 .02 − .04 .1 − .02 .04 .37 .19 − .02 .13 5 − .1 .39 .35 .41 1 .06 .36 − .31 − .24 .22 .07 .31 .22 .14 .26 − .02 .00 − .04 − .03 .03 .35 .24 − .14 .09 6 − .51 − .2 .09 .16 .05 1 − .08 − .03 − .09 − .07 .9 − .11 − .15 − .00 − .05 − .09 − .1 − .05 − .03 − .12 − .12 − .09 .05 − .18 7 .26 .26 − .02 − .02 .14 − .26 1 − .6 − .83 .54 .25 .87 .2 .07 .33 .01 − .01 .05 − .01 − .02 .33 .17 − .1 .28 8 − .05 − .19 .02 .02 − .17 .07 − .58 1 .14 − .23 − .46 − .42 − .22 − .08 − .27 .11 .1 .05 .14 .1 − .14 − .18 .13 − .09 9 − .27 − .14 − .01 .01 − .03 .28 − .79 − .00 1 − .65 − .17 − .63 − .16 .00 − .21 − .08 − .06 − .08 − .08 − .05 − .28 − .12 − .00 − .28 10 .04 .06 .18 .02 − .04 − .19 .31 − .17 − .42 1 − .29 .28 .1 − .04 .22 .09 .11 .06 .11 .02 .23 .3 − .03 .05 11 .12 .02 − .11 − .04 .11 − .09 .45 − .44 − .34 − .01 1 − .02 .22 .02 − .00 − .11 − .13 − .73 − .15 − .01 − .06 .23 .05 .15 12 .25 .28 − .04 − .02 .14 − .22 .95 − .51 − .71 .11 .28 1 .1 .11 .31 .02 − .00 .07 .01 − .03 .33 .08 − .14 .26 13 .05 .21 .13 .19 .23 − .1 .11 − .25 .04 − .07 .23 .08 1 .24 .3 1 − .23 − .21 − .21 − .27 − .03 .17 .26 − .09 .17 14 − .25 .23 .3 .29 .28 .2 − .08 − .07 .13 − .06 .04 − .08 .17 1 .06 − .23 − .21 − .26 − .18 − .08 .25 .33 − .04 .16 15 .03 .25 .22 .34 .32 − .14 .25 − .14 − .2 .04 .18 .23 . 4 .17 1 − .03 − .02 − .05 − .07 .07 .48 .12 − .19 .2 16 .09 .26 .11 .09 .18 − .1 .09 − .15 .00 − .06 .13 .08 .41 .15 .23 1 .89 .87 .91 .69 − .08 − .47 − .07 − .28 17 .03 .19 .13 .14 .19 − .05 .14 − .16 − .05 − .07 .19 .13 .41 .17 .26 .73 1 .66 .83 .47 − .02 − .43 − .07 − .31 18 .04 .24 .08 .06 .18 − .07 − .01 − .14 .1 − .05 .03 .02 .27 .14 .08 .79 .37 1 .68 .55 − .13 − .34 − .06 − .24 19 .01 .17 .1 .13 .13 − .05 . 1 − .09 − .04 − .04 .09 .1 .46 .09 .28 .79 .63 .43 1 .49 − .04 − .46 − .09 − .25 20 .19 .13 .02 − .06 .02 − .12 .03 − .04 − .02 − .00 .11 .00 .11 .08 .1 .65 .23 .38 .37 1 − .07 − .34 − .03 − .33 21 − .05 .22 .34 .3 .25 − .07 .16 − .06 − .17 .06 .15 .13 .22 .25 .39 .23 .15 .19 .17 .18 1 .41 − .08 .43 22 − .18 .28 .31 .27 .22 − .01 .01 .04 − .04 .01 − .03 .02 .16 .33 .29 .28 .22 .15 .24 .23 .5 1 -. 09 − .54 23 − .14 .01 .06 .14 .11 .17 − .01 .12 .08 − .09 − .09 − .09 -. 2 .09 -13 -19 -18 -. 15 − .14 − .09 .08 .04 1 − .31 24 .05 .25 .24 .16 .24 − .01 .21 − .09 − .21 .09 .16 .18 .14 .23 .22 .3 .22 .14 .22 .33 .54 .52 − .2 1 Notes: The left side of the matrix is for the 2014 group, and the right side is for the 2022 group. For the left side (N: 212), 0.14 ≤ |r| < 0.18 indicates p < 0.05, and |r|≥ 0.18 indicates p < 0.01. For the right side (n = 114), 0.21 ≤ |r| < 0.18 indicates p < 0.05, and |r|≥ 0.21 indicates p < 0.01. 1: Altruistic prosocial behaviors, 2: anonymous prosocial behaviors, 3: dire prosocial behaviors, 4: emotional prosocial behaviors, 5: compliant prosocial behaviors, 6: public prosocial behaviors, 7: total score of prosocial moral reasoning, 8: hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning, 9: approval-oriented prosocial moral reasoning, 10: needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning, 11: stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, 12: internalized prosocial moral reasoning, 13: internalization of moral identity, 14: symbolization of moral identity, 15: empathy, 16: total score of religiosity, 17: experimental religiosity, 18: ritualistic religiosity, 19: ideological religiosity, 20: consequential religiosity, 21: informational identity, 22: normative identity, 23: confused/avoidance identity, 24: commitment (to identity). Multiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used to compare the two groups in the variables after controlling for social desirability and lie/nonsense responses. To prevent collinearity, the total scores that had subscales (religiosity and prosocial moral reasoning) were not used in the current MANCOVA and were reserved for another analysis. Levene's tests to examine the equality of variances have shown that the following variables did not have equal variances (ps < 0.5): hedonistic, approval-oriented, needs-oriented, stereotypic and internalized prosocial moral reasoning; normative identity; commitment (to identity); and ideological, experimental and ritualistic religiosity. All other variables had equal variances (p < 0.05). Pillai's trace of MANCOVA was significant (F: 268.29, p < 0.01; partial eta squared: 0.95; observed power: 1). Table 3 represents the between-subject effect of the MANCOVA. Table 3 Between-subject Effect of MANOVA Dependent Variable F Partial Eta Squared (η 2 ) Observed Power Marginal Means 2014 Marginal Means 2022 Hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning 241.54** 0.43 1.000 23.67 17.31 Approval-oriented prosocial moral reasoning 153.57** 0.32 1.000 16.41 9.44 Needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning 483.113** 0.6 1.000 14.54 21.77 Stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning 324.66** 0.5 1.000 14.12 19.84 Internalized prosocial moral reasoning 365.23** 0.53 1.000 30.82 21.61 Informational identity 9.59** 0.03 .87 37.44 39.73 Normative identity 21.09** 0.06 1.000 33.20 30.33 Confused/avoidance identity .28 0.001 .08 25.8 25.45 Commitment (to identity) 3.31 0.01 .44 36.12 37.35 Internalization of moral identity . 58 0.00 .06 30.13 29.97 Symbolization of moral identity 4.62* 0.02 .57 20.25 18.66 Public prosocial behaviors 4.05* 0.01 .52 6.37 5.67 Compliant prosocial behaviors .11 0.00 .06 7.1 7.02 Dire prosocial behaviors .64 0.00 .12 10.04 9.74 Emotional prosocial behaviors .24 0.01 .08 14.12 13.9 Anonymous prosocial behaviors .23 0.01 .08 18.11 18.4 Altruistic prosocial behaviors 4.3* 0.01 .54 20.05 20.99 Ideological religiosity 644.842** 0.67 1.000 24.77 8.13 Experimental religiosity 354.23** 0.52 1.000 19.45 8.33 Consequential religiosity 6.08* 0.02 .69 12.92 14.19 Ritualistic religiosity 9.78** 0.03 .88 15.40 17.81 Empathy 10.23** 0.03 .89 49.61 52.02 Notes: **: p < 0.001, *: p < 0.01, 0.01 ≤ η 2 < 0.06 indicates a small effect size, 0.06 ≤ η 2 < 0.14 indicates a medium effect size, 0.06 ≤ η 2 indicates a large effect size Among the students of 2022, hedonistic, approval-oriented, and internalized prosocial moral reasoning, normative identity, symbolization of moral identity, public prosocial behavior, ideological and experimental religiosity had significantly lower scores, however; needs-oriented and stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, informational identity, altruistic prosocial behaviors, consequential and ritualistic religiosity and empathy had significantly higher scores.. Since some variables did not have equal variances (significant Levene's tests), for those cases, instead of concentrating on significant F tests, we focused especially on partial eta squared (effect size). As Table 3 indicates, differences in hedonistic, approval-oriented, needs-oriented, stereotypic and internalized prosocial moral reasoning and ideological and experimental religiosity all had large effect sizes. The difference in normative identity had a medium effect size. However, differences in informational identity, symbolization of moral identity, public and altruistic prosocial behaviors, consequential and ritualistic religiosity and empathy had small effect sizes. For the two total scores (religiosity and prosocial moral reasoning), another MANCOVA was used. It was likewise employed to control for social desirability and lie/nonsense responses. The variables had equal variances (p > 0.05 for Levene's tests). Pillai's trace was significant (F: 134.74, p < 0.01; partial eara squared: 0.46; observed power: 1). The between-subject comparisons for both variables were significant. For prosocial moral reasoning (F: 157.68, p < 0.01, Partial Eta Squared: .33, Observed Power: 1), the marginal means indicated lower scores in the 2022 group (174.114 vs. 190.947). For Religiosity (F: 139.12, p < 0.01, Partial Eta Squared 0.3, Observed Power:1), the marginal means indicate lower levels of religiosity in the 2022 group (48.45 vs 72.6) and lower amounts of prosocial moral reasoning among them (173.87 vs 189.19). Discussion The post-COVID group had less total prosocial moral reasoning than did the historical control group. They also had less internalized prosocial moral reasoning as developmentally and morally high-level moral reasoning; however, they had less hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning and approval-oriented prosocial moral reasoning as developmentally and morally low-level variables. In addition, they had more needs-oriented and stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning as developmentally and morally middle-level types of prosocial reasoning (all with large effect sizes). Indeed, despite less total moral reasoning, both low-level and high-level moral reasoning were less common, but middle-level types of prosocial moral reasoning were more common in the post-COVID group. The opportunity for social interaction can lead to increased moral reasoning (Narvaez & Lapsley, 2014) but less so in post-COVID-19 students because quarantine may have a role in decreased total prosocial moral reasoning and internalized prosocial moral reasoning. With regard to the definition of prosocial moral reasoning types (Carlo et al., 1992 ), internalized reasoning and the two low-level types of reasoning (i.e., hedonistic and approval-oriented reasoning) may be considered active reasoning (in contrast to needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning). Considering the findings of previous studies (Donkers et al., 2021 ; Mazza et al., 2020 ), it can be assumed that at the time of the COVID-19 outbreak, the students were afraid of the danger of the disease and consequently attempted more to avoid engagement in society. This leads to their less morally active approach and more passive orientation toward others and society. Needs-oriented reasoning ( a developmentally low-level although morally middle-level one), which was more common among them, is a passive orientation to others' severe needs. In addition, needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning is correlated with more moral or morally related variables among the post-COVID-19 group than among the historically control group. People who primed needs-oriented reasoning exhibited minimal helping behavior and were in conditions with severe damage to the person who helped (Carlo et al., 1992 ). In a study of Iranian university students, Author et al. (2017), due to its positive correlation with intelligence and lack of correlation with moral identity, concluded that needs-oriented prosocial reasoning is a common moral orientation among university students with an intellectualistic nihilistic approach. Increasing, in addition to decreasing, dimensions of moral identity among the post-COVID group may confirm the prevalence of this intellectualistic nihilistic approach among the post-COVID group. However, all of the findings about the moral variables did not indicate moral decreases in the post-COVID group; stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning (a developmentally and morally middle-level one), altruistic prosocial behaviors and empathy were found more often among them; in addition, public prosocial behavior such as morally low-level behavior was less common among them (although all with small effect sizes). The decrease in public prosocial behavior and the symbolization of moral identity may indicate that their moral orientation did not originate from desires to achieve social acceptance. The greater amount of empathy and altruistic prosocial behavior, in addition to less prosocial reasoning, may indicate that morality among them is more sentimental than rational. Perhaps students who experienced loneliness and less real social interaction with peers were far removed from real society, and instead of reporting what they do in real life, they reported what they wished to do if they engaged with society. According to this explanation, their higher scores for stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, in addition to their lower scores for total prosocial moral reasoning, may be comprehensible. Their social interest in being good (higher reported empathy, stereotypic claims and altruistic prosocial behavior) may be changed by encountering the real society after several semesters, such as the moral regression that was found in a longitudinal study among the students of this university (Author et al., under review). Among the post-COVID generation total, ideological and experimental religiosity were lower (all with large effect sizes); however, ritualistic and consequential religiosity were greater (although with a small effect size). It was confirmed that some moral variables originated somewhat from religiosity (Author et al., 2012) and probably from normative identity (Author et al., 2017) among Iranian university students. This may be due to the interdependence of moral education in Iran with religious education (Mehran, 1990 ). It may be said that due to new generations defying religious values (Oxford Analytica, 2020 ), a decrease in religiosity occurred; then, morality gradually lost religiosity and traditional values as one of its sources. Instead, empathy as a moral emotion and another source of morality is the replacement of moral identity. This explanation is in line with the negative correlations of moral variables with religiosity in the post-COVID group and the positive correlations between these two variables in the historical control group. In addition, higher scores of ritualistic religiosity and consequential religiosity (with small effect sizes), in addition to a decrease in ideological and experimental religiosity (with small effect sizes), may indicate the formation of a new and nonfundamental orientation to religiosity. For the moral-related variables, more informational identity (with a small effect size) and less normative identity (with medium effect sizes) among the post-COVID group can also be attributed to less real social interactions with peers in addition to access to peers via cyberspace at the time of quarantine. Such conditions may make freshman students more eager to find new manners and values via socialization from peers and their generation beyond the identity and values of their families in the first semester of their real encounter with peers. In this vein, the lower total religiosity and ideological and experimental dimensions (with large effect sizes) among the post-COVID group were interpretable. Indeed, some traditional sources of ethical and social behaviors (religiosity and some of its dimensions and normative identity) decreased among post-COVID-19 generation Z. In this vein, some of the surprising findings were changing patterns of correlation between religiosity and its dimensions to moral and moral-related variables. According to a previous study among Iranian university students (Author et al., 2012), there was a positive correlation between moral variables and religiosity in the 2014 group; however, such correlations became negative in the 2022 group. Indeed, in the educational context of Iran, which has an overemphasis on teaching governmentally religious ideology (Mehran, 1990 ), it can be considered a protest against the dominant values of official social institutions. This may be because of more engagement with cyberspace or separation from religious education due to virtual education in quarantine, which may also be due to the atmosphere of recent political protests (Oxford Analytica, 2020 ) at the time of testing. Conclusion The findings indicate that among generation Z freshman Iranian university students post-COVID-19, compared to those in generation Y pre-COVID-19, some variables indicating compliance with previous generations and traditions (such as religiosity, normative identity, a dimension of moral identity and public prosocial behaviors) were less common; however, some likely noncustom and nonreligiosity-related variables (such as empathy, needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning, informational identity and altruistic prosocial behavior) were more common. The small amount of prosocial moral reasoning among them indicated that their moral change is not a deliberative process. It can be said that traditional (religiosity, normative identity) and rational (moral reasoning) aspects of morality were replaced by sentimental aspects (empathy). When morality is disengaged from its custom sources, the need for deliberation may increase. However, this study revealed less moral deliberation among the post-COVID group. This strengthened the necessity of emphasizing moral education among this generation of students in Iran to increase their moral reasoning. Given such little normative identity or religiosity among them, traditionally religious-related moral education, as a common type of education in Iran’s formal schooling curriculum, might not prove effective. Therefore, other types of moral educational strategies concentrating on promoting moral identity or moral reasoning could be more effective. Future studies can show the effectiveness of such interventions on the Iranian post-COVID-19 generation Z. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors of this article thank all the participants of this study and Miss ……, a bachelor’s student in psychology, for her investigation of Generation Z. Competing Interests and Funding The first and second authors are faculty members of the university from which the data were collected. The authors have no relevant financial interest to disclose. Publication Ethics Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study. Authorship The first author performed conceptualization, project administration, formal analysis, investigation and writing of the original draft. The second author reviewed and edited the article, and the other authors curated the data. All authors approved the final version of the article. Open Data The datasets generated during the current study are uploaded to the corresponding author's page (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Author) , and they will be available upon reasonable request. References Akrivou, K., Bourantas, D., Mo, S., & Papalois, E. (2011). The sound of silence–A space for morality? The role of solitude for ethical decision making. Journal of Business Ethics , 102 , 119-133. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0803-3 Aquino, K., & Reed II, A. (2002). The self-importance of moral identity. 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J., Candel, M. J., van Dijk, N. M., Kling, H., Heijnen-Panis, R., . . . van Mook, W. N. (2021). Moral distress and ethical climate in intensive care medicine during COVID-19: a nationwide study. BMC Medical Ethics , 22 (1), 1-12 . Dubey, S., Biswas, P., Ghosh, R., Chatterjee, S., Dubey, M. J., Chatterjee, S., . . . Lavie, C. J. (2020). Psychosocial impact of COVID-19. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: clinical research & reviews , 14 (5), 779-788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.05 .035 Ghazanfari, A. (2004). Validation and normalization of Identity Style Inventory (ISI-6G). Studies in education and psychology , 5 (1), 81-94. https://www.sid.ir/paper/99378/en Leigh-Hunt, N., Bagguley, D., Bash, K., Turner, V., Turnbull, S., Valtorta , N., & Caan, W. (2017). An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public health , 152 , 157-171. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2017.07.035 Marshall, A. L., & Wolanskyj-Spinner, A. (2020, June). COVID-19: challenges and opportunities for educators and generation Z learners. In Mayo Clinic Proceedings (Vol. 95, No. 6, pp. 1135-1137). Elsevier. Mazza, M., Attanasio, M., Pino, M. C., Masedu, F., Tiberti, S., Sarlo, M., & Valenti, M. (2020). Moral decision-making, stress, and social cognition in frontline workers vs. population groups during the COVID-19 pandemic: An explorative study. Frontiers in psychology , 11 , 588159. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.588159 Mehran, G. (1990). Ideology and education in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Compare , 20 (1), 53-65. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0305792900200105 Narvaez, D., & Lapsley, D. (2013). Becoming a moral person–Moral development and moral character education as a result of social interactions. In Empirically informed ethics: Morality between facts and norms (pp. 227-238). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Oxford Analytica. (2020). Iran protests not yet pointing to government collapse. In: Emerald Expert Briefings, (oxan-db) . Reynolds, W. M. (1982). Development of reliable and valid short forms of the Marlowe‐Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Journal of clinical psychology , 38 (1), 119-125. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(198201)38:13.0.CO;2-I Robbins, R. (1966). Religion and Society in Tension. In: JSTOR . Serajzadeh, S., & Pouyafar, M. (2008). Empirical comparison of religiosity measures: Methodological implications of the application of three measures in the same population. I ranian journal of sociology, 8(4), 37-70. https://www.sid.ir/paper/67467/en Spreng, R. N., McKinnon, M. C., Mar, R. A., & Levine, B. (2009). The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire: Scale development and initial validation of a factor-analytic solution to multiple empathy measures. Journal of personality assessment , 91 (1), 62-71. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802484381 Van Fossen, M., Burns, J. P., Lickona, T., & Schatz, L. (2022). Teaching virtue virtually: can the virtue of tolerance of diversity of conscience be taught online? Journal of Moral Education , 51 (4), 535-55 . https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2021.1964452 Weber, J., & Elm, D. R. (2018). Exploring and comparing cognitive moral reasoning of millennials and across multiple generations. Business and Society Review , 123 (3), 415-458. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/basr.12151 White, J. M., Wampler, R. S., & Winn, K. I. (1998). Revised Identity Style Inventory record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/t20886-000 World Health Organization. (2020). Mental health and psychosocial considerations during the COVID-19 outbreak, 18 March 2020 . Zakeri, M. A., Maazallahi, M., Ehsani, V., & Dehghan, M. (2021). Iranian psychosocial status during and after COVID‐19 outbreak mandatory quarantine: A cross‐sectional study . Journal of Community Psychology , 49 (7), 2506-2516 . Additional Declarations Competing interest reported. The first and second authors are faculty members of the university from which the data were collected. The authors have no relevant financial interest to disclose. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 28 Aug, 2024 Reviews received at journal 27 Aug, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Aug, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Aug, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Aug, 2024 Reviews received at journal 24 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Jun, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 29 May, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 27 May, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 27 May, 2024 First submitted to journal 21 May, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4454762","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":311881123,"identity":"49d3da46-0e57-4ab2-ac13-589b21b28928","order_by":0,"name":"Alireza Azimpour","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACAzDJ+ABI8PCRooUZRPGwkWIXmwSYJKSMv/3ww48/Crbl8UvkPqv8mmMnw8bA/PDRDTxaJM6kGUtIGNwulpyRbnZbdlsy0GFsxsY5+Kw5kGAgYWBwO3HDjTS225LbmIFaeNik8WmRP//8848EqJZiyW31hLUY3MgxkzgA1cL4cdthwloMb7wps2wA+aXnGbM047bjPGzMBPwidz59880ff27n8bOnMX78ua3anp+9+eFjvN6HggQQwcwDJolQDtfC+INI1aNgFIyCUTCyAAB1RUa0yhvO8gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Salman Farsi University of Kazerun","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alireza","middleName":"","lastName":"Azimpour","suffix":""},{"id":311881124,"identity":"3d7e1722-4822-482b-8080-aef48f3676c8","order_by":1,"name":"Alireza Rasti","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Salman Farsi University of Kazerun","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alireza","middleName":"","lastName":"Rasti","suffix":""},{"id":311881125,"identity":"c062f0a0-67d4-4d46-8d66-8f070b8ef1ee","order_by":2,"name":"Fatemeh Heidari Sourshejani","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Salman Farsi University of Kazerun","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatemeh","middleName":"Heidari","lastName":"Sourshejani","suffix":""},{"id":311881126,"identity":"70f3bdf8-5b48-40ac-a5b5-fa82c8d6c19b","order_by":3,"name":"Marziyeh Sheibani","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Salman Farsi University of Kazerun","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marziyeh","middleName":"","lastName":"Sheibani","suffix":""},{"id":311881127,"identity":"afd3b0d7-657d-4b2b-9a42-44ceb49d4f28","order_by":4,"name":"Yasaman Nikfetrat","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Salman Farsi University of Kazerun","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yasaman","middleName":"","lastName":"Nikfetrat","suffix":""},{"id":311881128,"identity":"09754a8e-6af6-4e5b-a70b-7ed5dbdc3ee9","order_by":5,"name":"Reyhaneh Nazarizadeh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Salman Farsi University of Kazerun","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Reyhaneh","middleName":"","lastName":"Nazarizadeh","suffix":""},{"id":311881129,"identity":"9d9c5c2f-71b5-4dae-8aa9-a186036e365f","order_by":6,"name":"Zahra Karimpour","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Salman Farsi University of Kazerun","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zahra","middleName":"","lastName":"Karimpour","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-21 12:18:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4454762/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4454762/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":58067545,"identity":"cf2892d4-25aa-4cca-b24a-1828d329ae7a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-10 18:00:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":892683,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4454762/v1/ca3da903-763f-48d2-a0a9-5fb488aba4f4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"Competing interest reported. The first and second authors are faculty members of the university from which the data were collected. The authors have no relevant financial interest to disclose.","formattedTitle":"Moral Changes at Post-COVID Atmosphere: A Generational Study of Freshman Iranian University Students","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn March 2020, the World Health Organization declared that the outbreak of\u0026nbsp;coronavirus\u0026nbsp;disease (COVID-19) can be considered a pandemic\u0026nbsp;(World Health Organization, 2020). Reviews have indicated that the pandemic and the\u0026nbsp;resulting\u0026nbsp;quarantine\u0026nbsp;have\u0026nbsp;led to\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;prevalence of mental health problems\u0026nbsp;worldwide\u0026nbsp;(Bonati et al., 2022; Dubey et al., 2020).\u0026nbsp;These\u0026nbsp;problems\u0026nbsp;have\u0026nbsp;also\u0026nbsp;been\u0026nbsp;reported in Iran\u0026nbsp;(Zakeri et al., 2021). However, few studies\u0026nbsp;have examined\u0026nbsp;changes in sociomoral variables\u0026nbsp;during pandemics and quarantines. Some studies\u0026nbsp;have\u0026nbsp;addressed\u0026nbsp;increases in\u0026nbsp;gender inequity and violence\u0026nbsp;(Chu et al., 2020), anger\u0026nbsp;(Brooks et al., 2020), racism, stigmatization, and xenophobia against particular communities\u0026nbsp;(Dubey et al., 2020).\u0026nbsp;Nevertheless,\u0026nbsp;other studies\u0026nbsp;(Donkers et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2020)\u0026nbsp;have shown\u0026nbsp;that\u0026nbsp;different levels of engagement\u0026nbsp;in COVID-19\u0026nbsp;have led\u0026nbsp;to different outcomes\u0026nbsp;for\u0026nbsp;moral variables.\u0026nbsp;Donkers et al. (2021)\u0026nbsp;reported\u0026nbsp;that moral distress during\u0026nbsp;the COVID-19\u0026nbsp;epidemic\u0026nbsp;was lower for intensive care unit (ICU) professionals\u0026nbsp;than for those in\u0026nbsp;a historical control group.\u0026nbsp;Mazza et al. (2020)\u0026nbsp;showed\u0026nbsp;that front-line health workers, more than second-line workers and university students, choose utilitarian solutions in their moral judgments. In addition, front\u0026ndash;line workers experience less\u0026nbsp;of an\u0026nbsp;emotional reaction to empathy,\u0026nbsp;such as anxiety,\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;more cognitive empathy.\u0026nbsp;Mazza et al. (2020)\u0026nbsp;showed\u0026nbsp;that university students\u0026nbsp;experienced more stress than did front-line workers despite being more likely to be removed from COVID-19 problems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is possible to imagine some causes for probable moral changes in\u0026nbsp;the atmosphere of the COVID-19 pandemic among university students. As can be concluded from\u0026nbsp;previous\u0026nbsp;studies\u0026nbsp;(Donkers et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2020), groups with\u0026nbsp;greater\u0026nbsp;helplessness and stress\u0026nbsp;related to\u0026nbsp;the disease, despite their distance from danger (e.g.,\u0026nbsp;university students),\u0026nbsp;may experience increased moral distress or decreased morality. Another cause may be a decrease in cognitive development in the atmosphere of the pandemic\u0026nbsp;(Deoni et al., 2021)\u0026nbsp;and the effect of this decrease on morality due to the linkage\u0026nbsp;between\u0026nbsp;morality and cognitive development (Author et al., 2017). Loneliness resulting from quarantine may also\u0026nbsp;play\u0026nbsp;a role in this regard. The association of loneliness with physical and mental health problems is well\u0026nbsp;established in the literature\u0026nbsp;(Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017). Although there is a theorization that suggests\u0026nbsp;that\u0026nbsp;voluntary use of solitude may sometimes increase the opportunity\u0026nbsp;for\u0026nbsp;reflection and can promote moral reasoning\u0026nbsp;(Akrivou et al., 2011), to become experts in moral functioning, day-to-day experience\u0026nbsp;through\u0026nbsp;social interactions is needed\u0026nbsp;(Narvaez \u0026amp; Lapsley, 2014). Finally,\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;disruption of education, which is\u0026nbsp;one of the outcomes of the pandemic\u0026nbsp;(Brooks et al., 2020),\u0026nbsp;may affect students\u0026apos; morality. Although there is evidence that shows\u0026nbsp;that\u0026nbsp;morality can be virtually taught\u0026nbsp;(Van Fossen et al., 2022), moral education may be defected because Iranian education (in schools and universities) became suddenly virtual in the time of quarantine.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIranian freshman university students in the 2022-2023 academic year had been\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;a\u0026nbsp;quarantine atmosphere and\u0026nbsp;had\u0026nbsp;experienced virtual education at their high school age since February 2020. There\u0026nbsp;was\u0026nbsp;an assessment of some moral variables among other generations of freshman students at a university in Iran in 2014\u0026nbsp;(Author et al., 2019;\u0026nbsp;Author et al., 2023). If they are considered a historical control group, assessing those variables among freshman students\u0026nbsp;at\u0026nbsp;that university may\u0026nbsp;provide\u0026nbsp;an opportunity to compare pre- and post-COVID-19\u0026nbsp;students.\u0026nbsp;The moral variables that were assessed in 2014 included prosocial behaviors (altruistic, anonymous, dire, emotional, compliant and public prosocial behaviors), prosocial moral reasoning and its types (hedonistic, needs-oriented, stereotypic and internalized prosocial moral reasoning), dimensions of moral identity (internalization and symbolization), and empathy. The importance of these variables, especially the fundamental role of\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;internalization of moral identity in predicting other aspects of moral variables, was confirmed in some previous studies among Iranian university students\u0026nbsp;(Author et al., 2012;\u0026nbsp;Author et al., 2017). This\u0026nbsp;finding\u0026nbsp;was also confirmed\u0026nbsp;for\u0026nbsp;empathy as an emotional source of moral behavior\u0026nbsp;(Author et al., 2012). The moral-related variables that were assessed in the historical control groups included religiosity and its dimensions (experimental, ritualistic, ideological, and consequential religiosity), aspects of identity styles (informational identity, normative identity, confused/avoidance identity, and commitment) and social desirability. The\u0026nbsp;relationships between\u0026nbsp;moral variables\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;identity styles\u0026nbsp;(Author et al., 2017)\u0026nbsp;and religiosity\u0026nbsp;(Author et al., 2012)\u0026nbsp;among Iranian university students\u0026nbsp;were\u0026nbsp;confirmed in previous studies. Due to the emphasis on religious and moral values in the curriculum of Iran education\u0026nbsp;(Mehran, 1990), any change in religiosity may have implications\u0026nbsp;for\u0026nbsp;other moral variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite this, the probable differences in moral and moral related variables between these two groups may be an effect of causes other than the COVID-19 pandemic; one of them may be universal generational differences. The new freshman students can be considered generation Z, and the historical control group can be considered generation Y (alternatively known as Millennials). Generation Z, who was born in 1997 or later, worked excessively with computers and the internet. Millennials, or generation Y, were born between 1981 and 1996 and were the first to grow up with almost lifelong access to the internet (Marshall \u0026amp; Wolanskyj-Spinner, 2020). The effect of generation on moral development is not obvious, and the evidence that moral development is influenced by digital communication is conflicting (Bassiouni \u0026amp; Hackley, 2014). Weber and Elm (2018), while compairing \u0026nbsp;the moral reasoning of Millennial business students and that of a previous generation (i. e., 1960s\u0026ndash;1970s business students), arrived at lower levels of Millennials\u0026rsquo; moral reasoning. However, some evidence has indicated that the rates of crime decreased among Generation Z (Bassiouni \u0026amp; Hackley, 2014). In addition to this possible cause, other temporary conditions such as a widespread sociopolitical protest (Oxford Analytica, 2020) that was synchronous with the testing in 2022 may have had a role in the styles of the students\u0026apos; responses to moral-related questionnaires. Whether because of COVID-19 or the characteristics of Generation Z or other factors, any changes in moral-related variables among freshman students can prompt educators and teachers to coordinate their moral education strategies with the generation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe testing in 2014 included 212 freshman students at \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip; University of \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;, a local southern Iranian university, (M of age: 19, Sd of age: 1.61, females: 77.4%). However, the testing in 2022 involved 114 freshman students (M of age: 19.47, Sd of age: 1.31, Females: 79.8%) at the same university and in the same fields of study. The conditions of the testing for the two groups were similar; both were performed in the classrooms collectively by named sheets. The students were motivated to respond carefully by knowing their individual results several months after testing via an email. The students and testers were blinded to the subject of the study. As part of the ethical considerations of the study, the participants in the two groups were assured that their individual results would be private. In addition, they would be free to participate in the project. The fields of the participants (and the percentage of numbers for the recent group and the historical control group) were Persian literature (12.3%, 7.5%), teaching English as a foreign language (17.5%, 13.7%), psychology (19.3%, 13.7%), engineering sciences (3.5%, 24.5%), computer sciences (10.5%, 11.8%), physics (1.8%, 10.4%), mathematics (12.3%, 9.9%), and information technology or computer engineering (17.5%, 8.5%). Notably, in Iran\u0026rsquo;s higher education system and at the university where the inestigation was conducted, information technology as a field of study was replaced by computer engineering at a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree; therefore, the two can be considered to be matched fields.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eProsocial Tendencies Measure\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis measure includes 23 items that assess six types of prosocial behaviors (Carlo \u0026amp; Randall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). It has been validated among Iranian university students (Author et al., 2012). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of the present data (collected data of the two groups) was 0.862 for anonymous, 0.723 for dire, 0.715 for emotional, and 0.720 for public prosocial behavior. However, it was only 0.597 for altruistic prosocial behavior. For compliant prosocial behavior with two items, the Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.645.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eThe Adult Version of the Prosocial Reasoning Objective Measure\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measure has seven stories each, including a moral dilemma and 9 main items for any story. The measure assesses 5 types of prosocial reasoning, overall prosocial moral reasoning and lie/nonsense responding (Carlo \u0026amp; Randall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). It was validated by Author et al. (2013) among Iranian university students. The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alphas of the present data were 0.797 for hedonistic reasoning, 0.895 for approval-oriented reasoning, 0.708 for needs-oriented reasoning, 0.728 for stereotypic reasoning, 0.808 for internalized prosocial reasoning, 0.733 for lie/nonsense responding, and 0.920 for overall prosocial moral reasoning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSelf-importance of Moral Identity\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis scale assesses the internalization and symbolization of moral identity with 10 items (Aquino \u0026amp; Reed II, 2002) and was validated among Iranian university students (Author et al., 2014). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of the present data for internalization was 0.761, and it was 0.695 for symbolization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eToronto Empathy Questionnaire\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis 16-item questionnaire that assesses general empathy (Spreng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) was validated in Persian by Author (2021). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha in the present study was 0.731.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eGlock and Stark Religiosity Questionnaire\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis measure was originally used to assess five dimensions of religiosity (Robbins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1966\u003c/span\u003e). In its 26-item Persian replica (Serajzadeh \u0026amp; Pouyafar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), the intellectual dimension was eliminated. The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of the present data was 0.891 for total religiosity, 0.907 for experimental religiosity, 0.741 for ritualistic religiosity, and 0.949 for ideological religiosity. However, for consequential religiosity, it was only 0.206.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eThe Sixth Revised Identity Style Inventory\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis inventory consists of 40 items for assessing commitment to identify and four identity styles (White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) and has a Persian validation version (Ghazanfari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alphas were 0.686 for informational identity, 0.634 for normative identity, 0.508 for confused/avoidance identity, and 0.607 for commitment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eMarlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis scale originally has 13 items to assess social desirability (Reynolds, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). In a Persian validation (Author et al., 2023), it was reduced to 7 items. The 13-item version was used in both groups. Kuder-Richardson's coefficient of only the 7-item version via the present data was 0.585, and for all 13 items, it was 0.596. Consequently, the version with the 13 items with the highest validity was used for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the descriptive statistics of the variables for both 2014 and 2022. The skew of the variables was between \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2, and their kurtosis was between \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7; therefore, the distribution of the variables can be considered normal. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e also shows the Pearson correlation coefficients between lie/nonsense responding, social desirability and the other variables. As shown in the table, several variables had significant correlations with these two variables. Then, the statistical control of the lie/nonsense responding and social desirability was considered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics of the Variables in Groups of 2014 and 2022 and Pearson Correlations between Lie/nonsense Responding, Social Desirability and the Other Variables in All Populations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePearson Correlation (r)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkeweness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003er to Social Desirability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003er to Lie/nonsense Responding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAltruistic prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.01, 21.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.52, 3.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.61, -1.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27, 1.692\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnonymous prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.22, 18.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.01, 4.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.32, -0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.93, -0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDire prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.06, 9.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.92, 2.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.215, 0.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.52, -0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.13, 13.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.52, 3.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.270, 0.214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.43, -0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompliant prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1, 7.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.08, 1.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.21, -0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.74, -0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epublic prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.32, 5.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7, 2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39, 2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.23, 9.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal score of prosocial reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190.79, 170.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5, 10.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.42, -0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.32, -0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.56\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHedonistic prosocial reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.94, 16.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.55, 2.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49, -0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59, 0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApproval-oriented prosocial reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.25, 9.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.62, 3.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01, 0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.46, -0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeeds-oriented prosocial reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.94, 21.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.29, 3.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77, -0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.85, -0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStereotypic prosocial reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.89, 19.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.16, 2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21, -0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.31, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternalized prosocial reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.97, 21.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.11, 2.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45, 0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00, .55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.41\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternalization of moral identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.24, 29.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.52, 5.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.16, -1.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7, 4.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSymbolization of moral identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6, 19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.87, 5.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06, 0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.53, -0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpathy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.66, 51.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.62, 5.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.42, -0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02, -0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal score of religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.6, 48.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.44, 19.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.65, -0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.37, -0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.43, 8.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.74, 5.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.1, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63, .37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRitualistic religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.40, 17.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.14, 6.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.1, -0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.37, -0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdeological religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.7, 8.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.71, 6.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.72, -0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.46, -0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.133\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsequential religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.01, 14.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.72, 4.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09, -0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.59, 0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.070\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformational identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.45, 39.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.92, 5.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.18, -0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.21, .00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormative identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.12, 30.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.43, 5.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.38, -0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86, 0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfused/avoidance identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.60, 25.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.29, 4.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29, 0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09, -0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommitment (to identity)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.12, 37.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.13, 5.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09, -0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30, -0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial desirability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.12, 7.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25, 2.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.45, -0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.38, 0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLie/nonsense responding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.36, 11.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48, 4.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.42, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.59, -0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eNote: The first scores are for group 2014 (N: 212), the second are for group 2022 (N: 114); correlations are from all populations (N: 326); **: p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, *: p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, comparing the two groups in terms of lying/nonsense responses and social desirability via independent t tests indicated greater lie/nonsense responses (t=-8.29; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the post-COVID group and no change in social desirability (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.45; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e represents the relationships of the variables after controlling for Lie/nonsense response and social desirability by partial correlation coefficients in both the 2014 and 2022 groups. As the table indicates, there were different patterns of correlations among the two groups. Due to the unequal sample sizes of the two groups, an emphasis on significance may not provide accurate information, and an emphasis on effect size could be helpful (especially for the 2022 group, which has fewer participants). A coefficient of .1 to .3 represents a small effect size, a coefficient of 30 to .05 represents a moderate correlation, and a coefficient of .05 or greater represents a large effect size (Cohen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The considerable differences in the correlations were for religiosity and its dimensions. In the 2014 group, religiosity had significantly positive correlations (chieflies with small effect sizes) with high moral or moral-related variables (i.e., internalization and symbolization of moral identity, empathy, anonymous and compliant prosocial behaviors, informational, normative identities, and commitment), and it had a significantly negative correlation with low moral variables of hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning. However, in group 2022, the correlations were significantly negative to high moral variables (i.e., anonymous prosocial behavior, stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, internalization and symbolization of moral identity, informational, normative identity, and commitment). The correlation was also significantly positive with the weak moral variables of hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning. The patterns of correlations were more or less similar for dimensions of religiosity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Relationships of the Variables after Controlling Lie/nonsense Responding and Social Desirability by Partial Correlation Coefficients in Both the 2014 and 2022 Groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"25\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv 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colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.14\u003c/p\u003e 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colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e 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colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e 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colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e 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colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e. 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e 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colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"25\"\u003eNotes: The left side of the matrix is for the 2014 group, and the right side is for the 2022 group. For the left side (N: 212), 0.14 \u0026le; |r| \u0026lt; 0.18 indicates p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, and |r|\u0026ge; 0.18 indicates p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. For the right side (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;114), 0.21 \u0026le; |r| \u0026lt; 0.18 indicates p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, and |r|\u0026ge; 0.21 indicates p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. 1: Altruistic prosocial behaviors, 2: anonymous prosocial behaviors, 3: dire prosocial behaviors, 4: emotional prosocial behaviors, 5: compliant prosocial behaviors, 6: public prosocial behaviors, 7: total score of prosocial moral reasoning, 8: hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning, 9: approval-oriented prosocial moral reasoning, 10: needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning, 11: stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, 12: internalized prosocial moral reasoning, 13: internalization of moral identity, 14: symbolization of moral identity, 15: empathy, 16: total score of religiosity, 17: experimental religiosity, 18: ritualistic religiosity, 19: ideological religiosity, 20: consequential religiosity, 21: informational identity, 22: normative identity, 23: confused/avoidance identity, 24: commitment (to identity).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used to compare the two groups in the variables after controlling for social desirability and lie/nonsense responses. To prevent collinearity, the total scores that had subscales (religiosity and prosocial moral reasoning) were not used in the current MANCOVA and were reserved for another analysis. Levene's tests to examine the equality of variances have shown that the following variables did not have equal variances (ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.5): hedonistic, approval-oriented, needs-oriented, stereotypic and internalized prosocial moral reasoning; normative identity; commitment (to identity); and ideological, experimental and ritualistic religiosity. All other variables had equal variances (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Pillai's trace of MANCOVA was significant (F: 268.29, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01; partial eta squared: 0.95; observed power: 1). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e represents the between-subject effect of the MANCOVA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween-subject Effect of MANOVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDependent Variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartial Eta Squared (η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObserved Power\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarginal Means\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarginal Means\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHedonistic prosocial moral reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e241.54**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApproval-oriented prosocial moral reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153.57**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeeds-oriented prosocial moral reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e483.113**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStereotypic prosocial moral reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e324.66**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternalized prosocial moral reasoning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e365.23**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformational identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.59**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormative identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.09**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfused/avoidance identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommitment (to identity)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternalization of moral identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e. 58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSymbolization of moral identity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.62*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.05*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompliant prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDire prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnonymous prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAltruistic prosocial behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdeological religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e644.842**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e354.23**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsequential religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.08*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRitualistic religiosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.78**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpathy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.23**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eNotes: **: p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, *: p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, 0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.06 indicates a small effect size, 0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.14 indicates a medium effect size, 0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e indicates a large effect size\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the students of 2022, hedonistic, approval-oriented, and internalized prosocial moral reasoning, normative identity, symbolization of moral identity, public prosocial behavior, ideological and experimental religiosity had significantly lower scores, however; needs-oriented and stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, informational identity, altruistic prosocial behaviors, consequential and ritualistic religiosity and empathy had significantly higher scores.. Since some variables did not have equal variances (significant Levene's tests), for those cases, instead of concentrating on significant F tests, we focused especially on partial eta squared (effect size). As Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e indicates, differences in hedonistic, approval-oriented, needs-oriented, stereotypic and internalized prosocial moral reasoning and ideological and experimental religiosity all had large effect sizes. The difference in normative identity had a medium effect size. However, differences in informational identity, symbolization of moral identity, public and altruistic prosocial behaviors, consequential and ritualistic religiosity and empathy had small effect sizes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the two total scores (religiosity and prosocial moral reasoning), another MANCOVA was used. It was likewise employed to control for social desirability and lie/nonsense responses. The variables had equal variances (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 for Levene's tests). Pillai's trace was significant (F: 134.74, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01; partial eara squared: 0.46; observed power: 1). The between-subject comparisons for both variables were significant. For prosocial moral reasoning (F: 157.68, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, Partial Eta Squared: .33, Observed Power: 1), the marginal means indicated lower scores in the 2022 group (174.114 vs. 190.947). For Religiosity (F: 139.12, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, Partial Eta Squared 0.3, Observed Power:1), the marginal means indicate lower levels of religiosity in the 2022 group (48.45 vs 72.6) and lower amounts of prosocial moral reasoning among them (173.87 vs 189.19).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe post-COVID group had less total prosocial moral reasoning than did the historical control group. They also had less internalized prosocial moral reasoning as developmentally and morally high-level moral reasoning; however, they had less hedonistic prosocial moral reasoning and approval-oriented prosocial moral reasoning as developmentally and morally low-level variables. In addition, they had more needs-oriented and stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning as developmentally and morally middle-level types of prosocial reasoning (all with large effect sizes). Indeed, despite less total moral reasoning, both low-level and high-level moral reasoning were less common, but middle-level types of prosocial moral reasoning were more common in the post-COVID group. The opportunity for social interaction can lead to increased moral reasoning (Narvaez \u0026amp; Lapsley, 2014) but less so in post-COVID-19 students because quarantine may have a role in decreased total prosocial moral reasoning and internalized prosocial moral reasoning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith regard to the definition of prosocial moral reasoning types (Carlo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), internalized reasoning and the two low-level types of reasoning (i.e., hedonistic and approval-oriented reasoning) may be considered active reasoning (in contrast to needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning). Considering the findings of previous studies (Donkers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mazza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), it can be assumed that at the time of the COVID-19 outbreak, the students were afraid of the danger of the disease and consequently attempted more to avoid engagement in society. This leads to their less morally active approach and more passive orientation toward others and society. Needs-oriented reasoning ( a developmentally low-level although morally middle-level one), which was more common among them, is a passive orientation to others' severe needs. In addition, needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning is correlated with more moral or morally related variables among the post-COVID-19 group than among the historically control group. People who primed needs-oriented reasoning exhibited minimal helping behavior and were in conditions with severe damage to the person who helped (Carlo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). In a study of Iranian university students, Author et al. (2017), due to its positive correlation with intelligence and lack of correlation with moral identity, concluded that needs-oriented prosocial reasoning is a common moral orientation among university students with an intellectualistic nihilistic approach. Increasing, in addition to decreasing, dimensions of moral identity among the post-COVID group may confirm the prevalence of this intellectualistic nihilistic approach among the post-COVID group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, all of the findings about the moral variables did not indicate moral decreases in the post-COVID group; stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning (a developmentally and morally middle-level one), altruistic prosocial behaviors and empathy were found more often among them; in addition, public prosocial behavior such as morally low-level behavior was less common among them (although all with small effect sizes). The decrease in public prosocial behavior and the symbolization of moral identity may indicate that their moral orientation did not originate from desires to achieve social acceptance. The greater amount of empathy and altruistic prosocial behavior, in addition to less prosocial reasoning, may indicate that morality among them is more sentimental than rational. Perhaps students who experienced loneliness and less real social interaction with peers were far removed from real society, and instead of reporting what they do in real life, they reported what they wished to do if they engaged with society. According to this explanation, their higher scores for stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, in addition to their lower scores for total prosocial moral reasoning, may be comprehensible. Their social interest in being good (higher reported empathy, stereotypic claims and altruistic prosocial behavior) may be changed by encountering the real society after several semesters, such as the moral regression that was found in a longitudinal study among the students of this university (Author et al., under review).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the post-COVID generation total, ideological and experimental religiosity were lower (all with large effect sizes); however, ritualistic and consequential religiosity were greater (although with a small effect size). It was confirmed that some moral variables originated somewhat from religiosity (Author et al., 2012) and probably from normative identity (Author et al., 2017) among Iranian university students. This may be due to the interdependence of moral education in Iran with religious education (Mehran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). It may be said that due to new generations defying religious values (Oxford Analytica, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), a decrease in religiosity occurred; then, morality gradually lost religiosity and traditional values as one of its sources. Instead, empathy as a moral emotion and another source of morality is the replacement of moral identity. This explanation is in line with the negative correlations of moral variables with religiosity in the post-COVID group and the positive correlations between these two variables in the historical control group. In addition, higher scores of ritualistic religiosity and consequential religiosity (with small effect sizes), in addition to a decrease in ideological and experimental religiosity (with small effect sizes), may indicate the formation of a new and nonfundamental orientation to religiosity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the moral-related variables, more informational identity (with a small effect size) and less normative identity (with medium effect sizes) among the post-COVID group can also be attributed to less real social interactions with peers in addition to access to peers via cyberspace at the time of quarantine. Such conditions may make freshman students more eager to find new manners and values via socialization from peers and their generation beyond the identity and values of their families in the first semester of their real encounter with peers. In this vein, the lower total religiosity and ideological and experimental dimensions (with large effect sizes) among the post-COVID group were interpretable. Indeed, some traditional sources of ethical and social behaviors (religiosity and some of its dimensions and normative identity) decreased among post-COVID-19 generation Z. In this vein, some of the surprising findings were changing patterns of correlation between religiosity and its dimensions to moral and moral-related variables. According to a previous study among Iranian university students (Author et al., 2012), there was a positive correlation between moral variables and religiosity in the 2014 group; however, such correlations became negative in the 2022 group. Indeed, in the educational context of Iran, which has an overemphasis on teaching governmentally religious ideology (Mehran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e), it can be considered a protest against the dominant values of official social institutions. This may be because of more engagement with cyberspace or separation from religious education due to virtual education in quarantine, which may also be due to the atmosphere of recent political protests (Oxford Analytica, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) at the time of testing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate that among generation Z freshman Iranian university students post-COVID-19, compared to those in generation Y pre-COVID-19, some variables indicating compliance with previous generations and traditions (such as religiosity, normative identity, a dimension of moral identity and public prosocial behaviors) were less common; however, some likely noncustom and nonreligiosity-related variables (such as empathy, needs-oriented prosocial moral reasoning, informational identity and altruistic prosocial behavior) were more common. The small amount of prosocial moral reasoning among them indicated that their moral change is not a deliberative process. It can be said that traditional (religiosity, normative identity) and rational (moral reasoning) aspects of morality were replaced by sentimental aspects (empathy).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen morality is disengaged from its custom sources, the need for deliberation may increase. However, this study revealed less moral deliberation among the post-COVID group. This strengthened the necessity of emphasizing moral education among this generation of students in Iran to increase their moral reasoning. Given such little normative identity or religiosity among them, traditionally religious-related moral education, as a common type of education in Iran\u0026rsquo;s formal schooling curriculum, might not prove effective. Therefore, other types of moral educational strategies concentrating on promoting moral identity or moral reasoning could be more effective. Future studies can show the effectiveness of such interventions on the Iranian post-COVID-19 generation Z.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this article thank all the participants of this study and Miss \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;,\u0026nbsp;a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s\u0026nbsp;student\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;psychology,\u0026nbsp;for her investigation\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;Generation Z.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests and Funding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first and second authors are faculty\u0026nbsp;members\u0026nbsp;of the university\u0026nbsp;from which\u0026nbsp;the data\u0026nbsp;were collected. The authors have no relevant financial interest to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePublication Ethics\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthorship\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first author\u0026nbsp;performed\u0026nbsp;conceptualization, project administration, formal analysis, investigation and writing\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;original draft. The second author\u0026nbsp;reviewed and edited\u0026nbsp;the article,\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;other authors\u0026nbsp;curated the data. All authors approved the final version of the article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003eOpen Data\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003eThe datasets generated during the current study are uploaded\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003eto the\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;corresponding author\u0026apos;s page (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Author)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e,\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003ethey\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;will be available\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003eupon\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;reasonable request.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkrivou, K., Bourantas, D., Mo, S., \u0026amp; Papalois, E. 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Iranian psychosocial status during and after COVID‐19 outbreak mandatory quarantine: A cross‐sectional study\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e . \u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003eJournal of Community Psychology\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 49\u003c/em\u003e(7), 2506-2516\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discpsy","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Psychology](https://www.springer.com/44202)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Psychology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Empathy, Identity styles, Moral identity, Prosocial behaviors, Prosocial moral reasoning, Religiosity","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4454762/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4454762/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSince the COVID-19 pandemic began in 2020, some psychological changes have been tracked and reported across the world. Post-COVID-19 freshman university students can be classified as generation Z. The aim of this study was to examine changes in moral and moral-related variables among Iranian freshman university students in generation Z compared with generation Y in the post-COVID-19 era. Variables, including prosocial behaviors, types of prosocial moral reasoning, dimensions of moral identity and religiosity, identity styles, empathy, and social desirability, were assessed among 212 freshman students at \u0026hellip;. University of \u0026hellip;.. in 2014. However, another assessment of those variables by the same measures and methods was performed among 114 similar students in 2022. Social desirability and lie/nonsense responses were statistically controlled by multiple analysis of covariance and partial correlation methods. Among the post-COVID group, there was less total prosocial moral reasoning, hedonistic, approval-oriented and internalized prosocial moral reasoning, normative identity, symbolization of moral identity, public prosocial behavior, and total, ideological and experimental religiosity; additionally, there was more needs-oriented and stereotypic prosocial moral reasoning, informational identity, altruistic prosocial behaviors, consequential and ritualistic religiosity and empathy. There were different correlations among the two groups, whereas religiosity and its dimensions were positively correlated with many moral variables in the 2014 group, the correlations were negative in the 2022 group. The findings indicate that in post-COVID-19 generation Z, sentimental aspects (e.g., empathy and altruism) of morality increased and that rational (e.g., prosocial moral reasoning) or traditional (e.g., religiosity) aspects decreased.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Moral Changes at Post-COVID Atmosphere: A Generational Study of Freshman Iranian University Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-06-10 17:52:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4454762/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-08-28T09:11:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-08-28T02:07:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"198903867270484911814700972159741022439","date":"2024-08-27T23:41:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9846766415211305315300835682237069983","date":"2024-08-27T14:15:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"321150898596768168411171634591220994482","date":"2024-08-27T13:16:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-06-24T21:34:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"216184442902961826793798959676407828251","date":"2024-06-21T09:21:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"179022043396655284600174255179826605449","date":"2024-06-17T07:22:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-05-29T10:23:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-05-28T02:16:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-05-28T02:14:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Psychology","date":"2024-05-21T12:16:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discpsy","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Psychology](https://www.springer.com/44202)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Psychology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"869a42df-45fb-4fbc-8110-ba669e3ce42f","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 10th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-26T05:23:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-06-10 17:52:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4454762","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4454762","identity":"rs-4454762","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}