Influence of nanoclay concentration on the performance of the characteristics of particleboard made from rice husk bonded with urea-formaldehyde adhesive

Influence of nanoclay concentration on the performance of the characteristics of particleboard made from rice husk bonded with urea-formaldehyde adhesive | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Influence of nanoclay concentration on the performance of the characteristics of particleboard made from rice husk bonded with urea-formaldehyde adhesive Aizat Ghani, Ain Nabilah Norazman, Roziela Hanim Alamjuri, Melissa Sharmah Gilbert, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6739489/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examines the impact of nanoclay incorporation on the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard produced from rice husk. Three distinct concentrations of nanoclay, specifically 1%, 2%, and 3%, were incorporated based on the weight of urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin. For example, particleboard produced without the use of nanoclay served as a control. Furthermore, 1% ammonium chloride was included into the resin composition to expedite the adhesive curing process. The physical properties assessed included density, moisture content, thickness swelling, and water absorption, while the mechanical properties analysed comprised internal bonding (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE), all in line with the JIS A 5908:2003 standard. The findings demonstrated that mechanical characteristics enhanced with the incorporation of nanoclay by up to 3%.. Moreover, the incorporation of 2% nanoclay resulted in maximal enhancements in density and water absorption. RICE HUSK PARTICLEBOARD NANOCLAY PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 1.0 INTRODUCTION Many studies have been conducted on the manufacturing of particleboard from rice husk, which has shown promise as a sustainable substitute for conventional wood-based boards. A plentiful and frequently underutilised by-product of rice milling, rice husk is a desirable raw material for the manufacture of particleboard. In order to improve the mechanical and physical characteristics of particleboards made from rice husks, numerous studies have investigated various binders and treatment techniques. With density values ranging from 0.703 to 0.712 g/cm³ and compressive strength (MOR) values between 56.105 and 82.63 kgf/cm³, for example, the use of epoxy resin as a binder has demonstrated encouraging results, showing high structural integrity (Milawarni et al. 2023 ). Similarly, the inclusion of coconut fibre and polyester resin has been examined, suggesting that adding natural fibres can improve the board's mechanical qualities while resolving environmental concerns about waste management (Chandran et al. 2023 ). Silica in rice husk can decrease adhesive bonding, thereby diminishing mechanical strength as the content increases (Şahin & Kaymakcı, 2024). Alternative binders, such as cement and gum arabic, have also been investigated, with cement-bonded boards exhibiting increased water absorption and thickness swelling, while gum arabic-bonded boards exhibited satisfactory mechanical properties but encountered moisture intrusion issues (Mas’ud & Ndububa, 2023 ; Oriire et al., 2022 ). The use of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a binder was successful in achieving Japanese Industrial Standards for flexural strength, despite the fact that the produced boards were denser than the reference density. Pre-treatment procedures such as boiling and alkali treatment have been used to improve rice husk compatibility with adhesives, hence improving the overall quality of particleboards (Sejati et al. 2020 ). Additionally, starch-based adhesives provide a biodegradable and cost-effective alternative to synthetic adhesives, resulting in water-resistant boards ideal for interior applications (Temitope, 2015 ). The addition of nanoclay to urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin has been proven to greatly improve its performance in a variety of applications, including wood adhesives and particle board. Studies have shown that introducing nanoclay, such as sodium montmorillonite (NaMMT), into UF resins can minimise formaldehyde emissions while improving physical and mechanical qualities. For example, modifying nanoclay with aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) reduced formaldehyde emissions by 61% while improving the resin's thermal stability and mechanical qualities (Khorramabadi et al. 2023 ). Furthermore, the inclusion of nanoclay has been shown to increase the fire retardant capabilities of particleboards, with a 1% nanoclay loading delaying ignition by up to 13 minutes and slowing burning (Ismita N. et al. 2019 ). Nanoclay treated with transition metal ions has also been shown to improve the cross-linking and cohesive strength of UF resins, resulting in lower formaldehyde emissions (Yadav et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, nanoclay aids in the exfoliation process during UF resin curing, resulting in a more uniform hardened network and increased water resistance in plywood and particleboard applications (Lei et al. 2008 ). Mechanical properties, such as modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE), improve with increased nanoclay content, with a 39% increase in MOR found in UF-bonded boards containing 6% nanoclay (Rahimi et al. 2014 ) Overall, rice husk-based particleboards are a feasible and environmentally benign choice for reducing dependency on wood resources, with ongoing research aimed at improving binder formulations and treatment techniques to improve performance and durability. Furthermore, incorporating nanoclay into UF resins not only alleviates environmental concerns about formaldehyde emissions, but it also improves the structural integrity and durability of wood-based composites, making it a promising approach for improving the performance of UF resin adhesives in a variety of industrial settings. So, objective of this study is to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of rice husk particleboard produced with varying percentages of nanoclay incorporated into the urea-formaldehyde resin. 2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Preparation of materials The rice husk particles used for particleboard fabrication in this study were sourced from Kilang Padi Jaya Enterprises, located in Kota Marudu, Sabah. Prior to production, the rice husk was oven-dried in the laboratory to achieve a moisture content of 3–5%. The urea formaldehyde resin (65% solid content) was obtained from Sepanggar Chemical Industry Sdn. Bhd., Sabah. Additionally, hydrophilic bentonite nanoclay was supplied by Sigma Aldrich Sdn. Bhd. 2.2 Particleboard fabrication A single-layer particleboard with a specified density of 550 kg/m3 and dimensions of 340 mm in width, 340 mm in length, and 10 mm in thickness was produced. A 12% UF resin was formulated based on the dry weight of rice husk particles. 1% of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) relative to the solid weight of UF resin was utilised as a hardener. 1%, 2%, and 3% of nanoclay, relative to the solid weight of UF resin, were incorporated into the UF resin, respectively. 0.5% of wax emulsion, relative to the dry weight of rice husk, was incorporated into the UF resin. The admixtures were thereafter combined manually with the rice husk. Following blending, the resinated rice husk particles were manually shaped into a particleboard mould. The mat was thereafter positioned in a hot press and subjected to a temperature of 160 ± 5°C with a pressure of 150 kg/m³ for a duration of 5 minutes. Subsequent to hot pressing, the particleboard was subjected to conditioning in a controlled environment to achieve a stable weight before to property assessment. A set of rice husk particleboard was produced using UF resin without the addition of nanoclay for comparison purposes. 2.3 Properties evaluation of rice husk particleboard 2.3.1 Physical properties of rice husk particleboard The physical parameters, including density, moisture content (MC), thickness swelling (TS), and water absorption (WA), were assessed following the methodology outlined in the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) A 5908:2003. A 50 mm x 50 mm size of samples was cut from each rice husk particleboard for the TS and WA samples. The samples were weighed, and their thickness was measured prior to immersion in water for 24 hours at a temperature of 20 ± 3°C. Subsequent to soaking, the samples' weight and thickness were re-evaluated to ascertain and articulate the TS and WA values as percentages. 2.3.2 Mechanical properties of rice husk particleboard The mechanical parameters assessed for rice husk particleboards included modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE) in static bending, and internal bonding (IB), tested in accordance with the procedure outlined in JIS A 5908 (JIS, 2003). For IB, the particleboard specimens of 50 mm × 50 mm were affixed to an aluminium block, and a tensile force was applied vertically. 2.4 Statistical analysis The data were statistically analysed to ascertain the significance of the researched variables utilising Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The gathered data were analysed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess the impact of varying percentages of nanoclay (1%, 2%, and 3%) on the characteristics of rice husk particleboard, with means differentiated using Tukey’s HSD test. 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The targeted density of the particleboard is 550 kg/m3, while the produced board exhibits a density between 525 and 603 kg/m 3 , with moisture content values varying from 9.30–10%. All manufactured particleboard met the specified density of 550 kg/m3 and complied with the density requirements outlined in JIS A 5908:2003, which range from 400 kg/m 3 to 900 kg/m 3 . Notable, the presence of nanoclay significantly reduced the moisture content of rice husk particleboard. According to Merah & Mohamed ( 2019 ), the addition of nanoclay can prevent water uptake and act as a protective layer and this is also supported byLei et al. ( 2008 b) where the water resistance of plywood was increased after adding nanoclay in UF adhesive. However, all the rice husk particleboard produced achieved JIS A 5908:2003 MC value which in the range 5–13%. Table 1 Density and MC of rice husk particleboard produced from different nanoclay percentage Percentage of nanoclay (%) Moisture content (%) Density (kg/m 3 ) 0 10.00 (± 0.06) a 525 (± 37.24) a 1 9.37 (± 0.06) b 603 (± 29.66) b 2 9.30 (± 0.10) b 605 (± 32.00) b 3 9.50 (± 0.10) b 553 (± 46.89) c Note: numbers in the parentheses are standard deviation, which means a column followed by the same letter is not significantly different at ≤ 0.05 Generally, the rice husk particleboard with the addition of nanoclay has lower TS and WA compared to particleboard without the addition of nanoclay as can be seen from Table 2 . Table 2 Dimensional stability of rice husk particleboard produced from different nanoclay percentage Percentage of nanoclay (%) Thickness swelling (%) Water absorption (%) 0 25.80 (± 1.03) a 102.14 (± 0.76) a 1 18.90 (± 0.79) b 95.30 (± 7.97) b 2 17.94 (± 1.98) c 87.10 (± 7.15) c 3 16.08 (± 1.26) d 85.79 (± 3.75) c JIS standard ≤12 Note: numbers in the parentheses are standard deviation, which means a column followed by the same letter is not significantly different at ≤ 0.05 The minimum TS value of 16.08% is noted in the particleboard containing 3% nanoclay, whereas the maximum TS and WA values of 25.80% and 102.14% are seen in the board produced without nanoclay, respectively. The water absorption is reflected, and the attained TS is the maximum. None of the boards generated in this investigation satisfied the TS criteria (≤ 12%) as specified in standard JIS A 5908 (JIS, 2003). Nonetheless, fulfilling the criteria is challenging, as the water soaking method is more extreme than the actual outdoor conditions. Both TS and WA values of the rice husk particleboard is decreased significantly with increasing concentration of nanoclay. It was found that, the increment percentage of nanoclay from 1–3% enhanced the moisture diffusion barrier properties of the particleboard. The same results were also observed in Ashori & Nourbakhsh ( 2009 ) study, where the addition of 8% nanoclay was able to reduce the TS value of medium density fibreboard (MDF) up to 15.8% from its original TS values and a similar were also reported by Haq et al. ( 2009 ) in his study. Where Rahimi et al. ( 2014 b), also found that, water absorption (WA) in their study diminished with minimal quantities of nanoclay in UF boards, it remained constant in isocyanate (MDI) bonded boards. This phenomena can be elucidated as described by Das et al. ( 2000 ), wherein the initial infiltration of water into aspen fibres transpires through the saturation of the cell wall matrix via the porous tubular structures and lumens. Consequently, water infiltrates the macroscopic voids inside the composite. The addition of nanoclay into these gaps and luminal spaces effectively hinders capillary-driven water transport into the interior of the composite matrix. This barrier mechanism substantially decreases water absorption, resulting in a marked reduction in thickness swelling (TS). Table 3 presents the values for internal bonding (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of rice husk particleboard manufactured with varying percentages of nanoclay. ANOVA indicates that the incorporation of varying percentages of nanoclay in the UF resin significantly influenced the IB, MOR, and MOE of the rice husk particleboard. Table 3 Mechanical properties of rice husk particleboard produced from different nanoclay percentage Percentage of nanoclay (%) Internal bonding (N/mm 2 ) Modulus of rupture (N/mm 2 ) Modulus of elasticity (N/mm 2 ) 0 0.27 a (± 0.26) 11.46 a (± 1.76) 1385 a (± 39.96) 1 0.45 a (± 0.23) 12.58 b (± 7.97) 1557 b (± 69.76) 2 0.90 b (± 0.31) 13.87 c (± 3.15) 1662 c (± 112) 3 0.98 b (± 0.25) 14.06 c (± 3.75) 1746 c (± 72.65) JIS standard (Particleboard type 13) ≥ 0.2 ≥ 13 JIS standard (Particleboard type 8) ≥ 0.15 ≥ 8 Note: numbers in the parentheses are standard deviation, which means a column followed by the same letter is not significantly different at ≤ 0.05 The internal bonding (IB) strength of the rice husk particleboards ranged from 0.27 to 1.28 N/mm². All the boards met the minimum IB requirement of 0.2 N/mm² as specified by the JIS Type 13 standard (Japanese Standard Association, 2003 ). The results also revealed that the addition of nanoclay significantly enhanced the IB values, with improvements ranging from 67–262%. However, there was no significant difference in IB strength between boards containing 2% and 3% nanoclay, suggesting a plateau in performance beyond a certain concentration. The MOR and MOE of the rice husk particleboard vary from 11.46 to 14.06 N/mm² and from 1385 to 1746 N/mm², respectively. The findings indicate that the incorporation of 2% and 3% nanoclay into the UF resin particleboard satisfies the minimal standards for particleboard Type 13 as outlined in JIS 5908:2003 (Japanese Standard Association, 2003 ). The incorporation of nanoclay enhanced the bending characteristics of the rice husk particleboards, resulting in an increase in MOR by 9.78–22.69% and MOE by 12.42–26.07%. Nonetheless, there was no notable difference in bending performance between boards with 2% and 3% nanoclay, suggesting that any increments above 2% do not result in significant improvements in MOR and MOE. A comparable study indicated that ARAS & KALAYCIOĞLU ( 2023 ) the incorporation of nanoclay, specifically at concentrations of 1% and 2%, markedly enhanced the mechanical characteristics of particleboards. The research indicated that the modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and internal bond (IB) strength enhanced with the incorporation of nanoclay. Nevertheless, elevated concentrations resulted in agglomeration, adversely impacting performance, suggesting that reduced consumption rates are more advantageous for mechanical qualities. Rahimi et al. ( 2014 b) also found in his study that, the incorporation of nanoclay particles markedly improves the mechanical characteristics of particleboards. A 39% increase in the modulus of rupture (MOR) was specifically noted in urea formaldehyde (UF) bonded boards containing 6% nanoclay. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity (MOE) enhanced with elevated nanoclay concentration. Similarly, in a related study by Salari et al. ( 2012 ), the incorporation of organo-modified montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclay significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of oriented strand board (OSB) produced from low-quality paulownia wood, with a 5% nanoclay concentration resulting in improved modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) that met the minimum requirements for general-purpose OSB. Kaboorani & Riedl ( 2011 ) explained that the improvement in mechanical properties following the addition of nanoclay is attributed to its ability to alter the polymer’s response to applied loads through various mechanisms. Due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio, nanoclay particles create a substantial interfacial area with the polymer matrix. This results in an interaction zone around each particle, which significantly modifies the physical characteristics of the polymer—such as polymer chain mobility, entanglement density, and modulus—compared to the unmodified resin. From this study, it was that the addition of nanoclay to urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin has been shown to improve the mechanical properties—specifically internal bond (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE)—of rice husk particleboard. Significant enhancements were observed with nanoclay incorporation up to 2%, beyond which no substantial further improvements were noted. 4.0 CONCLUSIONS The incorporation of nanoclay into urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin has demonstrated significant potential in enhancing the performance of wood-based composites. Specifically, the addition of nanoclay improved the mechanical properties—such as internal bond (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE)—as well as the dimensional stability of rice husk particleboard. Optimal improvements were observed at a nanoclay concentration of up to 2%, beyond which no substantial gains were noted. These enhancements are attributed to the unique characteristics of nanoclay, including its high surface area-to-volume ratio and the formation of interaction zones within the polymer matrix, which influence polymer mobility and structural integrity. Findings from similar studies, such as those involving organo-modified montmorillonite (MMT) in oriented strand board (OSB), further support the effectiveness of nanoclay in improving composite performance. Overall, nanoclay-modified UF resin presents a promising approach for producing high-performance, sustainable wood composites from agricultural residues and low-quality wood sources. Declarations Author Contribution Author Contributions: Aizat Ghani and Ain Nabilah Norazman were responsible for writing the main manuscript. Ismawati Palle proposed the core idea and designed the experimental framework for the study. Roziela Hanim Alamjuri, Melissa Sharmah Gilbert, and Lee Seng Hua contributed by proofreading and refining the manuscript. References ARAS, U., & KALAYCIOĞLU, H. (2023). The technological properties of particleboards manufactured with nano additive melamine-formaldehyde adhesive. Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi , 24 (1), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.17474/artvinofd.1249563 Ashori, A., & Nourbakhsh, A. (2009). Effects of nanoclay as a reinforcement filler on the physical and mechanical properties of wood-based composite. Journal of Composite Materials , 43 (18), 1869–1875. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998309340936 Chandran, A., Ismail, A., Charles, B., & Thejal, T. T. (2023). Particle board using rice husk and coconut fibre. Sustainability, Agri, Food and Environmental Research-DISCONTINUED , 12 (1). https://doi.org/10.7770/safer-v12n1-art2757 Das, S., Saha, A. K., Choudhury, P. K., Basak, R. K., Mitraf, B. C., Todd, T., Lang F, S., & Rowell, R. M. (2000). Effect of Steam Pretreatment of Jute Fiber on Dimensional Stability of Jute Composite. In J Appl Polym Sci (Vol. 76). Haq, M., Burgueño, R., Mohanty, A. K., & Misra, M. (2009). Bio-based unsaturated polyester/layered silicate nanocomposites: Characterization and thermo-physical properties. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing , 40 (4), 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.02.008 Ismita N., Mandape Aniket Shasikant, Kumar Shailendra, Shukla Shikhar, & Kishan Kumar V.S. (2019). Fire efficacy improvement of particle boards by nanoclay. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews , 4 (2). https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2019.4.2.0100 Japanese Standard Association. (2003). Japanese Industrial Standard Particle Board JIS A 5908. Japanese Standard Association, Japan. Kaboorani, A., & Riedl, B. (2011). Effects of adding nano-clay on performance of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) as a wood adhesive. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing , 42 (8), 1031–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.04.007 Khorramabadi, L. A., Behrooz, R., & Kazemi, S. (2023). Effects of Nanoclay Modification with Aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) on the Performance of Urea–formaldehyde Resin Adhesives. BioResources , 18 (3). https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.18.3.5417-5434 Lei, H., Du, G., Pizzi, A., & Celzard, A. (2008). Influence of nanoclay on urea-formaldehyde resins for wood adhesives and its model. Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 109 (4), 2442–2451. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.28359 Mas’ud, A., & Ndububa, E. E. (2023). ENGINEERING CHARACTERIZATION OF GUM ARABIC BONDED PARTICLE BOARD MADE FROM RICE HUSK AND SAWDUST. Open Journal of Engineering Science (ISSN: 2734-2115) , 4 (1). https://doi.org/10.52417/ojes.v4i1.481 Merah, N., & Mohamed, O. (2019). Nanoclay and water uptake effects on mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester. Journal of Nanomaterials , 2019 . https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8130419 Milawarni, M., Aprilia, S., Idris, N., Elfiana, E., Yassir, Y., Asnawi, Y., Suryati, S., Novi Quintena, R., Syarif, J., & Juhan, N. (2023). Analysis of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rice Husk-based Particle Board. Journal of Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology , 31 (3). https://doi.org/10.37934/araset.31.3.4046 Oriire, L. T., Aina, K. S., Olajide, O. B., Aguda, L. O., & Adiji, A. O. (2022). Evaluation of durability performance of rice husk - cement bonded particleboards. Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and the Social Sciences , 18 (2). https://doi.org/10.4314/joafss.v18i2.6 Rahimi, S., Javad, M., Hosseyni, M., Rahimi, S., & Faezipour, M. M. (2014). Effect of nanoclay particles on the properties of particle boards Effect of Nanoclay Particles on the Properties of Particleboards. J. Basic. Appl. Sci. Res , 4 (3), 280–287. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325556189 Salari, A., Tabarsa, T., Khazaeian, A., & Saraeian, A. (2012). Effect of nanoclay on some applied properties of oriented strand board (OSB) made from underutilized low quality paulownia (Paulownia fortunei) wood. Journal of Wood Science , 58 (6), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-012-1278-2 Sejati, P. S., Kusumah, S. S., Dwianto, W., & Surjasa, D. (2020). Modification of rice biomass wastes for eco-friendly particleboard. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , 572 (1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/572/1/012005 Temitope, A. K. (2015). Recycling of Rice Husk into a Locally-Made Water-Resistant Particle Board. Industrial Engineering & Management , 04 (03). https://doi.org/10.4172/2169-0316.1000164 Yadav, S. M., Lubis, M. A. R., Wibowo, E. S., & Park, B. D. (2021). Effects of nanoclay modification with transition metal ion on the performance of urea–formaldehyde resin adhesives. Polymer Bulletin , 78 (5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-020-03214-3 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6739489","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":472386802,"identity":"cca11ba1-32e9-4a0e-b476-ea6391a4f68e","order_by":0,"name":"Aizat Ghani","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHjDJ2ABCDAw2yIJEaUlII0kLCCQcJqxFd0buwU83c+xkG9gPN3/4+eN84tr+A4wP3rYxRBscwK7F7EZesnTutmTjBp7EBsOehNuJ224kMBvObWPI3YBTS44BUAtzYgNDYkMCD1gLA5s0L34txr9zt9UnNvA/bDj4J+Fc4rbzB9h/E9BiBrTlcGKDRGJjM0/CgcRtBxLYmPFqOfPGzDp323HjNomHzcwyacnG224kNkvOOSeROxOXluM5xrdzt1XL9vOnP/74xsZOdtv5wwc/vCmzye3DoQUO2BBMcBxJMCgQ0oIJ5BtI1jIKRsEoGAXDEwAAOP9nU6Avtc8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aizat","middleName":"","lastName":"Ghani","suffix":""},{"id":472386803,"identity":"4fa8a89b-0ef0-4321-b935-165de0236ed0","order_by":1,"name":"Ain Nabilah Norazman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ain","middleName":"Nabilah","lastName":"Norazman","suffix":""},{"id":472386804,"identity":"d70657a9-392d-4285-923f-581d02173bf7","order_by":2,"name":"Roziela Hanim Alamjuri","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Roziela","middleName":"Hanim","lastName":"Alamjuri","suffix":""},{"id":472386805,"identity":"665ad0e3-3c8e-4a81-aa18-6fa4239fa941","order_by":3,"name":"Melissa Sharmah Gilbert","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Melissa","middleName":"Sharmah","lastName":"Gilbert","suffix":""},{"id":472386806,"identity":"f7f11ed5-567d-4aa1-a644-1315fdacaab4","order_by":4,"name":"Lee Seng Hua","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Wood Industry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Cawangan Kampus Jengka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lee","middleName":"Seng","lastName":"Hua","suffix":""},{"id":472386808,"identity":"832976af-b03b-4d18-b7fc-a90fa3e9d187","order_by":5,"name":"Ismawati Palle","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ismawati","middleName":"","lastName":"Palle","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-24 14:08:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6739489/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6739489/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86636904,"identity":"8c5f4af9-70b8-4bba-a62a-06af1da613ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-14 07:24:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":660772,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6739489/v1/8d57e7f3-929b-41e4-a2de-34b112501cd3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of nanoclay concentration on the performance of the characteristics of particleboard made from rice husk bonded with urea-formaldehyde adhesive\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eMany studies have been conducted on the manufacturing of particleboard from rice husk, which has shown promise as a sustainable substitute for conventional wood-based boards. A plentiful and frequently underutilised by-product of rice milling, rice husk is a desirable raw material for the manufacture of particleboard. In order to improve the mechanical and physical characteristics of particleboards made from rice husks, numerous studies have investigated various binders and treatment techniques. With density values ranging from 0.703 to 0.712 g/cm\u0026sup3; and compressive strength (MOR) values between 56.105 and 82.63 kgf/cm\u0026sup3;, for example, the use of epoxy resin as a binder has demonstrated encouraging results, showing high structural integrity (Milawarni et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the inclusion of coconut fibre and polyester resin has been examined, suggesting that adding natural fibres can improve the board's mechanical qualities while resolving environmental concerns about waste management (Chandran et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Silica in rice husk can decrease adhesive bonding, thereby diminishing mechanical strength as the content increases (Şahin \u0026amp; Kaymakcı, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlternative binders, such as cement and gum arabic, have also been investigated, with cement-bonded boards exhibiting increased water absorption and thickness swelling, while gum arabic-bonded boards exhibited satisfactory mechanical properties but encountered moisture intrusion issues (Mas\u0026rsquo;ud \u0026amp; Ndububa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Oriire et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The use of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a binder was successful in achieving Japanese Industrial Standards for flexural strength, despite the fact that the produced boards were denser than the reference density. Pre-treatment procedures such as boiling and alkali treatment have been used to improve rice husk compatibility with adhesives, hence improving the overall quality of particleboards (Sejati et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, starch-based adhesives provide a biodegradable and cost-effective alternative to synthetic adhesives, resulting in water-resistant boards ideal for interior applications (Temitope, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe addition of nanoclay to urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin has been proven to greatly improve its performance in a variety of applications, including wood adhesives and particle board. Studies have shown that introducing nanoclay, such as sodium montmorillonite (NaMMT), into UF resins can minimise formaldehyde emissions while improving physical and mechanical qualities. For example, modifying nanoclay with aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) reduced formaldehyde emissions by 61% while improving the resin's thermal stability and mechanical qualities (Khorramabadi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the inclusion of nanoclay has been shown to increase the fire retardant capabilities of particleboards, with a 1% nanoclay loading delaying ignition by up to 13 minutes and slowing burning (Ismita N. et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nanoclay treated with transition metal ions has also been shown to improve the cross-linking and cohesive strength of UF resins, resulting in lower formaldehyde emissions (Yadav et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, nanoclay aids in the exfoliation process during UF resin curing, resulting in a more uniform hardened network and increased water resistance in plywood and particleboard applications (Lei et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Mechanical properties, such as modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE), improve with increased nanoclay content, with a 39% increase in MOR found in UF-bonded boards containing 6% nanoclay (Rahimi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, rice husk-based particleboards are a feasible and environmentally benign choice for reducing dependency on wood resources, with ongoing research aimed at improving binder formulations and treatment techniques to improve performance and durability. Furthermore, incorporating nanoclay into UF resins not only alleviates environmental concerns about formaldehyde emissions, but it also improves the structural integrity and durability of wood-based composites, making it a promising approach for improving the performance of UF resin adhesives in a variety of industrial settings. So, objective of this study is to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of rice husk particleboard produced with varying percentages of nanoclay incorporated into the urea-formaldehyde resin.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Preparation of materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rice husk particles used for particleboard fabrication in this study were sourced from Kilang Padi Jaya Enterprises, located in Kota Marudu, Sabah. Prior to production, the rice husk was oven-dried in the laboratory to achieve a moisture content of 3\u0026ndash;5%. The urea formaldehyde resin (65% solid content) was obtained from Sepanggar Chemical Industry Sdn. Bhd., Sabah. Additionally, hydrophilic bentonite nanoclay was supplied by Sigma Aldrich Sdn. Bhd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Particleboard fabrication\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA single-layer particleboard with a specified density of 550 kg/m3 and dimensions of 340 mm in width, 340 mm in length, and 10 mm in thickness was produced. A 12% UF resin was formulated based on the dry weight of rice husk particles. 1% of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) relative to the solid weight of UF resin was utilised as a hardener. 1%, 2%, and 3% of nanoclay, relative to the solid weight of UF resin, were incorporated into the UF resin, respectively. 0.5% of wax emulsion, relative to the dry weight of rice husk, was incorporated into the UF resin. The admixtures were thereafter combined manually with the rice husk. Following blending, the resinated rice husk particles were manually shaped into a particleboard mould. The mat was thereafter positioned in a hot press and subjected to a temperature of 160\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C with a pressure of 150 kg/m\u0026sup3; for a duration of 5 minutes. Subsequent to hot pressing, the particleboard was subjected to conditioning in a controlled environment to achieve a stable weight before to property assessment. A set of rice husk particleboard was produced using UF resin without the addition of nanoclay for comparison purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Properties evaluation of rice husk particleboard\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 Physical properties of rice husk particleboard\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe physical parameters, including density, moisture content (MC), thickness swelling (TS), and water absorption (WA), were assessed following the methodology outlined in the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) A 5908:2003. A 50 mm x 50 mm size of samples was cut from each rice husk particleboard for the TS and WA samples. The samples were weighed, and their thickness was measured prior to immersion in water for 24 hours at a temperature of 20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3\u0026deg;C. Subsequent to soaking, the samples' weight and thickness were re-evaluated to ascertain and articulate the TS and WA values as percentages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 Mechanical properties of rice husk particleboard\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mechanical parameters assessed for rice husk particleboards included modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE) in static bending, and internal bonding (IB), tested in accordance with the procedure outlined in JIS A 5908 (JIS, 2003). For IB, the particleboard specimens of 50 mm \u0026times; 50 mm were affixed to an aluminium block, and a tensile force was applied vertically.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data were statistically analysed to ascertain the significance of the researched variables utilising Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The gathered data were analysed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess the impact of varying percentages of nanoclay (1%, 2%, and 3%) on the characteristics of rice husk particleboard, with means differentiated using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s HSD test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe targeted density of the particleboard is 550 kg/m3, while the produced board exhibits a density between 525 and 603 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, with moisture content values varying from 9.30\u0026ndash;10%. All manufactured particleboard met the specified density of 550 kg/m3 and complied with the density requirements outlined in JIS A 5908:2003, which range from 400 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 900 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotable, the presence of nanoclay significantly reduced the moisture content of rice husk particleboard. According to Merah \u0026amp; Mohamed (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the addition of nanoclay can prevent water uptake and act as a protective layer and this is also supported byLei et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003eb) where the water resistance of plywood was increased after adding nanoclay in UF adhesive. However, all the rice husk particleboard produced achieved JIS A 5908:2003 MC value which in the range 5\u0026ndash;13%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity and MC of rice husk particleboard produced from different nanoclay percentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage of nanoclay (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.00 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e525 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;37.24)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.37 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e603 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.66)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.30 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e605 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;32.00)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.50 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e553 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;46.89)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: numbers in the parentheses are standard deviation, which means a column followed by the same letter is not significantly different at \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenerally, the rice husk particleboard with the addition of nanoclay has lower TS and WA compared to particleboard without the addition of nanoclay as can be seen from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDimensional stability of rice husk particleboard produced from different nanoclay percentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage of nanoclay (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThickness swelling (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater absorption\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.80 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.03)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.14 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.76)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.90 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.79)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.30 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.97)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.94 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.98)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.10 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.15)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.08 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.26)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.79 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJIS standard\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: numbers in the parentheses are standard deviation, which means a column followed by the same letter is not significantly different at \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe minimum TS value of 16.08% is noted in the particleboard containing 3% nanoclay, whereas the maximum TS and WA values of 25.80% and 102.14% are seen in the board produced without nanoclay, respectively. The water absorption is reflected, and the attained TS is the maximum. None of the boards generated in this investigation satisfied the TS criteria (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;12%) as specified in standard JIS A 5908 (JIS, 2003). Nonetheless, fulfilling the criteria is challenging, as the water soaking method is more extreme than the actual outdoor conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth TS and WA values of the rice husk particleboard is decreased significantly with increasing concentration of nanoclay. It was found that, the increment percentage of nanoclay from 1\u0026ndash;3% enhanced the moisture diffusion barrier properties of the particleboard. The same results were also observed in Ashori \u0026amp; Nourbakhsh (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) study, where the addition of 8% nanoclay was able to reduce the TS value of medium density fibreboard (MDF) up to 15.8% from its original TS values and a similar were also reported by Haq et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) in his study. Where Rahimi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003eb), also found that, water absorption (WA) in their study diminished with minimal quantities of nanoclay in UF boards, it remained constant in isocyanate (MDI) bonded boards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis phenomena can be elucidated as described by Das et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), wherein the initial infiltration of water into aspen fibres transpires through the saturation of the cell wall matrix via the porous tubular structures and lumens. Consequently, water infiltrates the macroscopic voids inside the composite. The addition of nanoclay into these gaps and luminal spaces effectively hinders capillary-driven water transport into the interior of the composite matrix. This barrier mechanism substantially decreases water absorption, resulting in a marked reduction in thickness swelling (TS).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the values for internal bonding (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of rice husk particleboard manufactured with varying percentages of nanoclay. ANOVA indicates that the incorporation of varying percentages of nanoclay in the UF resin significantly influenced the IB, MOR, and MOE of the rice husk particleboard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMechanical properties of rice husk particleboard produced from different nanoclay percentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage of nanoclay (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternal bonding (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModulus of rupture\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModulus of elasticity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.46\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1385\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;39.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1557\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;69.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.87\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1662\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;112)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.06\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1746\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;72.65)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJIS standard\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(Particleboard type 13)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge; 0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge; 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJIS standard\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(Particleboard type 8)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge; 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNote: numbers in the parentheses are standard deviation, which means a column followed by the same letter is not significantly different at \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe internal bonding (IB) strength of the rice husk particleboards ranged from 0.27 to 1.28 N/mm\u0026sup2;. All the boards met the minimum IB requirement of 0.2 N/mm\u0026sup2; as specified by the JIS Type 13 standard (Japanese Standard Association, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The results also revealed that the addition of nanoclay significantly enhanced the IB values, with improvements ranging from 67\u0026ndash;262%. However, there was no significant difference in IB strength between boards containing 2% and 3% nanoclay, suggesting a plateau in performance beyond a certain concentration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe MOR and MOE of the rice husk particleboard vary from 11.46 to 14.06 N/mm\u0026sup2; and from 1385 to 1746 N/mm\u0026sup2;, respectively. The findings indicate that the incorporation of 2% and 3% nanoclay into the UF resin particleboard satisfies the minimal standards for particleboard Type 13 as outlined in JIS 5908:2003 (Japanese Standard Association, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The incorporation of nanoclay enhanced the bending characteristics of the rice husk particleboards, resulting in an increase in MOR by 9.78\u0026ndash;22.69% and MOE by 12.42\u0026ndash;26.07%. Nonetheless, there was no notable difference in bending performance between boards with 2% and 3% nanoclay, suggesting that any increments above 2% do not result in significant improvements in MOR and MOE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA comparable study indicated that ARAS \u0026amp; KALAYCIOĞLU (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) the incorporation of nanoclay, specifically at concentrations of 1% and 2%, markedly enhanced the mechanical characteristics of particleboards. The research indicated that the modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and internal bond (IB) strength enhanced with the incorporation of nanoclay. Nevertheless, elevated concentrations resulted in agglomeration, adversely impacting performance, suggesting that reduced consumption rates are more advantageous for mechanical qualities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRahimi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003eb) also found in his study that, the incorporation of nanoclay particles markedly improves the mechanical characteristics of particleboards. A 39% increase in the modulus of rupture (MOR) was specifically noted in urea formaldehyde (UF) bonded boards containing 6% nanoclay. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity (MOE) enhanced with elevated nanoclay concentration. Similarly, in a related study by Salari et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), the incorporation of organo-modified montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclay significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of oriented strand board (OSB) produced from low-quality paulownia wood, with a 5% nanoclay concentration resulting in improved modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) that met the minimum requirements for general-purpose OSB.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaboorani \u0026amp; Riedl (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) explained that the improvement in mechanical properties following the addition of nanoclay is attributed to its ability to alter the polymer\u0026rsquo;s response to applied loads through various mechanisms. Due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio, nanoclay particles create a substantial interfacial area with the polymer matrix. This results in an interaction zone around each particle, which significantly modifies the physical characteristics of the polymer\u0026mdash;such as polymer chain mobility, entanglement density, and modulus\u0026mdash;compared to the unmodified resin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom this study, it was that the addition of nanoclay to urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin has been shown to improve the mechanical properties\u0026mdash;specifically internal bond (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE)\u0026mdash;of rice husk particleboard. Significant enhancements were observed with nanoclay incorporation up to 2%, beyond which no substantial further improvements were noted.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe incorporation of nanoclay into urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin has demonstrated significant potential in enhancing the performance of wood-based composites. Specifically, the addition of nanoclay improved the mechanical properties\u0026mdash;such as internal bond (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE)\u0026mdash;as well as the dimensional stability of rice husk particleboard. Optimal improvements were observed at a nanoclay concentration of up to 2%, beyond which no substantial gains were noted. These enhancements are attributed to the unique characteristics of nanoclay, including its high surface area-to-volume ratio and the formation of interaction zones within the polymer matrix, which influence polymer mobility and structural integrity. Findings from similar studies, such as those involving organo-modified montmorillonite (MMT) in oriented strand board (OSB), further support the effectiveness of nanoclay in improving composite performance. Overall, nanoclay-modified UF resin presents a promising approach for producing high-performance, sustainable wood composites from agricultural residues and low-quality wood sources.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions: Aizat Ghani and Ain Nabilah Norazman were responsible for writing the main manuscript. Ismawati Palle proposed the core idea and designed the experimental framework for the study. Roziela Hanim Alamjuri, Melissa Sharmah Gilbert, and Lee Seng Hua contributed by proofreading and refining the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eARAS, U., \u0026amp; KALAYCIOĞLU, H. (2023). The technological properties of particleboards manufactured with nano additive melamine-formaldehyde adhesive. \u003cem\u003eArtvin \u0026Ccedil;oruh \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Orman Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi Dergisi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e24\u003c/em\u003e(1), 139\u0026ndash;147. https://doi.org/10.17474/artvinofd.1249563\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAshori, A., \u0026amp; Nourbakhsh, A. (2009). Effects of nanoclay as a reinforcement filler on the physical and mechanical properties of wood-based composite. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Composite Materials\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e43\u003c/em\u003e(18), 1869\u0026ndash;1875. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998309340936\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChandran, A., Ismail, A., Charles, B., \u0026amp; Thejal, T. T. (2023). Particle board using rice husk and coconut fibre. \u003cem\u003eSustainability, Agri, Food and Environmental Research-DISCONTINUED\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(1). https://doi.org/10.7770/safer-v12n1-art2757\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDas, S., Saha, A. K., Choudhury, P. K., Basak, R. K., Mitraf, B. C., Todd, T., Lang F, S., \u0026amp; Rowell, R. M. (2000). Effect of Steam Pretreatment of Jute Fiber on Dimensional Stability of Jute Composite. In \u003cem\u003eJ Appl Polym Sci\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 76).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHaq, M., Burgue\u0026ntilde;o, R., Mohanty, A. K., \u0026amp; Misra, M. (2009). Bio-based unsaturated polyester/layered silicate nanocomposites: Characterization and thermo-physical properties. \u003cem\u003eComposites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e(4), 540\u0026ndash;547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.02.008\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIsmita N., Mandape Aniket Shasikant, Kumar Shailendra, Shukla Shikhar, \u0026amp; Kishan Kumar V.S. (2019). Fire efficacy improvement of particle boards by nanoclay. \u003cem\u003eWorld Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(2). https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2019.4.2.0100\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJapanese Standard Association. (2003). Japanese Industrial Standard Particle Board JIS A 5908. \u003cem\u003eJapanese Standard Association, Japan.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKaboorani, A., \u0026amp; Riedl, B. (2011). Effects of adding nano-clay on performance of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) as a wood adhesive. \u003cem\u003eComposites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e(8), 1031\u0026ndash;1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.04.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhorramabadi, L. A., Behrooz, R., \u0026amp; Kazemi, S. (2023). Effects of Nanoclay Modification with Aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) on the Performance of Urea\u0026ndash;formaldehyde Resin Adhesives. \u003cem\u003eBioResources\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e18\u003c/em\u003e(3). https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.18.3.5417-5434\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLei, H., Du, G., Pizzi, A., \u0026amp; Celzard, A. (2008). Influence of nanoclay on urea-formaldehyde resins for wood adhesives and its model. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Polymer Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e109\u003c/em\u003e(4), 2442\u0026ndash;2451. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.28359\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMas\u0026rsquo;ud, A., \u0026amp; Ndububa, E. E. (2023). ENGINEERING CHARACTERIZATION OF GUM ARABIC BONDED PARTICLE BOARD MADE FROM RICE HUSK AND SAWDUST. \u003cem\u003eOpen Journal of Engineering Science (ISSN: 2734-2115)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(1). https://doi.org/10.52417/ojes.v4i1.481\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMerah, N., \u0026amp; Mohamed, O. (2019). Nanoclay and water uptake effects on mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Nanomaterials\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2019\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8130419\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMilawarni, M., Aprilia, S., Idris, N., Elfiana, E., Yassir, Y., Asnawi, Y., Suryati, S., Novi Quintena, R., Syarif, J., \u0026amp; Juhan, N. (2023). Analysis of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rice Husk-based Particle Board. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e31\u003c/em\u003e(3). https://doi.org/10.37934/araset.31.3.4046\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOriire, L. T., Aina, K. S., Olajide, O. B., Aguda, L. O., \u0026amp; Adiji, A. O. (2022). Evaluation of durability performance of rice husk - cement bonded particleboards. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Agriculture, Forestry and the Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e18\u003c/em\u003e(2). https://doi.org/10.4314/joafss.v18i2.6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahimi, S., Javad, M., Hosseyni, M., Rahimi, S., \u0026amp; Faezipour, M. M. (2014). Effect of nanoclay particles on the properties of particle boards Effect of Nanoclay Particles on the Properties of Particleboards. \u003cem\u003eJ. Basic. Appl. Sci. Res\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(3), 280\u0026ndash;287. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325556189\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSalari, A., Tabarsa, T., Khazaeian, A., \u0026amp; Saraeian, A. (2012). Effect of nanoclay on some applied properties of oriented strand board (OSB) made from underutilized low quality paulownia (Paulownia fortunei) wood. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Wood Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e58\u003c/em\u003e(6), 513\u0026ndash;524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-012-1278-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSejati, P. S., Kusumah, S. S., Dwianto, W., \u0026amp; Surjasa, D. (2020). Modification of rice biomass wastes for eco-friendly particleboard. \u003cem\u003eIOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e572\u003c/em\u003e(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/572/1/012005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTemitope, A. K. (2015). Recycling of Rice Husk into a Locally-Made Water-Resistant Particle Board. \u003cem\u003eIndustrial Engineering \u0026amp; Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e04\u003c/em\u003e(03). https://doi.org/10.4172/2169-0316.1000164\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYadav, S. M., Lubis, M. A. R., Wibowo, E. S., \u0026amp; Park, B. D. (2021). Effects of nanoclay modification with transition metal ion on the performance of urea\u0026ndash;formaldehyde resin adhesives. \u003cem\u003ePolymer Bulletin\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e78\u003c/em\u003e(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-020-03214-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"RICE HUSK, PARTICLEBOARD, NANOCLAY, PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6739489/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6739489/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines the impact of nanoclay incorporation on the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard produced from rice husk. Three distinct concentrations of nanoclay, specifically 1%, 2%, and 3%, were incorporated based on the weight of urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin. For example, particleboard produced without the use of nanoclay served as a control. Furthermore, 1% ammonium chloride was included into the resin composition to expedite the adhesive curing process. The physical properties assessed included density, moisture content, thickness swelling, and water absorption, while the mechanical properties analysed comprised internal bonding (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE), all in line with the JIS A 5908:2003 standard. The findings demonstrated that mechanical characteristics enhanced with the incorporation of nanoclay by up to 3%.. Moreover, the incorporation of 2% nanoclay resulted in maximal enhancements in density and water absorption.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Influence of nanoclay concentration on the performance of the characteristics of particleboard made from rice husk bonded with urea-formaldehyde adhesive","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-18 17:33:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6739489/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6927c591-8a2a-4479-941d-214d217d99cb","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-14T07:24:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-18 17:33:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6739489","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6739489","identity":"rs-6739489","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}