Effects of liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate on rice growth, nutrient uptake, and rice yield during the tillering stage

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However, the regulatory mechanism of liquid fertilizer on rice morphological construction, photosynthetic characteristics, and nutrient uptake during the tillering period is still unclear, and its impact on the final yield formation also needs to be further explored. Results: In this study, ‘Huanghuazhan’ was selected as the experimental material, and four treatments were set up: HS (standard solid fertilizer application rate), HL (standard liquid fertilizer application rate, identical to the solid fertilizer application rate), HL-10% (10% reduction from the standard liquid fertilizer application rate), and HL-20% (20% reduction from the standard liquid fertilizer application rate) to systematically investigate the effects of liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate on rice during the tillering stage. The results showed that compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased rice growth parameters, with aboveground dry weight increasing by 174.45%, 83.22%, and 57.67%, respectively. Meanwhile, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate enhanced photosynthetic capacity and promoted carbohydrate synthesis. In addition, the aboveground N, P, K uptake, root N, P uptake in HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those in the HS treatment. Compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased agronomic efficiency and partial factor productivity. Specifically, the nitrogen agronomic efficiency significantly increased by 44.44%, 20.03%, 9.23%, respectively. Compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased rice yield and yield components. For example, yield increased by 50.12%, 20.82%, and 9.67%, respectively, and 1000-grain weight increased by 6.31%, 2.33%, and 0.71%, respectively. Conclusions: In conclusion, the experiment on gradient reduced application of liquid fertilizer showed that, even reduced application rate (HL-10% and HL-20% treatments) treatments still performed better than the HS treatment in terms of morphological construction, photosynthetic characteristics, nutrient uptake during the tillering stage, and yield formation, achieving the goal of "reduced application rate with increased yield." rice liquid fertilizer reduced application rate tillering stage nutrient uptake yield Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Background Rice serves as a staple food for over 60% of the global population and is primarily cultivated in China, India, and other Asian countries. China ranks first globally in total rice production and is the world's second-largest producer and consumer[ 1 ]. The tillering stage of rice is a fundamental phase for panicle number formation and grain development, characterized by high nutrient demand and stress sensitivity [ 2 ]. Tiller number is a key agronomic trait that determines rice panicle number and grain yield [ 3 ]. Ensuring rice food security is increasingly vital due to shrinking cultivated land area caused by rapid industrialization and rising global food demand driven by population growth [ 4 , 5 ]. To date, chemical fertilizers remain a primary method for boosting rice yields. However, widespread over-application of fertilizers in rice production not only reduces fertilizer use efficiency and causes environmental problems (such as greenhouse gas emissions and groundwater contamination) but also threatens production sustainability [ 6 , 7 ]. Therefore, selecting high-efficiency fertilizer has become a critical pathway for achieving sustainable development in global rice production. Liquid fertilizer have gained widespread attention due to their high solubility and convenient application. The water-soluble nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) supplied by liquid fertilizer are more readily absorbed by rice plants, promoting growth and development and increasing photosynthate accumulation to enhance yield. Compared with solid fertilizer, liquid fertilizer reduces nutrient loss while improving N, P, and K use efficiency [ 8 ]. Singh et al. [ 9 ] found that liquid fertilizer promotes wheat N uptake, improved nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), agronomic efficiency (NAE), and yield. Lu et al. [ 10 ] reported that liquid fertilizer treatments increased N, P uptake and yield in Chinese cabbage compared with solid fertilizer. Shao et al. [ 11 ] found that liquid fertilizer significantly enhances pear photosynthetic capacity ( Pn ) and chlorophyll content. Sang et al. [ 12 ] reported that reducing solid apllying by 20% and combining it with organic liquid fertilizer increased N and P uptake in tomatoes. Shi et al. [ 13 ] found that replacing 40% of chemical fertilizer with liquid fertilizer could improve N and P use efficiency in cotton. Previous researches support the application of liquid fertilizer in crop production. In recent years, Shiji Yuntian Company has developed and produced two liquid fertilizer products, “Datan No. 1” and “chelated polyphosphate potassium”, which have shown promising initial application results and high fertilizer use efficiency. Building on the research foundation of liquid fertilizers in crop production, this study introduces two new liquid fertilizers (“Datan No. 1” and chelated polyphosphate potassium) and conducts experiments combining reduced application rate to verify their feasibility in achieving high rice yield. In the context of rice production, most studies focused on the application of single-element fertilizer (N, P, and K) or compound solid fertilizer. However, the regulatory mechanism of liquid fertilizer on rice morphological construction, photosynthetic characteristics, and nutrient uptake during the tillering stage is still unclear, and its impact on the final yield formation also needs to be further explored. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the impact of gradient reduction treatments of liquid fertilizer on the rice morphological construction, photosynthetic parameters, nutrient uptake during the tillering stage, and yield components of rice, which provides an essential theoretical basis and practical references for the application of liquid fertilizer in green and sustainable rice production. Results Effects of different fertilizers on rice growth parameters during the tillering stage As shown in Fig.2, liquid fertilizer significantly promoted rice growth, which was specifically reflected in the increases in morphological indicators such as plant height, root length, and stem diameter (Fig.3A-D). Compared with the HS treatment, the plant height and root length in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 35.44% and 17.58%, 20.87% and 5.49%, 16.21% and 8.90%, respectively (Fig.3A, B). In comparison to the HS treatment, stem diameter and leaf area in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 35.55% and 127.03%, 12.32% and 98.00%, 1.90% and 44.13%, respectively (Fig.3C, D). Under different fertilization treatments, there were significant differences in the fresh and dry weights of aboveground and root among the experimental treatments (Fig.3E-H). Compared with the HS treatment, the fresh weight of aboveground and root in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 35.44% and 174.45%, 20.87% and 83.22%, 16.21% and 57.67%, respectively (Fig.3E, F). In contrast to the HS treatment, the dry weight of aboveground and root in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 174.45% and 71.17%, 83.22% and 50.11%, 57.67% and 36.16%, respectively (Fig.3G, H). The biomass accumulation in liquid fertilizer treatments was all higher than that in the HS treatment, and the order of biomass accumulation in liquid fertilizer treatments from high to low was HL > HL-10% > HL-20%. This indicates that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate have an obvious promoting effect on rice growth and development. Effects of different fertilizers on the photosynthetic pigments content in rice during the tillering stage Compared with the HS treatment, liquid fertilizer promoted the chlorophyll content in rice leaves (Fig.4). In comparison to the HS treatment, the HL treatment significantly increased the contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll by 16.60%, 12.32%, and 15.72%, respectively. Similarly, the HL-10% treatment also significantly increased the contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll by 10.39%, 7.81%, and 9.86%, respectively. Meanwhile, the above indices increased by 2.49%, 0.57%, and 5.62% in the HL-20% treatment, respectively. The carotenoid content in rice leaves under liquid fertilizer treatments was higher than in the HS treatment, but there was no significant difference. Effects of different fertilizers on the photosynthetic parameters of rice during the tillering stage Compared with HS treatment, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatment significantly increased the photosynthetic parameters of rice (Fig.5). Compared with HS treatment, HL treatment significantly increased Pn (38.12%), Ci (15.11%), Gs (44.31%), Tr (63.92%), AMC (48.03%), Ls (28.37%), WUE (20.92%), and Ci /Ca (24.61%). Additionally, HL-10% treatment significantly increased Pn , Ci , Gs , Tr , AMC, Ls, and Ci /Ca (16.07%, 8.64%, 31.59%, 38.74%, 36.20%, 16.20%, and 18.73%), and reduced WUE (2.26%). Compared with HS treatment, the HL-20% treatment increased Pn , Ci , Gs , Tr , AMC, and Ci /Ca (9.79%, 6.69%, 17.47%, 21.18%, 12.49%, and 11.33%), and decreased Ls and WUE (1.61% and 5.37%). Effects of different fertilizers on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of rice during the tillering stage As shown in Fig.6, liquid fertilizer increased the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of rice. Compared with HS treatment, HL treatment significantly increased YII (51.21%), ETR (34.85%), Fv/Fm (1.33%), qP (52.04%), qL (60.33%), NPQ (10.60%), YNPQ (3.40%), and Fm (8.3%). The HL-10% and HL-20% treatments increased YII (41.50%, 32.39%), ETR (41.52%, 32.12%), Fv/Fm (0.34%, 0.21%), qP (36.11%, 22.99%), qL (59.16%, 24.15%), NPQ (6.20%, 6.20%), YNPQ (3.40%, 0.80%), and Fm (8.30%, 1.60%). Compared to the HS treatment, qN in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased by 2.51%, 1.11%, and 0.68%, respectively (Fig.6D), while YNO in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments decreased by 10.09%, 8.49%, and 1.95%, respectively (Fig.6H). Effects of liquid fertilizer on the carbohydrate content in rice during the tillering stage Fig.7 shows the contents of fructose, sucrose, SS, and starch in rice leaves under different fertilization treatments. The fructose content in HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than that in the HS treatment, with increases of 19.71%, 11.65%, and 2.97% respectively (Fig.7A). Compared with HS treatment, the sucrose content of HL, HL-10% and HL-20% treatments increased significantly, with increases of 29.38%, 5.45%, and 20.23%, respectively (Fig.7B). Meanwhile, the soluble sugar content of HL and HL-10% increased significantly by 3.96% and 13.43%, respectively; the increase was 1.40% under HL-20%, but there was no significant difference (Fig.7C). In addition, there were no significant differences in the starch content between the treatments (Fig.7D). Effects of different fertilizers on uptake and accumulation of N, P and K in rice during the tillering stage There were significant differences in nutrient uptake and accumulation in the aboveground and root of rice under different fertilization treatments (Fig.8).Compared with the HS treatment, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased N uptake in the aboveground and root, these increases were 26.36% and 43.52%, 22.42% and 32.64%, 20.92% and 26.62% respectively (Fig.8A). Meanwhile, these treatments significantly enhanced N accumulation in the aboveground parts and roots by 196.51% and 127.39%, 160.62% and 92.42%, 75.49% and 66.01%, respectively (Fig.8B).In contrast to the HS treatment, the three liquid fertilizer treatments significantly increased P uptake in the aboveground and root by 26.06% and 18.53%, 18.57% and 6.03%, 2.28% and 3.45% respectively (Fig.8C). Similarly, they significantly boosted P accumulation in the aboveground and root by 195.81% and 87.81%, 152.42% and 53.83%, and 48.43% and 35.63%, respectively (Fig.8D). For K uptake, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased K uptake in the aboveground compared to HS by 25.14%, 30.34%, and 15.13% respectively. However, K uptake in the root significantly decreased by 26.66% and 6.71% under HL and HL-10%, respectively. In contrast, it increased by 22.04% under HL-20% (Fig.8E). Meanwhile, these treatments significantly increased K accumulation in the aboveground and root, these increases were 193.65% and 16.19%, 177.48% and 35.34%, 67.08% and 60.00%, respectively (Fig.8F). These results indicate that compared with solid fertilizer, liquid fertilizer can promote the uptake and accumulation of N, P, and K in rice. Effects of different fertilizers on the use efficiency of N, P, and K in rice Compared to the HS treatment, the fertilizer contribution rate (FCR) of HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased by 16.46%, 9.87%, and 2.21%, respectively. NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, and KPEP were all higher under the HL treatment than in the HS treatment, with increases of 44.44%, 97.51%, 73.38%, 34.49%, 57.12%, and 59.22%, respectively. In addition, the HL-10% treatment increased NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, and KPEP by 20.03%, 64.12%, 68.35%, 31.19%, 44.84%, and 41.74% respectively, compared to the HS treatment. Meanwhile, the above indicators increased in the HL-20% treatment, by 9.23%, 49.36%, 31.11%, 16.79%, 13.26%, and 41.77% respectively. Table 2 Effects of different fertilizers on the use efficiency of N, P, and K in Rice. FCR, NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, and KPEP represent fertilizer contribution rate, nitrogen agronomic efficiency, phosphorus agronomic efficiency, potassium agronomic efficiency, nitrogen partial factor productivity, phosphorus partial factor productivity, and potassium partial factor productivity, respectively. Data are presented as three replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test ( p < 0.05). Effects of different fertilizers on the yield and yield components of rice Liquid fertilizer treatments significantly affected rice yield and yield components (Table 3). Compared with the HS treatment, panicle number and panicle length in HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased by 200.00% and 6.98%, 183.33% and 4.50%, 166.67% and 1.13%, respectively. Relative to the HS treatment, primary branch number and secondary branch number in HL and HL-10% treatments increased significantly by 21.43%, 14.28% and 10.00%, 5.00%, respectively, while there was no significant difference in primary branch number and secondary branch number between HL-20% treatment and HS treatment. Compared with the HS treatment, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased filled grain number by 59.88%, 48.02%, and 30.09%, respectively. It is worth noting that there was no significant difference in seed setting rate among these four treatments. Compared with the HS, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased the 1000-grain weight by 6.31%, 2.33%, and 0.71%, respectively. Simultaneously, the theoretical yields of the above treatments were all higher than that of the HS treatment, with increases of 50.12%, 20.82%, and 9.67%, respectively. Table 3 Effects of different fertilizers on yield and yield components of Rice. Data are presented as six replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test ( p < 0.05). Correlations between rice growth, photosynthetic characteristics, nutrient uptake, and yield To better understand the relationships between rice growth, photosynthetic characteristics, nutrient uptake, and grain yield, this study constructed a correlation matrix and compared the correlations among the various indices (Fig.9). TY was positively correlated with LA, TBA, TCC, Pn , Gs , Tr, Ci , YII, Fv/Fm, ETR, FC, SC, SSC, STC, TUN, TUP, TUK, TAN, TAP, TAK, NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, KPEP, PN, FGA, 1000-GW. Discussion The results of this study showed that, compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased rice growth parameters, including plant height, root length, stem diameter, and leaf area. Wang et al.[ 14 ] reported that biomass accumulation is positively correlated with leaf area. The leaf area and biomass accumulation in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those in the HS treatment, which is consistent with previous studies. This may be attributed to the high nutrient availability, which enables roots to absorb nutrients and water more effectively, promoting aboveground growth and development. As shown in Fig. 1 , rice encountered low temperature stress during the tillering stage. Figure 2 indicated that low temperature stress significantly inhibited the tillering process and overall growth and development of rice. Relevant studies have shown that when the ambient temperature for rice growth is lower than 20°C, its tillering will be significantly inhibited [ 14 ]. Low temperature inhibits nutrient absorption and transport by the root, thereby further inhibiting rice growth and development [ 15 ]. In this study, among different fertilization treatments, the rice under the HS treatment was more severely affected by low temperature. This suggests that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate can improve the tolerance of rice to low temperature stress, thereby promoting growth and development. Photosynthetic pigments absorb light energy to drive photosynthesis, and the contents of photosynthetic pigments can reflect plants' photosynthetic potential [ 16 ]. Photosynthesis provides energy and carbon skeletons for plant growth [ 17 ]. This study indicated that, compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased photosynthetic pigments content in rice leaves, suggesting that liquid fertilizer lays the foundation for enhancing light energy capture in rice. Pn represents the photosynthetic CO 2 fixation capacity for generating carbohydrate. Higher Pn is conducive to CO 2 fixation and organic matter synthesis, thereby improving the yield potential of rice [ 18 ]. Pn in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those in the HS treatment, indicating that liquid fertilizer can enhance the ability of rice to convert light energy into chemical energy. This may be closely related to increased photosynthetic pigments and enhanced Gs [ 19 ]. As a key factor regulating CO₂ uptake and a major factor affecting leaf photosynthesis, Gs directly modulates Pn and Tr [ 20 ]. The higher Gs in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments indicate that liquid fertilizer can promote CO₂ uptake by regulating stomata in rice leaves, thereby maintaining higher Pn and Tr . In summary, liquid fertilizer treatments effectively improved rice photosynthetic efficiency through the synergistic increase in photosynthetic pigment content and Gs . Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters are sensitive indicators of evaluating PSII function and stress response [ 21 ]. Low temperature can cause photoinhibition degradation of the PSII reaction center, thereby reducing YII [ 22 ]. Fv/Fm is an essential indicator for measuring the degree of photoinhibition and low temperature tolerance [ 23 ]. In this study, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments showed higher Fv/Fm, YII, qN, NPQ, Y(NPQ) and lower Y(NO). This indicates that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate can effectively mitigate light inhibition caused by low temperature and enhance photoprotective capacity [ 24 ]. Thus, liquid fertilizer may alleviate PSII inhibition under low temperature stress by regulating PSII energy dissipation pathways. Carbohydrates play a crucial role in plant life activities [ 25 ]. Enhanced photosynthesis directly increased photosynthate accumulation. In this study, liquid fertilizer treatments significantly elevated the fructose, sucrose, and SS content in rice leaves, consistent with previous research [ 26 ]. Under low temperature stress, starch and sucrose can help plants cope with adverse conditions by providing energy [ 27 ]. Other studies have suggested that higher Ci and Pn are conducive toSS accumulation. In the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments, the Ci , Pn , and SS content were all higher than those in the HS treatment, which is consistent with previous research [ 28 ]. Previous studies have shown that SS content positively correlates with plant stress resistance [ 29 ]. In this study, SS content in rice leaves under the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments was higher than that under the HS treatment. This may be because, under low temperature conditions, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate alleviate low temperature induced damage by promoting soluble sugar synthesis and regulating osmotic pressure inside and outside cells. In summary, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate enhanced photosynthesis and promoted the synthesis of SS and sucrose, thereby improving rice tolerance to low temperature and ultimately increasing yield. Rice growth and yield formation are closely linked to nutrient uptake. Its normal physiological activities require sufficient N, P, and K, with their uptake and accumulation being critical for biomass and yield development [ 30 ]. In this study, rice under liquid fertilizer treatments (HL, HL-10%, HL-20%) significantly outperformed the HS treatment (solid fertilizer) in and accumulation of N, P uptake and aboveground K accumulation. This may be due to the higher nutrient availability of liquid fertilizer and its potential to promote uptake and transport processes, which are key factors in increasing yield [ 14 , 31 ]. Notably, root K uptake decreased with increasing fertilizer application rate. HL and HL-10% showed lower root K uptake than HS, while HL-20% exceeded HS. This may result from NH₄⁺ accumulation in rice root caused by increased fertilizer application rate in acidic soils, where NH₄⁺ competes with K⁺ for root uptake sites, suppressing K uptake. Concurrently, prioritized K translocation to the aboveground to meet demand further reduces root K accumulation [ 32 , 33 ]. Partial factor productivity reflects the combined effects of native soil fertility and applied fertilizer. Agronomic use efficiency serves as an accurate indicator for evaluating the yield-increasing efficiency of fertilizer, directly reflecting the impact of fertilizer on crop yield [ 34 , 35 ]. In this study, FCR, AE, and PFP in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those of the HS treatment, indicating that liquid fertilizer can more effectively promote nutrient uptake during the tillering stage and improve nutrient use efficiency in rice [ 36 ]. These results demonstrate that liquid fertilizer enhances rice nutrient uptake and use efficiency, promotes rice growth and development during the tillering stage, and can increase yield while reducing fertilizer input. Tiller number is a key agronomic trait that directly determines panicle number in rice, and panicle number is a core factor affecting yield. In this study, panicle number in the HS treatment was lower than that in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments, indicating that more severe tillering inhibition under low-temperature stress occurred in the HS treatment, leading to reduced panicle number and a decrease in yield [ 37 ]. Rice yield is closely correlated with panicle number, and there is a significant positive correlation between increased tiller number and higher N accumulation, suggesting that sufficient N accumulation promotes tiller formation and thereby increases panicle number [ 38 , 39 ]. In this study, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments exhibited higher N uptake, N accumulation, and panicle number, which may be attributed to the promotion of effective tiller formation through enhanced N uptake and accumulation promoted by liquid fertilizer. In this study, compared with the HS treatment, yield in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were significantly increased, which may be related to an increase in rice panicle number and primary branch number induced by the liquid fertilizer [ 40 ]. Previous studies have shown that rice yield is closely related to seed setting rate and 1000-grain weight [ 41 ]. This study demonstrated that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate increased N, P, and K accumulation, seed setting rate, and 1000-grain weight in rice. This is attributed to the continuous and efficient nutrient supply of liquid fertilizer throughout growth period, improving rice yield [ 31 ]. Dun et al. [ 42 ] reported that a positive correlation exists between rice yield and SS content.. Meanwhile, Pn affects yield components such as rice yield, panicle number, and 1000-grain weight [ 43 ]. In this study, liquid fertilizer treatments increased Pn , sucrose, fructose, and SS contents in rice leaves, as well as yield, which is consistent with previous research results. In addition, correlation analysis indicated that rice yield and yield components were positively correlated with photosynthetic indices, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, carbohydrate content, and N, P, K use efficiency (Fig. 9 ). Crucially, even reduced-rate liquid fertilizers (HL-10%, HL-20%) outperformed HS in yield and yield components. This indicates that, compared with solid fertilizer, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate can promote rice nutrient uptake, improve nutrient use efficiency, and increase yield components such as panicle number, primary branch number, and 1000-grain weight, thereby achieving the goal of “reduced application rate with increased yield”. Conclusions The results showed that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate increased rice plant height, root length, and biomass accumulation, compared with the HS treatment. Meanwhile, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate increased chlorophyll content and improved gas exchange parameters ( Pn , Gs , Ci , and Tr ) as well as chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (YII, ETR, Fv/Fm, etc.), thereby further enhancing photosynthesis. Liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate could promote N, P ,K uptake, increase N, P ,K accumulation, and improve the agronomic efficiency and partial factor productivity of N, P, and K in rice. In addition, compared with the HS treatment, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate promoted the carbohydrate (sucrose, fructose, and SS) accumulation, which provided energy and carbon skeletons for rice growth and development, promoted grain filling, and increased yield (Fig. 10 ). Critically, even reduced application rate treatments (HL-10% and HL-20%) still outperformed the HS treatment in yield and yield components. This confirms the feasibility of the goal of "reduced application rate with increased yield", providing an optimized fertilization strategy for rice production and holding great significance for ensuring food security and sustainable agricultural development. Materials and methods Test Site The pot experiment was conducted at the Coastal Agricultural Sciences College of Guangdong Ocean University (Zhanjiang, China) from November 2024 to April 2025. Soil physical and chemical properties: 16.60 g·kg − 1 organic carbon, 110.16 mg·kg − 1 available N, 2.20 mg·kg − 1 available P, 86.30 mg·kg − 1 available K, 1.03 g·kg − 1 total N, 0.86 g·kg − 1 total P, 4.95 g·kg − 1 total K, and pH of 5.53. Test Material The experimental rice variety ‘Huanghuazhan’ (provided by the Coastal Agricultural Sciences College of Guangdong Ocean University) has a growth period of 136 d. The experimental fertilizers used were solid compound fertilizer ① (N-P₂O₅-K₂O = 210-95-100), solid compound fertilizer ② (N-P₂O₅-K₂O = 0-60-360), liquid compound fertilizer ① Shiji Yuntian Field No. 1 (N-P₂O₅-K₂O = 210-95-100), and liquid compound fertilizer ② Shiji Yuntian Chelated Polyphosphate Potassium (N-P₂O₅-K₂O = 0-60-360). All solid fertilizers were purchased from Anyang Zhongying Fertilizer Co., Ltd., and all liquid fertilizers were purchased from Shiji Yuntian Co., Ltd. Experimental treatment and design The experiment was conducted with four treatments: HS (standard application rate of solid fertilizer), HL (standard application rate of liquid fertilizer), HL-10% (10% reduction in the standard application rate of liquid fertilizer), and HL-20% (20% reduction in the standard application rate of liquid fertilizer). The specific application rate for each treatment are detailed in Table 1 . On November 1, 2024, select healthy, full, and complete rice seeds to soak in distilled water and germinate for 24 h each. The seeds were sown in seedling trays on November 3, 2024. On December 8, 2024, seedlings with uniform growth were selected and transplanted into plastic buckets (diameter 30 cm, height 22 cm) filled with 8 kg of brick-red soil, with 3 holes per bucket and 2 plants per hole. Base fertilizer was applied on December 7, 2024, tillering fertilizer was applied on December 15, 2024, and panicle fertilizer was applied on March 15, 2025. Samples were collected at the rice tillering stage (37 DAT, 37 days after transplanting) for physiological parameter determination, and were stored frozen at -40°C for subsequent analysis. Table 1 Experimental treatments Treatment Base fertilizer (g/bucket) Tillering fertilizer (g/bucket) Panicle fertilizer (g/bucket) HS Solid Fertilizer①5.298 Solid Fertilizer①2.649 Solid Fertilizer②0.529 HL Liquid fertilizer①5.298 Liquid fertilizer①2.649 Liquid fertilizer②0.529 HL-10% Liquid fertilizer①4.768 Liquid fertilizer①2.384 Liquid fertilizer②0.476 HL-20% Liquid fertilizer①4.238 Liquid fertilizer①2.119 Liquid fertilizer②0.423 Measurement items and methods Measurement of growth indicators Twelve representative plants were randomly selected, and their height, stem base width, and leaf area were measured using a ruler, vernier caliper, and leaf area (YX-1241) meter, respectively. The aboveground and root of the rice plants were separated, and after blotting excess moisture with filter paper, the fresh weight was measured using an electronic balance. Subsequently, the rice plants were dried at 105°C for 30 min and then dried at 75°C until constant weight was achieved, and the dry weight was measured using an electronic balance. Determination of chlorophyll content Fresh leaves (0.1 g) from each treatment were soaked in 10 ml of 95% ethanol in the dark for 24 h. The OD values at wavelengths of 663, 645, and 470 nm were measured using spectrophotometry, and the contents of chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), carotenoid (Car), and total chlorophyll (Total Chl) were calculated using the following formulas [ 44 ]. Chl a (mg·g − 1 FW) = 12.72A663 − 2.59A645, Chl b (mg·g − 1 FW) = 22.88A645 − 4.67A663, Car (mg·g − 1 FW) = (1000 A470 − 3.27Chl a − 104 Chl b)/245, Total Chl (mg·g − 1 FW) = Chl a + Chl b. Determination of photosynthetic parameters The Li-6800 portable photosynthesis measurement system was used to measure gas exchange parameters between 9:00 AM and 11:30 AM on a clear, cloudless morning. These parameters included net photosynthetic rate ( Pn ), stomatal conductance ( Gs ), intercellular CO₂ concentration ( Ci ), and transpiration rate ( Tr ). The following formulas were used to calculate apparent mesophyll conductance (AMC), stomatal limitation value (Ls), instantaneous water use efficiency (WUE), and the ratio of intercellular to environmental CO₂ concentrations [ 19 , 45 ]. AMC = Pn / Ci Ls = (Ca – Ci )/Ca WUE = Pn / Tr The ratio of intercellular to environmental CO₂ concentrations = Ci /Ca Ca: Atmospheric CO 2 Concentrations, Ci : Intercellular CO 2 Concentration. Determination of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters The following parameters were measured using a PAM-2500 chlorophyll fluorescence meter: Fm (maximum chlorophyll fluorescence), ETR (apparent photosynthetic electron transport rate), Fv/Fm (maximum quantum efficiency), YII (actual photochemical quantum yield), photochemical quenching coefficients (qP) and (qL), non-photochemical quenching coefficients (qN) and (NPQ), and Quantum yield of non-photochemical quenching Y(NO) and Y(NPQ). Determination of carbohydrate content The sucrose, fructose, soluble sugar(SS), and starch content were determined according to the method proposed by Du[ 46 ] et al. Determination of N, P, and K uptake, accumulation, and use efficiency Rice plants were digested using the concentrated H₂SO₄-H₂O₂ method to extract N, P, and K. Nitrogen content was determined using a Kjeldahl nitrogen analyzer, P content was measured using the molybdenum-antimony colorimetric method, and K content was quantified using a flame photometer. Calculate nutrient accumulation, fertilizer contribution rate, agronomic utilization rate of N (P, K), and N (P, K) partial factor productivity using the following formulas [ 30 ]. N (P, K) accumulation amount in the aboveground (root) part (g/plant) = N (P,K) uptake ×aboveground (root) dry weight Fertilizer contribution rate (FCR, %) = (grain yield in fertilizer supply- grain yield in zero fertilizer supply)/ grain yield in fertilizer supply N (P, K) agronomic efficiency (NAE, PAE and KAE, kg·kg − 1 ) = (grain yield in fertilizer supply- grain yield in zero fertilizer supply)/ N (P 2 O 5 , K 2 O) supply rate N (P, K) Partial Factor Productivity(NPEP, PPEP and KPEP, kg·kg − 1 )= grain yield in fertilizer supply/ N (P 2 O 5 , K 2 O) supply rate Determination of yield and yield components At the maturity stage, 24 representative plants without insect pests and disease were randomly selected for each treatment. The following parameters were measured for each plant: panicle number per plant, panicle length, primary branch number, secondary branch number, filled grain number per plant, shrunk grain number per plant, and 1000-grain weight. The seed setting rate and theoretical yield were calculated using the following formulas [ 27 ]: Seed setting rate (%) = filled grain number per plant/ total grain number per plant Theoretical yield (g·m − 2 ) = panicle per plant × grain per panicle × 1000-grain weight /1000 Statistical analysis Data were processed using Microsoft Excel 2016. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using SPSS 27.0 software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Multiple comparisons were conducted using Duncan’s test. The least significant difference (LSD) test at the P < 0.05 level (LSD 0.05) was used to compare means. Graphs were generated using Origin 2021 software. All data in this experiment are presented as the multiple replicates’ mean ± standard error (SE). Declarations Acknowledgements Not applicable. Author contributions Y.L. was responsible for the methodology, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, and writing the original draft. N.F. contributed to the methodology and conceptualization, acquisition of funding and administration of the project. D.Z. aided in the conceptualization and acquisition of funding. X.D. contributed to the investigation. H.Z. aided in the investigation. N.Y. and X.Y. contributed to the investigation and formal analysis. Y.F. helped with the formal analysis. All authors contributed to the manuscript preparation, writing and revision and approved the submitted version. Funding Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of Guangdong Province (2024KJ31); Special Project for Key Areas in General Colleges and Universities of Guangdong Provincial Department of Education (2021ZDZX4027); Coastal Agricultural Engineering Technology Research Center of Guangdong Ocean University (230420020). Data Availability : The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7319891","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":503380799,"identity":"8c8ad094-5788-4eb8-a048-b7a270622a16","order_by":0,"name":"Yin Lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Coastal Agricultural Sciences College, Guangdong Ocean University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yin","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""},{"id":503380800,"identity":"11f3df91-b9fd-4f16-a7f9-15c36d48d137","order_by":1,"name":"Nai-Jie Feng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Coastal Agricultural Sciences College, 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17:03:12","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26490,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDaily temperature during the experiment period\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/92216bbb19eed99fc0e940e4.png"},{"id":89692814,"identity":"4f428d4a-a756-4fee-b7ec-4e00ceb1b53b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:11:12","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65619,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrowth morphology diagram of rice during the tillering stage.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/07d07b31476673f7177be5fd.png"},{"id":89692815,"identity":"e66c06f5-5cd6-4d64-8c65-de81e1cf5d3a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:11:12","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29994,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on rice growth parameters during the tillering stage. (A) Plant height; (B) Root length; (C) Stem diameter; (D) Leaf area; (E) Aboveground fresh weight; (F) Root fresh weight; (G) Aboveground dry weight; (H) Root dry weight. Data are presented as three replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/11e3d3ffdc780b5d4aea856f.png"},{"id":89692105,"identity":"c6a29086-9857-427b-bf13-144b7341e4b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:03:12","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15624,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on chlorophyll content in rice during the tillering stage. (A) Chlorophyll a content; (B) Chlorophyll b content; (C) Carotenoid content; (D) Total chlorophyll content. Data are presented as three replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/2cd824455838897f302e2a07.png"},{"id":89692816,"identity":"4f1566e9-d2b9-4991-857a-d8d136779b8a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:11:12","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24500,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on photosynthetic parameters of rice during the tillering stage. (A) \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e; (B) \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e; (C) \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e; (D) \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e; (E) AMC; (F) Ls; (G) WUE; (H) \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e/Ca. Data are presented as three replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters within a column indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/1826553281365f8968de0ce9.png"},{"id":89692109,"identity":"1cf3418a-d90f-4ef0-b8ed-99ecae2877db","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:03:12","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16555,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of rice during the tillering stage. (A) YII; (B) ETR; (C) Fv/Fm; (D) qN; (E) qP; (F) qL; (G) NPQ; (H) YNO; (I) YNPQ; (J) Fm. Data are presented as three replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/5d03d807cd3dcc018ff93060.png"},{"id":89692111,"identity":"fd05b87a-3d6d-46be-adf3-d8b02678e64f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:03:12","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14802,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on carbohydrate content in rice during the tillering stage. (A) Fructose content; (B) Sucrose content; (C) Soluble sugar content; (D) Starch content. Data are presented as three replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/d678387b387bef74f9e36bb5.png"},{"id":89693068,"identity":"da941330-42a6-4118-ab30-1ca37a057aa8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:19:12","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29528,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on uptake and accumulation of N, P, and K in rice during the tillering stage. (A) N uptake; (B) N accumulation; (C) P uptake; (D) P accumulation; (E) K uptake; (F) K accumulation. Data are presented as three replicates' mean ± standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters within a column indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/d7d9c0d4844dffcf6feb1a3c.png"},{"id":89692118,"identity":"e6331f0b-9007-4846-bf39-c46e52c65042","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:03:12","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35383,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePearson correlations among indicators. Red indicates a positive correlation between two parameters, while blue indicates a negative correlation between two parameters. LA, TBA, TCC, \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e, YII, Fv/Fm, ETR, FC, SC, SSC, STC, TUN, TUP, TUK, TAN, TAP, TAK, NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, KPEP, PN, FGA, 1000-GW, and TY represent leaf area, total biomass accumulation, total chlorophyll content, \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e, YII、Fv/Fm, ETR, fructose content, sucrose content, soluble sugar content, starch content, total N uptake, total P uptake, total K uptake, total N accumulation, total P accumulation, total K accumulation, nitrogen agronomic efficiency, phosphorus agronomic efficiency, potassium agronomic efficiency, nitrogen partial factor productivity, phosphorus partial factor productivity, potassium partial factor productivity, panicle number per plant, filled grain number, 1000-grain weight, and theoretical yield, respectively. Symbols are defined as follows: * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05; ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01; ns: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/bb0b18420d1784d98c9387a3.png"},{"id":89693067,"identity":"bb229041-651d-4f6d-9dfb-f0f360471e9c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 17:19:12","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":132990,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMechanistic analysis diagram of the effects of liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate on rice yield. AE and PEP represent agronomic use efficiency and partial factor productivity, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/37f5eada1140ddd426786c54.png"},{"id":99172802,"identity":"5929f7fa-8e50-4b0f-8231-06b87a78cb76","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-29 16:11:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3802555,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7319891/v1/cf7c96fb-5f27-463a-8b8a-8bdbe677a9f3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effects of liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate on rice growth, nutrient uptake, and rice yield during the tillering stage","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eRice serves as a staple food for over 60% of the global population and is primarily cultivated in China, India, and other Asian countries. China ranks first globally in total rice production and is the world's second-largest producer and consumer[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The tillering stage of rice is a fundamental phase for panicle number formation and grain development, characterized by high nutrient demand and stress sensitivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Tiller number is a key agronomic trait that determines rice panicle number and grain yield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Ensuring rice food security is increasingly vital due to shrinking cultivated land area caused by rapid industrialization and rising global food demand driven by population growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. To date, chemical fertilizers remain a primary method for boosting rice yields. However, widespread over-application of fertilizers in rice production not only reduces fertilizer use efficiency and causes environmental problems (such as greenhouse gas emissions and groundwater contamination) but also threatens production sustainability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, selecting high-efficiency fertilizer has become a critical pathway for achieving sustainable development in global rice production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer have gained widespread attention due to their high solubility and convenient application. The water-soluble nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) supplied by liquid fertilizer are more readily absorbed by rice plants, promoting growth and development and increasing photosynthate accumulation to enhance yield. Compared with solid fertilizer, liquid fertilizer reduces nutrient loss while improving N, P, and K use efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Singh et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] found that liquid fertilizer promotes wheat N uptake, improved nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), agronomic efficiency (NAE), and yield. Lu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] reported that liquid fertilizer treatments increased N, P uptake and yield in Chinese cabbage compared with solid fertilizer. Shao et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] found that liquid fertilizer significantly enhances pear photosynthetic capacity (\u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e) and chlorophyll content. Sang et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] reported that reducing solid apllying by 20% and combining it with organic liquid fertilizer increased N and P uptake in tomatoes. Shi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] found that replacing 40% of chemical fertilizer with liquid fertilizer could improve N and P use efficiency in cotton. Previous researches support the application of liquid fertilizer in crop production. In recent years, Shiji Yuntian Company has developed and produced two liquid fertilizer products, \u0026ldquo;Datan No. 1\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;chelated polyphosphate potassium\u0026rdquo;, which have shown promising initial application results and high fertilizer use efficiency. Building on the research foundation of liquid fertilizers in crop production, this study introduces two new liquid fertilizers (\u0026ldquo;Datan No. 1\u0026rdquo; and chelated polyphosphate potassium) and conducts experiments combining reduced application rate to verify their feasibility in achieving high rice yield.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the context of rice production, most studies focused on the application of single-element fertilizer (N, P, and K) or compound solid fertilizer. However, the regulatory mechanism of liquid fertilizer on rice morphological construction, photosynthetic characteristics, and nutrient uptake during the tillering stage is still unclear, and its impact on the final yield formation also needs to be further explored. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the impact of gradient reduction treatments of liquid fertilizer on the rice morphological construction, photosynthetic parameters, nutrient uptake during the tillering stage, and yield components of rice, which provides an essential theoretical basis and practical references for the application of liquid fertilizer in green and sustainable rice production.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on rice growth parameters during the tillering stage\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.2, liquid fertilizer significantly promoted rice growth, which was specifically reflected in the increases in morphological indicators such as plant height, root length, and stem diameter (Fig.3A-D). Compared with the HS treatment, the plant height and root length in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 35.44% and 17.58%, 20.87% and 5.49%, 16.21% and 8.90%, respectively (Fig.3A, B). In comparison to the HS treatment, stem diameter and leaf area in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 35.55% and 127.03%, 12.32% and 98.00%, 1.90% and 44.13%, respectively (Fig.3C, D). Under different fertilization treatments, there were significant differences in the fresh and dry weights of aboveground and root among the experimental treatments (Fig.3E-H). Compared with the HS treatment, the fresh weight of aboveground and root in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 35.44% and 174.45%, 20.87% and 83.22%, 16.21% and 57.67%, respectively (Fig.3E, F). In contrast to the HS treatment, the dry weight of aboveground and root in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased significantly by 174.45% and 71.17%, 83.22% and 50.11%, 57.67% and 36.16%, respectively (Fig.3G, H). The biomass accumulation in liquid fertilizer treatments was all higher than that in the HS treatment, and the order of biomass accumulation in liquid fertilizer treatments from high to low was HL \u0026gt; HL-10% \u0026gt; HL-20%. This indicates that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate have an obvious promoting effect on rice growth and development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on the photosynthetic pigments content in rice during the tillering stage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompared with the HS treatment, liquid fertilizer promoted the chlorophyll content in rice leaves (Fig.4). In comparison to the HS treatment, the HL treatment significantly increased the contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll by 16.60%, 12.32%, and 15.72%, respectively. Similarly, the HL-10% treatment also significantly increased the contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll by 10.39%, 7.81%, and 9.86%, respectively. Meanwhile, the above indices increased by 2.49%, 0.57%, and 5.62% in the HL-20% treatment, respectively. The carotenoid content in rice leaves under liquid fertilizer treatments was higher than in the HS treatment, but there was no significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on the photosynthetic parameters of rice during the tillering stage\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompared with HS treatment, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatment significantly increased the photosynthetic parameters of rice (Fig.5). Compared with HS treatment, HL treatment significantly increased \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e (38.12%), \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e (15.11%), \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e (44.31%), \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e (63.92%), AMC (48.03%), Ls (28.37%), WUE (20.92%), and \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e/Ca (24.61%). Additionally, HL-10% treatment significantly increased \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e, AMC, Ls, and \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e/Ca (16.07%, 8.64%, 31.59%, 38.74%, 36.20%, 16.20%, and 18.73%), and reduced WUE (2.26%). Compared with HS treatment, the HL-20% treatment increased \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e, AMC, and \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e/Ca (9.79%, 6.69%, 17.47%, 21.18%, 12.49%, and 11.33%), and decreased Ls and WUE (1.61% and 5.37%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of rice during the tillering stage\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.6, liquid fertilizer increased the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of rice. Compared with HS treatment, HL treatment significantly increased YII (51.21%), ETR (34.85%), Fv/Fm (1.33%), qP (52.04%), qL (60.33%), NPQ (10.60%), YNPQ (3.40%), and Fm (8.3%). The HL-10% and HL-20% treatments increased YII (41.50%, 32.39%), ETR (41.52%, 32.12%), Fv/Fm (0.34%, 0.21%), qP (36.11%, 22.99%), qL (59.16%, 24.15%), NPQ (6.20%, 6.20%), YNPQ (3.40%, 0.80%), and Fm (8.30%, 1.60%). Compared to the HS treatment, qN in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased by 2.51%, 1.11%, and 0.68%, respectively (Fig.6D), while YNO in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments decreased by 10.09%, 8.49%, and 1.95%, respectively (Fig.6H).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;of liquid fertilizer on the carbohydrate content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;in rice during the tillering stage\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig.7 shows the contents of fructose, sucrose, SS, and starch in rice leaves under different fertilization treatments. The fructose content in HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than that in the HS treatment, with increases of 19.71%, 11.65%, and 2.97% respectively (Fig.7A). Compared with HS treatment, the sucrose content of HL, HL-10% and HL-20% treatments increased significantly, with increases of 29.38%, 5.45%, and 20.23%, respectively (Fig.7B). Meanwhile, the soluble sugar content of HL and HL-10% increased significantly by 3.96% and 13.43%, respectively; the increase was 1.40% under HL-20%, but there was no significant difference (Fig.7C). In addition, there were no significant differences in the starch content between the treatments (Fig.7D).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of different fertilizers on uptake and accumulation of N, P and K in rice during the tillering stage\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere were significant differences in nutrient uptake and accumulation in the aboveground and root of rice under different fertilization treatments (Fig.8).Compared with the HS treatment, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased N uptake in the aboveground and root, these increases were 26.36% and 43.52%, 22.42% and 32.64%, 20.92% and 26.62% respectively (Fig.8A). Meanwhile, these treatments significantly enhanced N accumulation in the aboveground parts and roots by 196.51% and 127.39%, 160.62% and 92.42%, 75.49% and 66.01%, respectively (Fig.8B).In contrast to the HS treatment, the three liquid fertilizer treatments significantly increased P uptake in the aboveground and root by 26.06% and 18.53%, 18.57% and 6.03%, 2.28% and 3.45% respectively (Fig.8C). Similarly, they significantly boosted P accumulation in the aboveground and root by 195.81% and 87.81%, 152.42% and 53.83%, and 48.43% and 35.63%, respectively (Fig.8D). For K uptake, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased K uptake in the aboveground compared to HS by 25.14%, 30.34%, and 15.13% respectively. However, K uptake in the root significantly decreased by 26.66% and 6.71% under HL and HL-10%, respectively. In contrast, it increased by 22.04% under HL-20% (Fig.8E). Meanwhile, these treatments significantly increased K accumulation in the aboveground and root, these increases were 193.65% and 16.19%, 177.48% and 35.34%, 67.08% and 60.00%, respectively (Fig.8F). These results indicate that compared with solid fertilizer, liquid fertilizer can promote the uptake and accumulation of N, P, and K in rice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;of different fertilizers on the use efficiency of N, P, and K in rice\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompared to the HS treatment, the fertilizer contribution rate (FCR) of HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased by 16.46%, 9.87%, and 2.21%, respectively. NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, and KPEP were all higher under the HL treatment than in the HS treatment, with increases of 44.44%, 97.51%, 73.38%, 34.49%, 57.12%, and 59.22%, respectively. In addition, the HL-10% treatment increased NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, and KPEP by 20.03%, 64.12%, 68.35%, 31.19%, 44.84%, and 41.74% respectively, compared to the HS treatment. Meanwhile, the above indicators increased in the HL-20% treatment, by 9.23%, 49.36%, 31.11%, 16.79%, 13.26%, and 41.77% respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 Effects of different fertilizers on the use efficiency of N, P, and K in Rice.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFCR, NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, and KPEP represent fertilizer contribution rate, nitrogen agronomic efficiency, phosphorus agronomic efficiency, potassium agronomic efficiency, nitrogen partial factor productivity, phosphorus partial factor productivity, and potassium partial factor productivity, respectively. Data are presented as three replicates\u0026apos; mean \u0026plusmn; standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan\u0026apos;s test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;of different fertilizers on the yield and yield components of rice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer treatments significantly affected rice yield and yield components (Table 3). Compared with the HS treatment, panicle number and panicle length in HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased by 200.00% and 6.98%, 183.33% and 4.50%, 166.67% and 1.13%, respectively. Relative to the HS treatment, primary branch number and secondary branch number in HL and HL-10% treatments increased significantly by 21.43%, 14.28% and 10.00%, 5.00%, respectively, while there was no significant difference in primary branch number and secondary branch number between HL-20% treatment and HS treatment. Compared with the HS treatment, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased filled grain number by 59.88%, 48.02%, and 30.09%, respectively. It is worth noting that there was no significant difference in seed setting rate among these four treatments. Compared with the HS, HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased the 1000-grain weight by 6.31%, 2.33%, and 0.71%, respectively. Simultaneously, the theoretical yields of the above treatments were all higher than that of the HS treatment, with increases of 50.12%, 20.82%, and 9.67%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 Effects of different fertilizers on yield and yield components of Rice. Data are presented as six replicates\u0026apos; mean \u0026plusmn; standard error (SE). Different lowercase letters in the data columns indicate significant differences according to Duncan\u0026apos;s test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelations between rice growth, photosynthetic characteristics, nutrient uptake, and yield\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo better understand the relationships between rice growth, photosynthetic characteristics, nutrient uptake, and grain yield, this study constructed a correlation matrix and compared the correlations among the various indices (Fig.9). TY was positively correlated with LA, TBA, TCC, \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e, Tr, \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e, YII, Fv/Fm, ETR, FC, SC, SSC, STC, TUN, TUP, TUK, TAN, TAP, TAK, NAE, PAE, KAE, NPEP, PPEP, KPEP, PN, FGA, 1000-GW.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study showed that, compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased rice growth parameters, including plant height, root length, stem diameter, and leaf area. Wang et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] reported that biomass accumulation is positively correlated with leaf area. The leaf area and biomass accumulation in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those in the HS treatment, which is consistent with previous studies. This may be attributed to the high nutrient availability, which enables roots to absorb nutrients and water more effectively, promoting aboveground growth and development. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, rice encountered low temperature stress during the tillering stage. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e indicated that low temperature stress significantly inhibited the tillering process and overall growth and development of rice. Relevant studies have shown that when the ambient temperature for rice growth is lower than 20\u0026deg;C, its tillering will be significantly inhibited [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Low temperature inhibits nutrient absorption and transport by the root, thereby further inhibiting rice growth and development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, among different fertilization treatments, the rice under the HS treatment was more severely affected by low temperature. This suggests that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate can improve the tolerance of rice to low temperature stress, thereby promoting growth and development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhotosynthetic pigments absorb light energy to drive photosynthesis, and the contents of photosynthetic pigments can reflect plants' photosynthetic potential [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Photosynthesis provides energy and carbon skeletons for plant growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. This study indicated that, compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased photosynthetic pigments content in rice leaves, suggesting that liquid fertilizer lays the foundation for enhancing light energy capture in rice. \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e represents the photosynthetic CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e fixation capacity for generating carbohydrate. Higher \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e is conducive to CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e fixation and organic matter synthesis, thereby improving the yield potential of rice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those in the HS treatment, indicating that liquid fertilizer can enhance the ability of rice to convert light energy into chemical energy. This may be closely related to increased photosynthetic pigments and enhanced \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. As a key factor regulating CO₂ uptake and a major factor affecting leaf photosynthesis, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e directly modulates \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The higher \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments indicate that liquid fertilizer can promote CO₂ uptake by regulating stomata in rice leaves, thereby maintaining higher \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e. In summary, liquid fertilizer treatments effectively improved rice photosynthetic efficiency through the synergistic increase in photosynthetic pigment content and \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e. Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters are sensitive indicators of evaluating PSII function and stress response [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Low temperature can cause photoinhibition degradation of the PSII reaction center, thereby reducing YII [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Fv/Fm is an essential indicator for measuring the degree of photoinhibition and low temperature tolerance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments showed higher Fv/Fm, YII, qN, NPQ, Y(NPQ) and lower Y(NO). This indicates that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate can effectively mitigate light inhibition caused by low temperature and enhance photoprotective capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, liquid fertilizer may alleviate PSII inhibition under low temperature stress by regulating PSII energy dissipation pathways. Carbohydrates play a crucial role in plant life activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Enhanced photosynthesis directly increased photosynthate accumulation. In this study, liquid fertilizer treatments significantly elevated the fructose, sucrose, and SS content in rice leaves, consistent with previous research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Under low temperature stress, starch and sucrose can help plants cope with adverse conditions by providing energy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Other studies have suggested that higher \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e are conducive toSS accumulation. In the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments, the \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, and SS content were all higher than those in the HS treatment, which is consistent with previous research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous studies have shown that SS content positively correlates with plant stress resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, SS content in rice leaves under the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments was higher than that under the HS treatment. This may be because, under low temperature conditions, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate alleviate low temperature induced damage by promoting soluble sugar synthesis and regulating osmotic pressure inside and outside cells. In summary, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate enhanced photosynthesis and promoted the synthesis of SS and sucrose, thereby improving rice tolerance to low temperature and ultimately increasing yield.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice growth and yield formation are closely linked to nutrient uptake. Its normal physiological activities require sufficient N, P, and K, with their uptake and accumulation being critical for biomass and yield development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, rice under liquid fertilizer treatments (HL, HL-10%, HL-20%) significantly outperformed the HS treatment (solid fertilizer) in and accumulation of N, P uptake and aboveground K accumulation. This may be due to the higher nutrient availability of liquid fertilizer and its potential to promote uptake and transport processes, which are key factors in increasing yield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, root K uptake decreased with increasing fertilizer application rate. HL and HL-10% showed lower root K uptake than HS, while HL-20% exceeded HS. This may result from NH₄⁺ accumulation in rice root caused by increased fertilizer application rate in acidic soils, where NH₄⁺ competes with K⁺ for root uptake sites, suppressing K uptake. Concurrently, prioritized K translocation to the aboveground to meet demand further reduces root K accumulation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Partial factor productivity reflects the combined effects of native soil fertility and applied fertilizer. Agronomic use efficiency serves as an accurate indicator for evaluating the yield-increasing efficiency of fertilizer, directly reflecting the impact of fertilizer on crop yield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, FCR, AE, and PFP in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those of the HS treatment, indicating that liquid fertilizer can more effectively promote nutrient uptake during the tillering stage and improve nutrient use efficiency in rice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. These results demonstrate that liquid fertilizer enhances rice nutrient uptake and use efficiency, promotes rice growth and development during the tillering stage, and can increase yield while reducing fertilizer input.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTiller number is a key agronomic trait that directly determines panicle number in rice, and panicle number is a core factor affecting yield. In this study, panicle number in the HS treatment was lower than that in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments, indicating that more severe tillering inhibition under low-temperature stress occurred in the HS treatment, leading to reduced panicle number and a decrease in yield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Rice yield is closely correlated with panicle number, and there is a significant positive correlation between increased tiller number and higher N accumulation, suggesting that sufficient N accumulation promotes tiller formation and thereby increases panicle number [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments exhibited higher N uptake, N accumulation, and panicle number, which may be attributed to the promotion of effective tiller formation through enhanced N uptake and accumulation promoted by liquid fertilizer. In this study, compared with the HS treatment, yield in the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were significantly increased, which may be related to an increase in rice panicle number and primary branch number induced by the liquid fertilizer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous studies have shown that rice yield is closely related to seed setting rate and 1000-grain weight [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. This study demonstrated that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate increased N, P, and K accumulation, seed setting rate, and 1000-grain weight in rice. This is attributed to the continuous and efficient nutrient supply of liquid fertilizer throughout growth period, improving rice yield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Dun et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] reported that a positive correlation exists between rice yield and SS content.. Meanwhile, \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e affects yield components such as rice yield, panicle number, and 1000-grain weight [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, liquid fertilizer treatments increased \u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, sucrose, fructose, and SS contents in rice leaves, as well as yield, which is consistent with previous research results. In addition, correlation analysis indicated that rice yield and yield components were positively correlated with photosynthetic indices, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, carbohydrate content, and N, P, K use efficiency (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Crucially, even reduced-rate liquid fertilizers (HL-10%, HL-20%) outperformed HS in yield and yield components. This indicates that, compared with solid fertilizer, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate can promote rice nutrient uptake, improve nutrient use efficiency, and increase yield components such as panicle number, primary branch number, and 1000-grain weight, thereby achieving the goal of \u0026ldquo;reduced application rate with increased yield\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results showed that liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate increased rice plant height, root length, and biomass accumulation, compared with the HS treatment. Meanwhile, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate increased chlorophyll content and improved gas exchange parameters (\u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e) as well as chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (YII, ETR, Fv/Fm, etc.), thereby further enhancing photosynthesis. Liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate could promote N, P ,K uptake, increase N, P ,K accumulation, and improve the agronomic efficiency and partial factor productivity of N, P, and K in rice. In addition, compared with the HS treatment, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate promoted the carbohydrate (sucrose, fructose, and SS) accumulation, which provided energy and carbon skeletons for rice growth and development, promoted grain filling, and increased yield (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Critically, even reduced application rate treatments (HL-10% and HL-20%) still outperformed the HS treatment in yield and yield components. This confirms the feasibility of the goal of \"reduced application rate with increased yield\", providing an optimized fertilization strategy for rice production and holding great significance for ensuring food security and sustainable agricultural development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTest Site\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe pot experiment was conducted at the Coastal Agricultural Sciences College of Guangdong Ocean University (Zhanjiang, China) from November 2024 to April 2025. Soil physical and chemical properties: 16.60 g\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e organic carbon, 110.16 mg\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e available N, 2.20 mg\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e available P, 86.30 mg\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e available K, 1.03 g\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e total N, 0.86 g\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e total P, 4.95 g\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e total K, and pH of 5.53.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTest Material\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experimental rice variety \u0026lsquo;Huanghuazhan\u0026rsquo; (provided by the Coastal Agricultural Sciences College of Guangdong Ocean University) has a growth period of 136 d. The experimental fertilizers used were solid compound fertilizer ① (N-P₂O₅-K₂O\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;210-95-100), solid compound fertilizer ② (N-P₂O₅-K₂O\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0-60-360), liquid compound fertilizer ① Shiji Yuntian Field No. 1 (N-P₂O₅-K₂O\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;210-95-100), and liquid compound fertilizer ② Shiji Yuntian Chelated Polyphosphate Potassium (N-P₂O₅-K₂O\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0-60-360). All solid fertilizers were purchased from Anyang Zhongying Fertilizer Co., Ltd., and all liquid fertilizers were purchased from Shiji Yuntian Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eExperimental treatment and design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted with four treatments: HS (standard application rate of solid fertilizer), HL (standard application rate of liquid fertilizer), HL-10% (10% reduction in the standard application rate of liquid fertilizer), and HL-20% (20% reduction in the standard application rate of liquid fertilizer). The specific application rate for each treatment are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. On November 1, 2024, select healthy, full, and complete rice seeds to soak in distilled water and germinate for 24 h each. The seeds were sown in seedling trays on November 3, 2024. On December 8, 2024, seedlings with uniform growth were selected and transplanted into plastic buckets (diameter 30 cm, height 22 cm) filled with 8 kg of brick-red soil, with 3 holes per bucket and 2 plants per hole. Base fertilizer was applied on December 7, 2024, tillering fertilizer was applied on December 15, 2024, and panicle fertilizer was applied on March 15, 2025. Samples were collected at the rice tillering stage (37 DAT, 37 days after transplanting) for physiological parameter determination, and were stored frozen at -40\u0026deg;C for subsequent analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental treatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBase fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(g/bucket)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTillering fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(g/bucket)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePanicle fertilizer (g/bucket)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolid Fertilizer①5.298\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolid Fertilizer①2.649\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolid Fertilizer②0.529\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHL\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer①5.298\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer①2.649\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer②0.529\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHL-10%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer①4.768\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer①2.384\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer②0.476\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHL-20%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer①4.238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer①2.119\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiquid fertilizer②0.423\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasurement items and methods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasurement of growth indicators\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwelve representative plants were randomly selected, and their height, stem base width, and leaf area were measured using a ruler, vernier caliper, and leaf area (YX-1241) meter, respectively. The aboveground and root of the rice plants were separated, and after blotting excess moisture with filter paper, the fresh weight was measured using an electronic balance. Subsequently, the rice plants were dried at 105\u0026deg;C for 30 min and then dried at 75\u0026deg;C until constant weight was achieved, and the dry weight was measured using an electronic balance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of chlorophyll content\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh leaves (0.1 g) from each treatment were soaked in 10 ml of 95% ethanol in the dark for 24 h. The OD values at wavelengths of 663, 645, and 470 nm were measured using spectrophotometry, and the contents of chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), carotenoid (Car), and total chlorophyll (Total Chl) were calculated using the following formulas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChl a (mg\u0026middot;g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e FW)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.72A663\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.59A645,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChl b (mg\u0026middot;g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e FW)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.88A645\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4.67A663,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCar (mg\u0026middot;g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e FW) = (1000 A470\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.27Chl a\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;104 Chl b)/245,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Chl (mg\u0026middot;g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e FW)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Chl a\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Chl b.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of photosynthetic parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Li-6800 portable photosynthesis measurement system was used to measure gas exchange parameters between 9:00 AM and 11:30 AM on a clear, cloudless morning. These parameters included net photosynthetic rate (\u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e), stomatal conductance (\u003cem\u003eGs\u003c/em\u003e), intercellular CO₂ concentration (\u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e), and transpiration rate (\u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e). The following formulas were used to calculate apparent mesophyll conductance (AMC), stomatal limitation value (Ls), instantaneous water use efficiency (WUE), and the ratio of intercellular to environmental CO₂ concentrations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e/\u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLs = (Ca \u0026ndash; \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e)/Ca\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWUE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ePn\u003c/em\u003e/\u003cem\u003eTr\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ratio of intercellular to environmental CO₂ concentrations\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e/Ca\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCa: Atmospheric CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e Concentrations, \u003cem\u003eCi\u003c/em\u003e: Intercellular CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e Concentration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe following parameters were measured using a PAM-2500 chlorophyll fluorescence meter: Fm (maximum chlorophyll fluorescence), ETR (apparent photosynthetic electron transport rate), Fv/Fm (maximum quantum efficiency), YII (actual photochemical quantum yield), photochemical quenching coefficients (qP) and (qL), non-photochemical quenching coefficients (qN) and (NPQ), and Quantum yield of non-photochemical quenching Y(NO) and Y(NPQ).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of carbohydrate content\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sucrose, fructose, soluble sugar(SS), and starch content were determined according to the method proposed by Du[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] et al.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of N, P, and K uptake, accumulation, and use efficiency\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice plants were digested using the concentrated H₂SO₄-H₂O₂ method to extract N, P, and K. Nitrogen content was determined using a Kjeldahl nitrogen analyzer, P content was measured using the molybdenum-antimony colorimetric method, and K content was quantified using a flame photometer. Calculate nutrient accumulation, fertilizer contribution rate, agronomic utilization rate of N (P, K), and N (P, K) partial factor productivity using the following formulas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN (P, K) accumulation amount in the aboveground (root) part (g/plant)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;N (P,K) uptake \u0026times;aboveground (root) dry weight\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFertilizer contribution rate (FCR, %) = (grain yield in fertilizer supply- grain yield in zero fertilizer supply)/ grain yield in fertilizer supply\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN (P, K) agronomic efficiency (NAE, PAE and KAE, kg\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) = (grain yield in fertilizer supply- grain yield in zero fertilizer supply)/ N (P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e, K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) supply rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN (P, K) Partial Factor Productivity(NPEP, PPEP and KPEP, kg\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)= grain yield in fertilizer supply/ N (P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e, K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) supply rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of yield and yield components\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the maturity stage, 24 representative plants without insect pests and disease were randomly selected for each treatment. The following parameters were measured for each plant: panicle number per plant, panicle length, primary branch number, secondary branch number, filled grain number per plant, shrunk grain number per plant, and 1000-grain weight. The seed setting rate and theoretical yield were calculated using the following formulas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeed setting rate (%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;filled grain number per plant/ total grain number per plant\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTheoretical yield (g\u0026middot;m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;panicle per plant \u0026times; grain per panicle \u0026times; 1000-grain weight /1000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were processed using Microsoft Excel 2016. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using SPSS 27.0 software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Multiple comparisons were conducted using Duncan\u0026rsquo;s test. The least significant difference (LSD) test at the \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 level (LSD 0.05) was used to compare means. Graphs were generated using Origin 2021 software. All data in this experiment are presented as the multiple replicates\u0026rsquo; mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error (SE).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eY.L. was responsible for the methodology, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, and writing the original draft. N.F. contributed to the methodology and conceptualization, acquisition of funding and administration of the project. D.Z. aided in the conceptualization and acquisition of funding. X.D. contributed to the investigation. H.Z. aided in the investigation. N.Y. and X.Y. contributed to the investigation and formal analysis. Y.F. helped with the formal analysis. All authors contributed to the manuscript preparation, writing and revision and approved the submitted version.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepartment of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of Guangdong Province (2024KJ31); Special Project for Key Areas in General Colleges and Universities of Guangdong Provincial Department of Education (2021ZDZX4027); Coastal Agricultural Engineering Technology Research Center of Guangdong Ocean University (230420020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. All experimental studies on plants were complied with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eXin F, Xiao X, Dong J, Zhang G, Zhang Y, Wu X, Li X, Zou Z, Ma J, Du G\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;et al\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cstrong\u003eLarge increases of paddy rice area, gross primary production, and grain production in Northeast China during 2000\u0026ndash;2017\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eScience of The Total Environment\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2020, \u003cstrong\u003e711\u003c/strong\u003e(15):135183.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhang Y, Hua Q, Xu W, Mei L, Hu J, Zhang Z: \u003cstrong\u003eResponse of root endosphere bacterial communities of typical rice cultivars to nitrogen fertilizer reduction at the jointing stage\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eArchives of Microbiology\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2022, \u003cstrong\u003e204\u003c/strong\u003e(12):722.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDuan E, Wang Y, Li X, Lin Q, Zhang T, Wang Y, Zhou C, Zhang H, Jiang L, Wang J\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;et al\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cstrong\u003eOsSHI1 regulates plant architecture through modulating the transcriptional activity of IPA1 in rice\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eThe Plant Cell\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2019, \u003cstrong\u003e31\u003c/strong\u003e(5):1026-1042.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePramanick B, Brahmachari K, Ghosh AR, Zodape ST, Bengal W, Marg GB: \u003cstrong\u003eFoliar nutrient management through kappaphycus and gracilaria saps in rice-potato-green gram crop sequence\u003c/strong\u003e. 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However, the regulatory mechanism of liquid fertilizer on rice morphological construction, photosynthetic characteristics, and nutrient uptake during the tillering period is still unclear, and its impact on the final yield formation also needs to be further explored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e In this study, ‘Huanghuazhan’ was selected as the experimental material, and four treatments were set up: HS (standard solid fertilizer application rate), HL (standard liquid fertilizer application rate, identical to the solid fertilizer application rate), HL-10% (10% reduction from the standard liquid fertilizer application rate), and HL-20% (20% reduction from the standard liquid fertilizer application rate) to systematically investigate the effects of liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate on rice during the tillering stage. The results showed that compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments significantly increased rice growth parameters, with aboveground dry weight increasing by 174.45%, 83.22%, and 57.67%, respectively. Meanwhile, liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate enhanced photosynthetic capacity and promoted carbohydrate synthesis. In addition, the aboveground N, P, K uptake, root N, P uptake in HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments were all higher than those in the HS treatment. Compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased agronomic efficiency and partial factor productivity. Specifically, the nitrogen agronomic efficiency significantly increased by 44.44%, 20.03%, 9.23%, respectively. Compared with the HS treatment, the HL, HL-10%, and HL-20% treatments increased rice yield and yield components. For example, yield increased by 50.12%, 20.82%, and 9.67%, respectively, and 1000-grain weight increased by 6.31%, 2.33%, and 0.71%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e In conclusion, the experiment on gradient reduced application of liquid fertilizer showed that, even reduced application rate (HL-10% and HL-20% treatments) treatments still performed better than the HS treatment in terms of morphological construction, photosynthetic characteristics, nutrient uptake during the tillering stage, and yield formation, achieving the goal of \"reduced application rate with increased yield.\"\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of liquid fertilizer and reduced application rate on rice growth, nutrient uptake, and rice yield during the tillering stage","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-22 17:03:07","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7319891/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-10T10:43:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-10T10:21:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"140256795117610675953597268656405027141","date":"2025-10-07T07:39:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"2848804876896536595390672683864950354","date":"2025-10-05T06:44:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"50714418301377788403925727246295702308","date":"2025-09-09T12:05:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-01T02:47:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"18975770839388461825117961607945337833","date":"2025-08-21T02:16:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"14522019739449476080801521560105383581","date":"2025-08-16T13:40:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-14T13:24:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-14T13:07:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-14T10:23:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-14T10:23:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Plant Biology","date":"2025-08-07T14:36:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-plant-biology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pbio","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Plant Biology](http://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pbio/default.aspx","title":"BMC Plant Biology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4022d9de-e34e-470f-bc29-161c1acba649","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-29T16:08:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7319891","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-025-07905-9","journal":{"identity":"bmc-plant-biology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Plant Biology"},"publishedOn":"2025-12-22 15:57:02","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 22nd, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-22 17:03:07","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12870-025-07905-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-025-07905-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7319891","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7319891","identity":"rs-7319891","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}