Public Health Significance of Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated With Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Goats in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria

Public Health Significance of Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated With Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Goats in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Public Health Significance of Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated With Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Goats in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria Abubakar Sadiq Muhammad, Ayuba Caleb Kudi, Abdulrahman Mohammed, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7553149/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 22 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Toxoplasmosis is a widely distributed zoonotic protozoal disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii ( T. gondii ) with cats serving as definitive host of the parasite. The parasite has broad intermediate host range infecting all warm-blooded animals including goats. Post insurgency livestock restocking intervention by local and international aid agencies targeted some households in the state for livestock distributions including goat. Hence, goats distributed for such programs can serve as the source for the T. gondii transmission to humans. This study aims at determining the prevalence and risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in goats distributed for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. A cross-sectional study was designed, and blood samples were collected from 162 goats from two quarantine sites and an institutional livestock farm in Maiduguri metropolitan council. Antibodies against T. gondii in goats were tested by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) kit. The overall serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats was 32.1% in the study area. There is a statistically significant association between female sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (P-value = 0.011; OR = 2.58; 95% CI on OR = 1.22 − 5.45). Goats with moderate body condition score are less likely to test positive to antibody against T. gondii infection compared to lean goats (P-value = 0.014; OR = 0.39; 95% CI on OR = 0.19 − 0.84). There is a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site as compared to those sampled from Old GRA (P-value = 0.001; OR = 4.02; 95%CI on OR = 1.68 − 9.63). There is also a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station as compared to those sampled from Old GRA (P-value = 0.002; OR = 3.79; 95% CI on OR = 1.56 − 9.19). Vaccination of cats, public health awareness, routine testing for humans and newly acquired animals and one-health approach of surveillance for toxoplasmosis is highly recommended. Health sciences/Diseases Biological sciences/Immunology Biological sciences/Microbiology Biological sciences/Zoology Toxoplasmosis Goats Antibodies Prevalence Risk Factors Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 INTRODUCTION Toxoplasmosis is a widely distributed zoonotic protozoal disease of humans and animals caused by the coccidian parasite, Toxoplasma gondii (Guo et al., 2016 ). The infection with intracellular protozoan T. gondii , considered to be one of the neglected tropical diseases of poverty, is widely distributed and has broad host range infecting all warm blooded animals including goats (Kamani et al., 2010 ; Mose et al., 2020 ). It is also one of the most important foodborne pathogens worldwide and infection is believed to be widely prevalent in humans, and nearly one-third of human population has been exposed to this parasite (Hill and Dubey, 2002 ; Montoya and Liesenfeld, 2004 ). Although infection with T. gondii usually may result in only mild disease or asymptomatic infection in immunocompetent individuals, it can cause devastating disease in congenitally infected children and in immunocompromised adults and children (Hill and Dubey, 2002 ). Infection with T. gondii is a common cause of infertility, stillbirth, and abortion in animals and man (Stelzer et al., 2019 ; Nayeri et al., 2021 ). Small ruminants, sheep and goats, are believed to form the most important and reliable sources of animal proteins in Nigeria (Ameh et al., 2000 ). Goats provide a broad range of products and socio-economic benefits and have played an important role as the source of livelihood and social life of many people (Peacock, 1996 ; Sadiq et al., 2019 ). Goats can play a vital role, often being the only asset possessed by a poor family. In times of trouble, such as crop failure or family illness, goats can be sold and food or medicine purchased, this is critical to safeguarding the health and food security of family members (Peacock, 1996 ). Felids (cats) serve as definitive hosts for T. gondii and an unusually wide intermediate host range made up of all worm-blooded animals that include humans, livestock and many species of domestic and wild animals, including birds (Almeria and Dubey, 2021 ). Transmission of T. gondii occurs via the faecal–oral route, as well as through consumption of infected meat, food or water contaminated with cat faeces and by trans-placental transfer from mother to foetus (Hill et al., 2005 ). According to United States Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (CDC, 2023) the hot, humid climates and lower altitudes of the tropics are especially favourable for the parasite. Food animals such as goats can serve as reservoirs for T. gondii and act as one of the sources for parasite transmission to humans. Infection in small ruminants such as goats does not only results in significant reproductive losses, but also has implication for public health since consumption of infected meat can facilitate zoonotic transmission (Bisson et al., 2000 ). Antibodies against T. gondii were detected in goat, sheep, and camel milk samples and Toxoplasma gondii genomic deoxynucleic acid (DNA) was amplified from the serologically positive milk samples indicating the presence of the parasite in the milk of infected lactating animals (Saad et al., 2018 ). This portends that the raw milk from infected lactating animals could be contaminated by T. gondii tachyzoites which could be a source of human infection. Consumption of raw, unpasteurized or inadequately pasteurized milk and its products represents significant public health risks of transmitting the tachyzoites or bradyzoites of T. gondii to the human (Hiramoto et al., 2001 ). There is evidence that indicates that the gastric juice could not destroy the T. gondii bradyzoite and it can cause infection to human (Cook et al., 2000 ). This holds true as reported by Pettersen ( 1984 ) who found that some samples of milk from experimentally infected mice had acid-resistant organisms in milk, indicating the presence of bradyzoites. Dubey et al. ( 2014 ) have also reported that viable T. gondii was found in raw milk from all eight experimentally infected goats. The worldwide prevalence of toxoplasmosis is approximately 30–90% (Abugri et al., 2017 ). The overall seroprevalence of human toxoplasmosis in Nigeria was estimated, on the average, to be 32% with the South-West (37%), North-West (32%), North-Central (24%) and North-East (22%) (Ohiolei and Isaac, 2016). Serological prevalence of 4.6% to 35.9% were reported in goats in various parts on Nigeria (Ishaku et al., 2018 ; Kamani et al., 2010 ; Odeniran et al., 2020 ; Okewole, 2007 ; Tonouhewa et al., 2017 ). Following the emergence of Boko Haram insurgency in the Northeast region since 2009, agricultural livelihoods have been devastated through the destruction of irrigation and farming facilities and massive loss of livestock (Sadiq et al., 2019 ). Recently National and international aid agencies have targeted several households in the state for livestock distributions including goat and poultry (F.A.O., 2020). Goats distributed for livestock restocking programs can become reservoirs for T. gondii and act as one of the sources for the protozoan parasite transmission to humans. Household husbandry and management practices for these goats by farmers mainly an extensive system and therefore presents propensity for spread of the organisms like T. gondii . This can most likely result in zoonotic disease spread from animals to humans and can result in substantial losses in animals and human man hours. The direct exposure to infected small ruminants, sheep and goats or associated products will increase the risk of infection with T. gondii (Guo et al., 2016 ). However, toxoplasmosis is not as well-known to the public as other diseases endemic to the study area such as malaria and typhoid fever. This study aims at determining the prevalence and risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in goats distributed for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Maiduguri Metropolitan council is capital city of Borno State of Nigeria, located on Latitude 11°51'0''N and and Longitude 13°9'0''E It covers a total land mass of 543km 2 . Maiduguri Metropolitan council lies on, and at the bottom of the Bama Ridge which runs in a Northwest/Southeast direction from the Niger boundary to the Cameroun Mountains, the area is drained by Rivers Ngadda and the Ngadda Bul as its tributaries. In 2024, the population of Maiduguri was estmated at 870,000 according to the 2006 National Population and housing census projection (Metrotrends, 2024 ). The climatic condition of Maiduguri is mostly characterized by hot periods which could favour the survival of the oocysts of the parasite. Most occupants of the city, particularly less privileged ones are engaged in agricultural activities of farming and livestock rearing including goats keeping. Study Design A cross sectional study was conducted to determine the serological prevalence of T. gondii infection in goats distributed for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria is also assessed. Sample Size Determination The unit of analysis considered in the study was individual goats from the institutional livestock farm (Veterinary Field Station) or goats distributed for livestock restocking. The sample size for this study was determined using the formula by Thrusfield ( 2018 ). The prevalence rate of 4.6% was used as reported by Kamani et al. ( 2010 ) among goats in Borno state Nigeria was used as the expected proportion. The statistical power of 80% was assumed and allowable error or alpha (α) level, precision or margin of error, was considered at 0.05 (5%). Based on the above assumptions, a minimum of 67 serum samples was required for this study. $$\:n=\frac{{{(Z}_{0.05})}^{2}*P\left(Q\right)}{{d}^{2}}\:=\:\frac{{\left(1.96\right)}^{2}*0.046(1-0.046)}{{\left(0.05\right)}^{2}}\:=\:67.43$$ Where: n = required sample size. Z = a value for 95% confidence level (1.96) P = expected proportion, Q = 1˗ P d = level of precision (5% or 0.05) Therefore, a minimum of 67 serum samples were required for the study. However, to increase the precision of the estimate of the prevalence rate, the sample size was adjusted to 162. Inclusion Criteria Goats of all ages, both sexes, that were apparently healthy, from the institutional livestock farm (Veterinary Field Station) or distributed by aid agencies for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Nigeria were eligible for inclusion into the study. Exclusion Criteria All goat flocks / households outside the location (Maiduguri Metropolitan council) were excluded and all goat flocks that were not part of institutional livestock farm (Veterinary Field Station) or those distributed by aid agencies for livestock livelihood restocking in Maiduguri were excluded from the study. Blood Sample Collection, Sample Preparation and Handling Following proper restraint of the each goat, 5mL of blood was aseptically collected from jugular vein, using sterile hypodermic syringe and needle. Blood in the syringe was gently dispensed into sterile plain sample bottle, labelled with unique identification code for the animal. The sample bottle was placed in a slanting position for one hour at room temperature for blood to clot in order to get the serum separated from the clotted blood. Serum samples were placed in cool box containing ice packs and taken to the laboratory where they were stored in a refrigerator before serological analysis. Each bottle containing the clotted blood was centrifuged at 3000 G for 5 min to obtain clear serum. The harvested sera were stored at − 20 o C pending testing for the detection of T. gondii infection. Any sample that showed haemolysis was discarded and replaced. Recording of Goats’ Demographic Information The animals’ demographic information such as the species, sex, age, breed, location and body condition scores (BCS) according to Vall et al. ( 2025 ) were recorded for data analysis. Any missing information was recorded as "unknown". The ages of the animals were ascertained using the method of Wilson and Durkin ( 1984 ). The physical characteristics of each animal were used to determine the breed of the animals sampled according to Blench,(1999). Serological Assay Procedure Antibodies against T. gondii in goats were tested by a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, iELISA kit (Institut Pasteur®, Montpellier, France) with cut off equal to or higher than 50% S/P (sample-to-positive percentage) according to Bartova and Sedlak ( 2012 ). The sera were tested for antibodies against T. gondii using iELISA following the instructions of the iELISA kit manufacturer. All the serum samples, reagents and plates was brought to room temperature at least half an hour before used and all reagents were homogenized by gentle vortexing using Vortex (Biorad®, France) before starting the test. The reagents were reconstituted as directed in the manufacturer’s manual. The serum samples were diluted by sample buffer in 1:101 and mixed well by votexing. The serological assay was conducted in the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine Parasitic Zoonoses Research Laboratory, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. Fifty microliters (50µL) of the Dilution Buffer was added to each of the 96 wells of the ELISA plate. Fifty microliters of the Positive Control was added to wells A1 and B1while 50µL of the Negative Control was added to wells C1 and D1. Then, 50µL of each pre-diluted test serum samples was pipetted to the remaining wells and then incubated at 37°C for one hour. Following the incubation, the wells were emptied and then subsequently washed 3 times with 300µL of wash buffer (1x concentrate) avoiding drying of the wells between washings. Each of the time the plate was inverted and gently tapped while firmly placed on absorbent paper towel to ensure all washing solution is removed. Then 100µL of enzyme conjugate (anti-multi-species horseradish peroxidase (HRP) conjugate, 10X to 1/10 the Dilution Buffer) were pipetted into each of the microplate wells and the plate was incubated for the second time at 21°C for 30 minutes. After the second incubation, the wells were emptied and washed three times with 300µL of the Wash Solution avoiding drying of the wells between washings as described above. Then 100µL of chromogen/substrate solution will be pipetted into each of the microplate wells, followed by incubation for the third time at 21°C for 15 minutes in the dark. Finally, 100µL of the Stop Solution was added to each of the wells to stop the reaction. The optical densities of the test solutions were read and recorded at absorbance of 450nm using an ELISA reader (Borad®, France). Serological Assay Interpretation Sample-to-Positive percentage \(\:(\text{S}/\text{P}\:\text{%})=\frac{\left(\text{O}\text{D}\text{s}\text{a}\text{m}\text{p}\text{l}\text{e}\right)-\left(\text{O}\text{D}\text{n}\text{e}\text{g}.\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{t}\right)}{\left(\text{O}\text{D}\text{p}\text{o}\text{s}\text{t}.\:\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{t}\right)-\left(\text{O}\text{D}\text{n}\text{e}\text{g}.\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{t}\right)}X\:100\) Where: ODsample = Optical density reading of the sample ODneg.cont = Optical density reading of the negative control ODpost.cont = Optical density reading of the positive control According to the manufacturer’s instructions following computation, all serum samples with S/P ≤ 40% was considered as negative, while those ranging from 40% < S/P ≤ 50% were considered doubtful and 50% < S/P ≤ was considered positive. Data Analysis The data obtained from the study was entered into and stored in a Microsoft Excel® 2011 for Windows (Microsoft Corporation) spreadsheet. All the statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (version 23.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) at the significance level of α = 0.05. The prevalence rate and odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval on odds ratio (OR) was calculated using two by two (2 x 2) contingency table to test association between occurrence of antibodies against hypothesized risk factors. Chi-squared test was employed to test for the differences between proportions of the categorical variables. The statistical estimates and their respective confidence intervals were determined at 95% level. Ethical Approval Guidelines in the Animal Utilization Protocol (AUP) of the Animal Use and Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri were followed. Approval was obtained from the Animal Use and Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri. This work is an observational study and the collection of blood samples from live goats is categorized by the AUP guidelines as “an invasive procedure that causes little or no discomfort or stress”. The ARRIVE guidelines were adhered to. RESULTS Overall, 52 (32.1%) out of the 162 goat serum samples tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA were positive. Out of the 60 male goats tested 12 (20%) were found to be positive while 40 (39.2%) of the 102 female goats tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA were positive (Table1). There is a statistically significant association between sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (ꭕ 2 = 6.40; P-value = 0.011; OR = 2.58; 95%CI on OR = 1.22−5.45). The body condition score (BCS)-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri showed that 20 (46.5%) out of the 43 goats with lean body condition score tested positive for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii . There are 101 goats with moderate body condition score, out of which 26 (25.7%) tested positive while 6 (33.3%) of the 18 goats with fat body condition score were found to be positive for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA (Table 2). There is a statistically significant protective association between moderate as compared to the lean body condition scores and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (ꭕ 2 = 5.98; P-value = 0.014; OR = 0.40; 95%CI on OR = 0.19−0.84). This implies that it is 61% less likely occurrence of positive antibodies test against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA among goats with moderate body condition score as compared to those with lean body condition scores. Table 3 below presents the location-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri. Out of the 63 goats sampled from Old GRA quarantine site 10 (15.9%) were positive, 22 (43.1%) of the 101 sampled from Old Maiduguri were positive while 20 (41.7%) out of 48 goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station were positive for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA. There is a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site (ꭕ 2 = 10.38; P-value = 0.001; OR = 4.02; 95%CI on OR = 1.68−9.63) as compared to those sampled from Old GRA and occurrence of positive antibodies test against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA. Likewise, there is a statistically significant protective association between goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station (ꭕ 2 = 9.19; P-value = 0.002; OR = 3.79; 95%CI on OR = 1.56−9.19) as compared to those sampled from Old GRA and occurrence of positive antibodies test against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA. Table 1: The overall and sex specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri Sex of Goats No. Tested ELISA Test Status Chi square (ꭕ 2 ) P value Odds Ratio (OR) 95% CI on OR Lower Upper Positive Negative Male 60 12 (20.0%) 48 (80.0%) 6.40 0.011 0.39 0.18 0.82 Female 102 40 (39.2%) 62 (60.8%) 6.40 0.011 2.58 1.22 5.45 Total 162 52 (32.1%) 110 (67.9%) Table 2: The body condition score (BCS)-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri BCS of Goats No. Tested ELISA Test Status Chi square (ꭕ 2 ) P value Odds Ratio (OR) 95% CI on OR Lower Upper Positive Negative Lean 43 20 (46.5%) 23 (53.5%) Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Moderate 101 26 (25.7%) 75 (74.3%) 5.98 0.014 0.40 0.19 0.84 Fat 18 6 (33.3%) 12 (66.7%) 0.90 0.34 0.58 0.18 1.81 Total 162 52 (32.1%) 110 (67.9%) Table 3: The location-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri Location of Goats No. Tested ELISA Test Status Chi square (ꭕ 2 ) P value Odds Ratio (OR) 95% CI on OR Lower Upper Positive Negative Old GRA 63 10 (15.9%) 53 (84.1%) Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Old Maiduguri 51 22 (43.1%) 29 (56.9%) 10.38 0.001 4.02 1.68 9.63 Vet. Field Station 48 20 (41.7%) 28 (58.3%) 9.19 0.002 3.79 1.56 9.19 Total 162 52 (32.1%) 110 (67.9%) The Age-group-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri showed that 32 (32.3%) out of the 99 goats within the 1 to 2 years age category were positive, 15 (28.3%) of the 53 goats within the >2 – 3 years age group tested positve. While out of the 10 goats within the >3 years age category 5 (50%) tested positive for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA (Fig. 1). There is no statistically significant association between any of the three age categories of goats and occurrence of positive test for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA (ꭕ 2 = 1.82; p = 0.402). Figure 2 below showed the physical sign-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri. Although there are apparently more serologically positive goats among normal ones those that have discernible signs of oculo-nasal discharges, diarrhea and rough hair coat showed 9.6% and 7.7% and 7.7%prevalence respectively. However, there is no statistically significant association between any of the discernible physical signs and occurrence of positive test for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA (ꭕ 2 = 8.02; p = 0.16). Figure 3 below showed the parity-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri . There is apparently higher prevalence amongst female goats in parity 3, 64.7% (11/17) and parity 5 and above, 62.5% (5/8). However, there is no statistically significant association between any of the parity categories of female goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (ꭕ 2 = 8.58; p = 0.073). DISCUSSION This study recorded 32.1% overall seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats. Goats can serve as reservoirs for the zoonotic intracellular parasite, T. gondii, and act as one of the sources for parasite transmission through food (meat or milk) from goats to humans. The prevalence obtained in this study is higher than an overall estimated prevalence for toxoplasmosis of 22.9% in goats from Africa (Tonouhewa et al ., 2017). The seroprevalence obtained in this study was also higher than the pooled prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Nigeria 4.57% reported by Ahaduzzaman and Hasan (2022). The prevalence recorded in goats in this study is also higher than the 3.6% reported by Ayinmode and Abiola (2016) in Ibadan, Oyo state, 4.6% in goats reported by Kamani et al. (2010) in Borno state, 28.0% (Ishaku et al ., 2018) in Jos, Plateau State, and the prevalence of 13.13% (Orpin et al., 2023) in goats from Katsina State. Conversely, the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats recorded in this study was lower than 82.0% and 44.1 % reported by Arene (1984) and Okewale (2007) from goats in Southwestern and Niger Delta, Nigeria respectively. The variations in the prevalence of toxoplasmosis could be attributed to the variations in the prevalence of the disease from one region or state to another, variations from sample sizes and methods of detection from one study to another. For instance, the serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis reported in studies by Tonouhewa et al. (2017) and Ahaduzzaman and Hasan (2022) were obtained from pooled prevalence from meta-analysis of overall prevalence reported from various studies recruited in the analysis. The seroprevalence of caprine toxoplasmosis is higher in the female goats than amongst the male goats. This study showed that there is a statistically significant association between female sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (p˂0.05), with the likelihood of occurrence of toxoplasma three times higher among the female sex of goats compared to the male goats. The study has also showed that the male sex of goats is protective, where there is about 61% likelihood of reduction of occurrence of higher toxoplasma seroprevalence among the male as compared to the female goats. This finding agrees with the studies of Ayinmode and Abiola (2016) and Orpin et al . (2023) who reported significantly higher prevalence of toxoplasmosis among female goats than males. However, the finding, in this study, of higher prevalence among the female as compared to the male goats disagrees with the reports of Kamani et al . (2010) and Ishaku et al., 2018) who reported higher seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in males compared with the prevalence in female goats. While Tonouhewa et al . (2019), contrary to the finding in this study reported that there are no statistically significant association between the occurrence of T. gondii infection and sex of goats. Sex variations on the prevalence of T. gondii infection rate could also be due to predominance of the females in most goat farms as part of management practice. As most male goats are removed from the flock, for breeding purpose the appropriate male to female ratio for goat flock mating is 1:20-25 (Pareek et al ., 2023). There is a statistically significant protective association between moderate as compared to the lean body condition scores and the occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (P-value = 0.014; OR = 0.40). This implies that it is 61% less likelihood of the occurrence of positive antibodies test against Toxoplasma gondii by ELISA among goats with moderate body condition score as compared to those with lean body condition scores. Conversely, by extrapolation of the 1/OR, occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats with lean body condition scores is 2.5 times more likely when compared with those with moderate body condition score. This finding agrees with the report of Saeed et al . (2021) who found higher prevalence of antibody against T. gondii among goats having body condition score less than 2.5, which is the lean goats. The finding in this study contrasted with the work reported by Raza et al . (2021) who reported higher serological prevalence of T. gondii infection among goats with higher body weights compared to those with lower body weights. The higher prevalence among goats with lean body condition score could be because most often lean goats are either nutritionally deficient or having an underlining medical condition, which in either case may impact the immune system and subsequent susceptibility to T. gondii . This study showed a statistically significant higher prevalence of antibodies against T. gondii among goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site as compared to those sampled from Old GRA. Likewise, the location-specific prevalence was found to be higher among goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station as compared to those sampled from Old GRA. The variation of prevalence of toxoplasmosis with location agrees with various studies reporting on significant differences in seroprevalence rate recorded with respect to characteristics of the farm locations (Alvarado-Esquivel et al., 2013; Rego et al. 2016; Santoro et al ., 2017; Tilahun et al ., 2018). Available information from the vendors have indicated that the goats from Old GRA quarantine site were predominantly sourced from pastoral nomadic goat flocks in the range while those from the Old Maiduguri were sourced from free range goats in various towns where contact with domestic cats is practically inevitable. Moreover, goats sampled from the Veterinary Field Station were known to be grazing in a non-restricted area where all sorts of animals have access including domestic cats; this could be the reason for higher prevalence in those two locations. This study found no statistically significant association between any of the three age categories of goats and occurrence of positive test for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii . Numerically higher prevalence was found among goats of 1 to 3 years-age categories while prevalence is lower among goats above 3 years in this study. The finding in this study is in contrast to the finding of Saeed et al. (2021) who reported significantly higher prevalence of Toxoplasmosis among goats of higher age category of 2 to 5 years while Mohamed (2020) showed that increase in age is regarded as a risk factor to increase the infection with T. gondii . The difference in the findings could be attributed to the fact that except for the animals from the Veterinary Field Station, the age of all goats sampled from the two quarantine sites were restricted to specifications by the sponsors of the livestock-restocking program. There are apparently more serologically positive cases among normal goats but also among those that have discernible physical signs such as of occulo-nasal discharges, diarrhea and rough hair coat. However, there is no statistically significant association between any of the discernible physical signs and the occurrence of positive test for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii . This finding corroborates the report of Dubey et al . (2020) who reported that significantly high prevalence of antibody against T. gondii was detected in 66 to 76.5% of goats that were bled while clinically ill. This study showed a higher parity-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri were recorded among female goats in parity 2 and 3 while lower prevalence was obtained in parity 4 and ≥ 5. However, there was no statistically significant association between any of the parity categories of female goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats. This finding is similar to the finding of no significant association between parity categories of female animals and occurrence of toxoplasmosis reported by Abdelbaset et al. (2020). Conversely, Mohamed (2020) reported that serological prevalence of Toxoplasmosis increases with increased number of parity of animals. Likewise, similar scenarios have been reported in other animals, particularly in camels where the proportion of camels seropositive to T. gondii infection increased as the parity and age of camels increases with older animals more likely to have been exposed (Gebremedhin et al ., 2016). CONCLUSION It can be concluded from this research that the overall serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats is 32.1% in the study area. There is a statistically significant association between female sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats. Goats with moderate body condition score are less likely to be positive to antibody against T. gondii infection compared to lean goats. There is a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site and Veterinary Field Station as compared to those sampled from Old GRA. There is no statistically significant association between prevalence of toxoplasmosis and either age category, physical signs of goats and parity (p˃ 0.05). Testing of newly acquired animals against T. gondii infection before admitting them into an existing flock is highly recommended. The vaccination of the definitive hosts, cats is strongly advocated, and goat meat should be thoroughly cooked while goat milk should be pasteurized before consumption. Farm biosecurity should be improved to prevent access to animal feed stores and premises by cats and rodents. There is need for further studies of presence of T. gondii in foods of animal origin and effective means of inactivation of such contaminated foods. The development and validation of simple and affordable rapid tests to detect cases in both humans and animals is also recommended. Declarations Acknowledgments We would like to extend our immense gratitude to the participants who took part in this study. Author contributions statement ASM, ACK, AM and GSNK conceptualized and designed the study. ASM and AM drafted the original manuscript. ASM, AM, MMB and YMBK collected data. SGA, HIM, AOT, SM and ASS performed statistical analyses. All authors read and approved the final manuscript before submission. Conflicts of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest Funding There was no funding available for this research. It was out-out-pocket spending with institutional support of equipment and reagents. Consent to Participate Informed verbal consent was obtained from all participants or parents included in the study. Data Availability Statement All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files References Abdelbaset, A. E. et al. Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity and the associated risk factors in sheep and pregnant women in El-Minya Governorate, Egypt. Veterinary World . 13 , 54 (2020). Abugri, D. A., Witola, W. H. & Jaynes, J. M. In vitro antagonistic and indifferent activity of combination of 3-deoxyanthocyanidins against Toxoplasma gondii. Parasitol. Res. 116 (12), 3387–3400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-017-5661-1 (2017). Ahaduzzaman, M. & Hasan, T. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":57791,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAge-group-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = 1.82; p = 0.402)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7553149/v1/c15fe24d8b01f00847b37dca.png"},{"id":93426572,"identity":"fb99c0f0-6399-43e8-bf0f-99d8c9c880b1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-13 16:53:11","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62860,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhysical sign-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = 8.02; p = 0.16)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7553149/v1/640e420bf4c4ddb73d1484c3.png"},{"id":93426107,"identity":"e391e99f-099e-455c-81f7-c8ef8ff5905f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-13 16:45:11","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65204,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParity-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = 8.58; p = 0.073)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7553149/v1/f06ab80b5552e39f12e55456.png"},{"id":107927687,"identity":"1bb44f1d-9196-41dd-bf84-66fa7a82a4e3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-27 16:01:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":593366,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7553149/v1/4e22e42e-cce8-415e-b4cc-fee4649ead6b.pdf"},{"id":93426112,"identity":"36b71de1-c157-4dc2-ae34-8f3879cecf82","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-13 16:45:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":531215,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ToxoplasmosisELISAinGoatsinMaiduguriSadiqetal.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7553149/v1/db7e267b4eedd7ca86bd0d84.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003ePublic Health Significance of Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated With Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Goats in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eToxoplasmosis is a widely distributed zoonotic protozoal disease of humans and animals caused by the coccidian parasite, \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma gondii\u003c/em\u003e (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The infection with intracellular protozoan \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e, considered to be one of the neglected tropical diseases of poverty, is widely distributed and has broad host range infecting all warm blooded animals including goats (Kamani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Mose et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It is also one of the most important foodborne pathogens worldwide and infection is believed to be widely prevalent in humans, and nearly one-third of human population has been exposed to this parasite (Hill and Dubey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Montoya and Liesenfeld, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Although infection with \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e usually may result in only mild disease or asymptomatic infection in immunocompetent individuals, it can cause devastating disease in congenitally infected children and in immunocompromised adults and children (Hill and Dubey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Infection with \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e is a common cause of infertility, stillbirth, and abortion in animals and man (Stelzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Nayeri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmall ruminants, sheep and goats, are believed to form the most important and reliable sources of animal proteins in Nigeria (Ameh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Goats provide a broad range of products and socio-economic benefits and have played an important role as the source of livelihood and social life of many people (Peacock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Sadiq et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Goats can play a vital role, often being the only asset possessed by a poor family. In times of trouble, such as crop failure or family illness, goats can be sold and food or medicine purchased, this is critical to safeguarding the health and food security of family members (Peacock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFelids (cats) serve as definitive hosts for \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e and an unusually wide intermediate host range made up of all worm-blooded animals that include humans, livestock and many species of domestic and wild animals, including birds (Almeria and Dubey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Transmission of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e occurs via the faecal\u0026ndash;oral route, as well as through consumption of infected meat, food or water contaminated with cat faeces and by trans-placental transfer from mother to foetus (Hill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). According to United States Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (CDC, 2023) the hot, humid climates and lower altitudes of the tropics are especially favourable for the parasite. Food animals such as goats can serve as reservoirs for \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e and act as one of the sources for parasite transmission to humans. Infection in small ruminants such as goats does not only results in significant reproductive losses, but also has implication for public health since consumption of infected meat can facilitate zoonotic transmission (Bisson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Antibodies against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e were detected in goat, sheep, and camel milk samples and \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma gondii\u003c/em\u003e genomic deoxynucleic acid (DNA) was amplified from the serologically positive milk samples indicating the presence of the parasite in the milk of infected lactating animals (Saad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This portends that the raw milk from infected lactating animals could be contaminated by \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e tachyzoites which could be a source of human infection. Consumption of raw, unpasteurized or inadequately pasteurized milk and its products represents significant public health risks of transmitting the tachyzoites or bradyzoites of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e to the human (Hiramoto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). There is evidence that indicates that the gastric juice could not destroy the \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e bradyzoite and it can cause infection to human (Cook et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). This holds true as reported by Pettersen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e) who found that some samples of milk from experimentally infected mice had acid-resistant organisms in milk, indicating the presence of bradyzoites. Dubey et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) have also reported that viable \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e was found in raw milk from all eight experimentally infected goats.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe worldwide prevalence of toxoplasmosis is approximately 30\u0026ndash;90% (Abugri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The overall seroprevalence of human toxoplasmosis in Nigeria was estimated, on the average, to be 32% with the South-West (37%), North-West (32%), North-Central (24%) and North-East (22%) (Ohiolei and Isaac, 2016). Serological prevalence of 4.6% to 35.9% were reported in goats in various parts on Nigeria (Ishaku et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Kamani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Odeniran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Okewole, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Tonouhewa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the emergence of Boko Haram insurgency in the Northeast region since 2009, agricultural livelihoods have been devastated through the destruction of irrigation and farming facilities and massive loss of livestock (Sadiq et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Recently National and international aid agencies have targeted several households in the state for livestock distributions including goat and poultry (F.A.O., 2020). Goats distributed for livestock restocking programs can become reservoirs for \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e and act as one of the sources for the protozoan parasite transmission to humans. Household husbandry and management practices for these goats by farmers mainly an extensive system and therefore presents propensity for spread of the organisms like \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e. This can most likely result in zoonotic disease spread from animals to humans and can result in substantial losses in animals and human man hours. The direct exposure to infected small ruminants, sheep and goats or associated products will increase the risk of infection with T. \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, toxoplasmosis is not as well-known to the public as other diseases endemic to the study area such as malaria and typhoid fever. This study aims at determining the prevalence and risk factors associated with \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection in goats distributed for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy Area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaiduguri Metropolitan council is capital city of Borno State of Nigeria, located on Latitude 11\u0026deg;51'0''N and and Longitude 13\u0026deg;9'0''E It covers a total land mass of 543km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Maiduguri Metropolitan council lies on, and at the bottom of the Bama Ridge which runs in a Northwest/Southeast direction from the Niger boundary to the Cameroun Mountains, the area is drained by Rivers Ngadda and the Ngadda Bul as its tributaries. In 2024, the population of Maiduguri was estmated at 870,000 according to the 2006 National Population and housing census projection (Metrotrends, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The climatic condition of Maiduguri is mostly characterized by hot periods which could favour the survival of the oocysts of the parasite. Most occupants of the city, particularly less privileged ones are engaged in agricultural activities of farming and livestock rearing including goats keeping.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA cross sectional study was conducted to determine the serological prevalence of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection in goats distributed for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria is also assessed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Size Determination\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe unit of analysis considered in the study was individual goats from the institutional livestock farm (Veterinary Field Station) or goats distributed for livestock restocking. The sample size for this study was determined using the formula by Thrusfield (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The prevalence rate of 4.6% was used as reported by Kamani et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) among goats in Borno state Nigeria was used as the expected proportion. The statistical power of 80% was assumed and allowable error or alpha (α) level, precision or margin of error, was considered at 0.05 (5%). Based on the above assumptions, a minimum of 67 serum samples was required for this study.\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:n=\\frac{{{(Z}_{0.05})}^{2}*P\\left(Q\\right)}{{d}^{2}}\\:=\\:\\frac{{\\left(1.96\\right)}^{2}*0.046(1-0.046)}{{\\left(0.05\\right)}^{2}}\\:=\\:67.43$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;required sample size.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eZ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;a value for 95% confidence level (1.96)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;expected proportion,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eQ = 1˗ P\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ed\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;level of precision (5% or 0.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, a minimum of 67 serum samples were required for the study. However, to increase the precision of the estimate of the prevalence rate, the sample size was adjusted to 162.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInclusion Criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGoats of all ages, both sexes, that were apparently healthy, from the institutional livestock farm (Veterinary Field Station) or distributed by aid agencies for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Nigeria were eligible for inclusion into the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eExclusion Criteria\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll goat flocks / households outside the location (Maiduguri Metropolitan council) were excluded and all goat flocks that were not part of institutional livestock farm (Veterinary Field Station) or those distributed by aid agencies for livestock livelihood restocking in Maiduguri were excluded from the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBlood Sample Collection, Sample Preparation and Handling\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing proper restraint of the each goat, 5mL of blood was aseptically collected from jugular vein, using sterile hypodermic syringe and needle. Blood in the syringe was gently dispensed into sterile plain sample bottle, labelled with unique identification code for the animal. The sample bottle was placed in a slanting position for one hour at room temperature for blood to clot in order to get the serum separated from the clotted blood. Serum samples were placed in cool box containing ice packs and taken to the laboratory where they were stored in a refrigerator before serological analysis. Each bottle containing the clotted blood was centrifuged at 3000 G for 5 min to obtain clear serum. The harvested sera were stored at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC pending testing for the detection of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection. Any sample that showed haemolysis was discarded and replaced.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRecording of Goats’ Demographic Information\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe animals\u0026rsquo; demographic information such as the species, sex, age, breed, location and body condition scores (BCS) according to Vall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) were recorded for data analysis. Any missing information was recorded as \"unknown\". The ages of the animals were ascertained using the method of Wilson and Durkin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). The physical characteristics of each animal were used to determine the breed of the animals sampled according to Blench,(1999).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSerological Assay Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntibodies against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e in goats were tested by a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, iELISA kit (Institut Pasteur\u0026reg;, Montpellier, France) with cut off equal to or higher than 50% S/P (sample-to-positive percentage) according to Bartova and Sedlak (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The sera were tested for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e using iELISA following the instructions of the iELISA kit manufacturer. All the serum samples, reagents and plates was brought to room temperature at least half an hour before used and all reagents were homogenized by gentle vortexing using Vortex (Biorad\u0026reg;, France) before starting the test. The reagents were reconstituted as directed in the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s manual. The serum samples were diluted by sample buffer in 1:101 and mixed well by votexing. The serological assay was conducted in the Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine Parasitic Zoonoses Research Laboratory, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFifty microliters (50\u0026micro;L) of the Dilution Buffer was added to each of the 96 wells of the ELISA plate. Fifty microliters of the Positive Control was added to wells A1 and B1while 50\u0026micro;L of the Negative Control was added to wells C1 and D1. Then, 50\u0026micro;L of each pre-diluted test serum samples was pipetted to the remaining wells and then incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for one hour. Following the incubation, the wells were emptied and then subsequently washed 3 times with 300\u0026micro;L of wash buffer (1x concentrate) avoiding drying of the wells between washings. Each of the time the plate was inverted and gently tapped while firmly placed on absorbent paper towel to ensure all washing solution is removed. Then 100\u0026micro;L of enzyme conjugate (anti-multi-species horseradish peroxidase (HRP) conjugate, 10X to 1/10 the Dilution Buffer) were pipetted into each of the microplate wells and the plate was incubated for the second time at 21\u0026deg;C for 30 minutes. After the second incubation, the wells were emptied and washed three times with 300\u0026micro;L of the Wash Solution avoiding drying of the wells between washings as described above. Then 100\u0026micro;L of chromogen/substrate solution will be pipetted into each of the microplate wells, followed by incubation for the third time at 21\u0026deg;C for 15 minutes in the dark. Finally, 100\u0026micro;L of the Stop Solution was added to each of the wells to stop the reaction. The optical densities of the test solutions were read and recorded at absorbance of 450nm using an ELISA reader (Borad\u0026reg;, France).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSerological Assay Interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample-to-Positive percentage \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:(\\text{S}/\\text{P}\\:\\text{%})=\\frac{\\left(\\text{O}\\text{D}\\text{s}\\text{a}\\text{m}\\text{p}\\text{l}\\text{e}\\right)-\\left(\\text{O}\\text{D}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{g}.\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\right)}{\\left(\\text{O}\\text{D}\\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{t}.\\:\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\right)-\\left(\\text{O}\\text{D}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{g}.\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\right)}X\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eODsample\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Optical density reading of the sample\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eODneg.cont\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Optical density reading of the negative control\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eODpost.cont\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Optical density reading of the positive control\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s instructions following computation, all serum samples with S/P\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;40% was considered as negative, while those ranging from 40% \u0026lt; S/P\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;50% were considered doubtful and 50% \u0026lt; S/P\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;was considered positive.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data obtained from the study was entered into and stored in a Microsoft Excel\u0026reg; 2011 for Windows (Microsoft Corporation) spreadsheet. All the statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (version 23.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) at the significance level of α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05. The prevalence rate and odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval on odds ratio (OR) was calculated using two by two (2 x 2) contingency table to test association between occurrence of antibodies against hypothesized risk factors. Chi-squared test was employed to test for the differences between proportions of the categorical variables. The statistical estimates and their respective confidence intervals were determined at 95% level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGuidelines in the Animal Utilization Protocol (AUP) of the Animal Use and Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri were followed. Approval was obtained from the Animal Use and Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri. This work is an observational study and the collection of blood samples from live goats is categorized by the AUP guidelines as \u0026ldquo;an invasive procedure that causes little or no discomfort or stress\u0026rdquo;. The ARRIVE guidelines were adhered to.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eOverall, 52 (32.1%) out of the 162 goat serum samples tested for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA were positive. Out of the 60 male goats tested 12 (20%) were found to be positive while 40 (39.2%) of the 102 female goats tested for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA were positive (Table1). There is a statistically significant association between sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e= 6.40; P-value = 0.011; OR = 2.58; 95%CI on OR = 1.22\u0026minus;5.45).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe body condition score (BCS)-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri showed that 20 (46.5%) out of the 43 goats with lean body condition score tested positive for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e. There are 101 goats with moderate body condition score, out of which 26 (25.7%) tested positive while 6 (33.3%) of the 18 goats with fat body condition score were found to be positive for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA (Table 2). There is a statistically significant protective association between moderate as compared to the lean body condition scores and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e= 5.98; P-value = 0.014; OR = 0.40; 95%CI on OR = 0.19\u0026minus;0.84). This implies that it is 61% less likely occurrence of positive antibodies test against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA among goats with moderate body condition score as compared to those with lean body condition scores.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 below presents the location-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri. Out of the 63 goats sampled from Old GRA quarantine site 10 (15.9%) were positive, 22 (43.1%) of the 101 sampled from Old Maiduguri were positive while 20 (41.7%) out of 48 goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station were positive for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA. There is a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e= 10.38; P-value = 0.001; OR = 4.02; 95%CI on OR = 1.68\u0026minus;9.63) as compared to those sampled from Old GRA and occurrence of positive antibodies test against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA. Likewise, there is a statistically significant protective association between goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e= 9.19; P-value = 0.002; OR = 3.79; 95%CI on OR = 1.56\u0026minus;9.19) as compared to those sampled from Old GRA and occurrence of positive antibodies test against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1:\u003c/strong\u003e The overall and sex specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.9274%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex of Goats\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.4144%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. Tested\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 22.3592%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eELISA Test Status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi square (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.2289%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOdds Ratio (OR)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.9709%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI on OR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLower\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.9014%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUpper\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7593%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.768%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNegative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.9274%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMale\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.4144%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7593%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (20.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.768%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48 (80.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.2289%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.9014%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.9274%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFemale\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.4144%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e102\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7593%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40 (39.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.768%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62 (60.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.2289%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.9014%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.9274%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.4144%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e162\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7593%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e52 (32.1%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.768%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e110 (67.9%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.2289%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.9361%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.9014%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2:\u003c/strong\u003e The body condition score (BCS)-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.1399%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBCS of Goats\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.3857%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. Tested\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 22.3549%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eELISA Test Status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi square (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.1672%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4334%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOdds Ratio (OR)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.2116%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI on OR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.1911%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLower\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0205%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUpper\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7509%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNegative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.1399%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.3857%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7509%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (46.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23 (53.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.1672%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4334%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.1911%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0205%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.1399%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.3857%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7509%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26 (25.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75 (74.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.1672%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4334%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.1911%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0205%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.1399%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.3857%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7509%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (66.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.1672%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4334%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.1911%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0205%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.1399%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.3857%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e162\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.7509%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e52 (32.1%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e110 (67.9%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.6041%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.1672%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4334%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.1911%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.0205%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3:\u003c/strong\u003e The location-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.3771%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation of Goats\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.0554%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. Tested\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 22.0405%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eELISA Test Status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.1057%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi square (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.0051%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.764%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOdds Ratio (OR)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.0605%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI on OR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.2011%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLower\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.8594%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUpper\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.5931%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePositive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4474%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNegative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.3771%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOld GRA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.0554%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.5931%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (15.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4474%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53 (84.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.1057%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.0051%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.764%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.2011%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.8594%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.3771%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOld Maiduguri\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.0554%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.5931%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22 (43.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4474%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 (56.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.1057%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.0051%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.764%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.2011%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.8594%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.3771%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVet. Field Station\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.0554%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.5931%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (41.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4474%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28 (58.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.1057%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.0051%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.764%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.2011%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.8594%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.3771%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 9.0554%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e162\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.5931%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e52 (32.1%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.4474%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e110 (67.9%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 11.1057%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.0051%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 10.764%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 8.2011%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 7.8594%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Age-group-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri showed that 32 (32.3%) out of the 99 goats within the 1 to 2 years age category were positive, 15 (28.3%) of the 53 goats within the \u0026gt;2 \u0026ndash; 3 years age group tested positve. While out of the 10 goats within the \u0026gt;3 years age category 5 (50%) tested positive for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA (Fig. 1). There is no statistically significant association between any of the three age categories of goats and occurrence of positive test for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = 1.82; p = 0.402).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 below showed the physical sign-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri. Although there are apparently more serologically positive goats among normal ones \u0026nbsp;those that have discernible signs of oculo-nasal discharges, diarrhea and rough hair coat showed \u0026nbsp; 9.6% and 7.7% and 7.7%prevalence \u0026nbsp;respectively. However, there is no statistically significant association between any of the discernible physical signs and occurrence of positive test for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA (ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = 8.02; p = 0.16).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 below showed the parity-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri . There is apparently higher prevalence amongst female goats in parity 3, 64.7% (11/17) and parity 5 and above, 62.5% (5/8). However, there is no statistically significant association between any of the parity categories of female goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats\u0026nbsp;(ꭕ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = 8.58; p = 0.073). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study recorded 32.1% overall seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats. Goats can serve as reservoirs for the zoonotic intracellular parasite, \u003cem\u003eT. gondii,\u003c/em\u003e and act as one of the sources for parasite transmission through food (meat or milk) from goats to humans. The prevalence obtained in this study is higher than an overall estimated prevalence for toxoplasmosis of 22.9% in goats from Africa (Tonouhewa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017). The seroprevalence obtained in this study was also higher than the pooled prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Nigeria 4.57% reported by Ahaduzzaman and Hasan (2022). The prevalence recorded in goats in this study is also higher than the 3.6% reported by Ayinmode and Abiola (2016) in Ibadan, Oyo state, 4.6% in goats reported by Kamani \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2010) \u0026nbsp;in Borno state, 28.0% (Ishaku \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018) in Jos, Plateau State, and the prevalence of 13.13% (Orpin \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2023) in goats from Katsina State. Conversely, the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats recorded in this study was lower than 82.0% and 44.1 % reported by Arene (1984) and Okewale (2007) from goats in Southwestern and Niger Delta, Nigeria respectively. \u0026nbsp;The variations in the prevalence of toxoplasmosis could be attributed to the variations in the prevalence of the disease from one region or state to another, variations from sample sizes and methods of detection from one study to another. For instance, the serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis reported in studies by Tonouhewa \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2017) and Ahaduzzaman and Hasan (2022) were obtained from pooled prevalence from meta-analysis of overall prevalence reported from various studies recruited in the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe seroprevalence of caprine toxoplasmosis is higher in the female goats than amongst the male goats. This study showed that there is a statistically significant association between female sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (p˂0.05), with the \u0026nbsp; likelihood of occurrence of toxoplasma \u0026nbsp; three times higher among the female sex of goats compared to the male goats. The study has also showed that the male sex of goats is protective, where there is about 61% likelihood of reduction of occurrence of higher toxoplasma seroprevalence among the male as compared to the female goats. This finding agrees with the studies of Ayinmode and Abiola (2016) and Orpin \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2023) who reported significantly higher prevalence of toxoplasmosis among female goats than males. However, the finding, in this study, of higher prevalence among the female as compared to the male goats disagrees with the reports of Kamani \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2010) and Ishaku et al., 2018) who reported higher seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in males compared with the prevalence in female goats. While Tonouhewa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2019), contrary to the finding in this study reported that there are no statistically significant association between the occurrence of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection and sex of goats. Sex variations on the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection rate could also be due to predominance of the females in most goat farms as part of management practice. As most male goats are removed from the flock, for breeding purpose the appropriate male to female ratio for goat flock mating is 1:20-25 (Pareek \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is a statistically significant protective association between moderate as compared to the lean body condition scores and the occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (P-value = 0.014; OR = 0.40). This implies that it is 61% less likelihood of the occurrence of positive antibodies test against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e by ELISA among goats with moderate body condition score as compared to those with lean body condition scores. Conversely, by extrapolation of the 1/OR, occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats with lean body condition scores is 2.5 times more likely when compared with those with moderate body condition score. This finding agrees with the report of Saeed \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2021) who found higher prevalence of antibody against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e among goats having body condition score less than 2.5, which is the lean goats. The finding in this study contrasted with the work reported by Raza \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2021) who reported higher serological prevalence of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection among goats with higher body weights compared to those with lower body weights. The higher prevalence among goats with lean body condition score could be because most often lean goats are either nutritionally deficient or having an underlining medical condition, which in either case may impact the immune system and subsequent susceptibility to \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study showed a statistically significant higher prevalence of antibodies against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e among goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site as compared to those sampled from Old GRA. Likewise, the location-specific prevalence was found to be higher among goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station as compared to those sampled from Old GRA. The variation of prevalence of toxoplasmosis with location agrees with various studies reporting on significant differences in seroprevalence rate recorded with respect to characteristics of the farm locations (Alvarado-Esquivel \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2013; Rego \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e 2016; Santoro \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017; Tilahun \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). Available information from the vendors have indicated that the goats from Old GRA quarantine site were predominantly sourced from pastoral nomadic goat flocks in the range while those from the Old Maiduguri were sourced from free range goats in various towns where contact with domestic cats is practically inevitable. Moreover, goats sampled from the Veterinary Field Station were known to be grazing in a non-restricted area where all sorts of animals have access including domestic cats; this could be the reason for higher prevalence in those two locations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study found no statistically significant association between any of the three age categories of goats and occurrence of positive test for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e. Numerically higher prevalence was found among goats of 1 to 3 years-age categories while prevalence is lower among goats above 3 years in this study. The finding in this study is in contrast to the finding of Saeed \u003cem\u003eet al.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(2021) who reported significantly higher prevalence of Toxoplasmosis among goats of higher age category of 2 to 5 years while Mohamed (2020) showed that increase in age is regarded as a risk factor to increase the infection with \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e. The difference in the findings could be attributed to the fact that except for the animals from the Veterinary Field Station, the age of all goats sampled from the two quarantine sites were restricted to specifications by the sponsors of the livestock-restocking program.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are apparently more serologically positive cases among normal goats but also among those that have discernible physical signs such as of occulo-nasal discharges, diarrhea and rough hair coat. However, there is no statistically significant association between any of the discernible physical signs and the occurrence of positive test for antibodies against \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egondii\u003c/em\u003e. This finding corroborates the report of Dubey \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2020) who reported that significantly high prevalence of antibody against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e was detected in 66 to 76.5% of goats that were bled while clinically ill.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study showed a higher parity-specific seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats in Maiduguri were recorded among female goats in parity 2 and 3 while lower prevalence was obtained in parity 4 and \u0026ge; 5. However, there was no statistically significant association between any of the parity categories of female goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats. This finding is similar to the finding of no significant association between parity categories of female animals and occurrence of toxoplasmosis reported by Abdelbaset \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2020). Conversely, Mohamed (2020) reported that serological prevalence of Toxoplasmosis increases with increased number of parity of animals. Likewise, similar scenarios have been reported in other animals, particularly in camels where the proportion of camels seropositive to \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection increased as the parity and age of camels increases with older animals more likely to have been exposed (Gebremedhin \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt can be concluded from this research that the overall serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats is 32.1% in the study area. There is a statistically significant association between female sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats. Goats with moderate body condition score are less likely to be positive to antibody against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection compared to lean goats. There is a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site and Veterinary Field Station as compared to those sampled from Old GRA. There is no statistically significant association between prevalence of toxoplasmosis and either age category, physical signs of goats and parity (p˃ 0.05). Testing of newly acquired animals against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection before admitting them into an existing flock is highly recommended. The vaccination of the definitive hosts, cats is strongly advocated, and goat meat should be thoroughly cooked while goat milk should be pasteurized before consumption. Farm biosecurity should be improved to prevent access to animal feed stores and premises by cats and rodents. There is need for further studies of presence of \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e in foods of animal origin and effective means of inactivation of such contaminated foods. The development and validation of simple and affordable rapid tests to detect cases in both humans and animals is also recommended.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to extend our immense gratitude to the participants who took part in this study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eASM, ACK, AM and GSNK conceptualized and designed the study. ASM and AM drafted the original manuscript. ASM, AM, MMB and YMBK collected data. SGA, HIM, AOT, SM and ASS performed statistical analyses. All authors read and approved the final manuscript before submission.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere was no funding available for this research. It was out-out-pocket spending with institutional support of equipment and reagents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed verbal consent was obtained from all participants or parents included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdelbaset, A. E. et al. \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma gondii\u003c/em\u003e seropositivity and the associated risk factors in sheep and pregnant women in El-Minya Governorate, Egypt. \u003cem\u003eVeterinary World\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e13\u003c/b\u003e, 54 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbugri, D. 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ISSN 0301\u0026ndash;6226.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Toxoplasmosis, Goats, Antibodies, Prevalence, Risk Factors","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7553149/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7553149/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eToxoplasmosis is a widely distributed zoonotic protozoal disease caused by \u003cem\u003eToxoplasma gondii\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e) with cats serving as definitive host of the parasite. The parasite has broad intermediate host range infecting all warm-blooded animals including goats. Post insurgency livestock restocking intervention by local and international aid agencies targeted some households in the state for livestock distributions including goat. Hence, goats distributed for such programs can serve as the source for the \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e transmission to humans. This study aims at determining the prevalence and risk factors associated with \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection in goats distributed for livestock restocking in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. A cross-sectional study was designed, and blood samples were collected from 162 goats from two quarantine sites and an institutional livestock farm in Maiduguri metropolitan council. Antibodies against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e in goats were tested by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) kit. The overall serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis in goats was 32.1% in the study area. There is a statistically significant association between female sex of goats and occurrence of toxoplasmosis in goats (P-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011; OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.58; 95% CI on OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.45). Goats with moderate body condition score are less likely to test positive to antibody against \u003cem\u003eT. gondii\u003c/em\u003e infection compared to lean goats (P-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014; OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.39; 95% CI on OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.84). There is a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Old Maiduguri quarantine site as compared to those sampled from Old GRA (P-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001; OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.02; 95%CI on OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9.63). There is also a statistically significant association between goats sampled from Veterinary Field Station as compared to those sampled from Old GRA (P-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002; OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.79; 95% CI on OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9.19). Vaccination of cats, public health awareness, routine testing for humans and newly acquired animals and one-health approach of surveillance for toxoplasmosis is highly recommended.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Public Health Significance of Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated With Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Goats in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-13 16:37:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7553149/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-15T14:49:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-12T23:16:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-19T14:48:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"20066818160386006771735045072148871621","date":"2025-11-16T22:09:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-14T14:17:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"213425634626578574457181869454649149506","date":"2025-11-11T07:20:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"220991023982854545848636278999557669379","date":"2025-10-30T16:59:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"173726721499469515243431274319689971402","date":"2025-10-02T04:54:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-30T04:45:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-22T02:29:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-22T02:25:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-19T05:36:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-09-19T05:33:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e2468782-c10c-4e7b-b3d4-28008c9457b2","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":56224176,"name":"Health sciences/Diseases"},{"id":56224177,"name":"Biological sciences/Immunology"},{"id":56224178,"name":"Biological sciences/Microbiology"},{"id":56224179,"name":"Biological sciences/Zoology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-27T16:00:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7553149","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-49118-6","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-22 15:57:23","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 22nd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-13 16:37:06","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-026-49118-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-49118-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7553149","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7553149","identity":"rs-7553149","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}