Academic Involution and Emotional Distress in Vocational College Students: A Moderated Mediation via Perceived Stress and Psychological Resilience

Academic Involution and Emotional Distress in Vocational College Students: A Moderated Mediation via Perceived Stress and Psychological Resilience | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Academic Involution and Emotional Distress in Vocational College Students: A Moderated Mediation via Perceived Stress and Psychological Resilience Jing Lu, Hongyang Liu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7848869/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective : This study tested a moderated-mediation model in which perceived stress (PSS) mediates the association between academic involution (INV) and emotional distress (PHQ-4), with psychological resilience (BRS) buffering all three paths. Methods : A cross-sectional online survey of Chinese vocational students (N=663; forced-response, no item-level missing) used an 18-item INV scale, PSS-4, PHQ-4 and BRS-6. Analyses included group tests, correlations and PROCESS Model 59 with 5,000 bias-corrected bootstraps; sex, grade and place of origin were covariates; Harman’s single factor=10.6%. Results : INV correlated positively with PSS and distress; resilience correlated negatively with both. In PROCESS, INV predicted higher distress and higher PSS, and PSS predicted higher distress (all ps<.001). Resilience attenuated INV→PSS, PSS→distress and the direct INV→distress link; the INV→distress slope declined from low to high resilience and became nonsignificant around +1 SD (Johnson–Neyman). Conclusion : Involution relates to distress partly via stress, while resilience systematically buffers these effects in vocational colleges. academic involution perceived stress psychological resilience emotional distress moderated mediation vocational college students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1 Introduction 1.1 Background In mainland China, the buzzword neijuan (involution) has quickly become shorthand for escalating, zero-sum competition that stretches from the classroom to the workplace. The term captures a pervasive sense of “running harder without moving forward,” now frequently used by students and early-career workers to describe doing more for diminishing returns in tightly rationed opportunity structures (Jiang, 2022 ; Qian & Bram, 2024 ). Emerging empirical work suggests that such over-competition environments are linked to higher perceived stress and poorer emotional well-being among youth and young professionals (Barbayannis et al., 2022 ; Mingze et al., 2024 ). Within China specifically, recent studies report substantial symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress among vocational and university cohorts, underscoring the need to understand psychological mechanisms in these settings (Wu & Liu, 2024 ; Zhou et al., 2023 ). Collectively, these observations point to an urgent but still nascent research agenda on how “involutional” academic climates relate to stress appraisal and emotional distress among Chinese vocational college students. The transactional model of stress and coping views stress as an appraisal process that links situational demands to outcomes via perceived (un)controllability and coping resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ), typically operationalized with the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983 ). At the same time, frameworks such as the Job Demands–Resources model and Effort–Reward Imbalance conceptualize “too many demands, too few resources or rewards” contexts—highly consistent with involution—as risk conditions for strain and distress (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007 ; Siegrist, 1996 ). Conservation of Resources theory further predicts loss spirals when resources are scarce and competition is intense, while highlighting the protective role of resource caravans (Hobfoll, 1989 ). Psychological resilience—often described as “ordinary magic”—is one such protective resource, repeatedly shown to buffer links between stress and internalizing symptoms in student populations (Masten, 2001 ). Guided by these perspectives, this study tested a moderated-mediation model in a cross-sectional sample of Chinese vocational college students: academic involution as the independent variable, perceived stress as the mediator, emotional distress as the outcome, and psychological resilience as a protective moderator expected to attenuate both direct and indirect (stress-linked) effects (Cohen et al., 1983 ; Kroenke et al., 2009 ; Masten, 2001 ). 1.2 Literature Review 1.2.1 The relationship between academic involution and emotional distress “Academic involution” ( neijuan ) describes a hyper-competitive, zero-sum study climate in which escalating effort yields diminishing returns, often accompanied by long hours and performance pressures (Gu & Mao, 2022 ; Yi et al., 2022 ). In Chinese higher education—including vocational colleges—this climate has been widely linked to heightened stress and common mental health symptoms (anxiety, depression) in student populations (Chai et al., 2024 ; Wu & Liu, 2024 ). Conceptually, involutional environments amplify perceived demands and social comparison, which have been repeatedly associated with emotional distress in college cohorts (Barbayannis et al., 2022 ). Empirically, multi-site surveys show positive associations between involutional tendencies and anxiety in university students, with “passive” forms of involution particularly detrimental (Yi et al., 2022 ). Given PHQ-4 captures ultra-brief anxiety–depressive distress (Kroenke et al., 2009 ), the expectation is that stronger academic involution relates to higher emotional distress among vocational students. 1.2.2 The mediating role of perceived stress Perceived stress is the appraisal that environmental demands exceed personal coping resources (Cohen et al., 1983 ), a core mechanism in the transactional stress–coping model (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ). In involutional contexts, intense competition and limited rewards are likely to be internalized as high perceived stress, which then predicts proximal distress (Gu & Mao, 2022 ; Yan et al., 2024 ). Recent studies with Chinese college students consistently link higher PSS scores to greater depressive and anxiety symptoms, and several models show perceived stress as a mediator between adverse academic contexts and mental health outcomes (Chen et al., 2024 ; Ma et al., 2022 ). Work specifically on involution suggests perceived stress (and anxiety) carry indirect effects from involutional tendencies to maladaptive outcomes (Yang et al., 2025 ). Together, theory and data support a stress-appraisal pathway from academic involution to emotional distress. 1.2.3 The moderating role of resilience Psychological resilience—adaptive capacity to maintain or regain functioning under stress—acts as a protective resource that can weaken risk–outcome links (Masten, 2001 ). In student samples, resilience is inversely related to perceived stress and internalizing symptoms, and often attenuates (buffers) the impact of stressors on distress (Hu et al., 2024 ; Liu et al., 2024 ). Crucially, a large study of Chinese college students found that ego resilience moderated the pathway from perceived stress to depressive symptoms—the stress–distress association was stronger among those with lower resilience (Ma et al., 2022 ). Related work in health and education settings similarly documents resilience operating as a buffer within stress–mental health models (Yan et al., 2024 ). Grounded in risk-protective and resource-based perspectives, resilience is therefore expected to mitigate the harmful effect of perceived stress on emotional distress among vocational students, implying a weaker indirect effect of involution at higher resilience. 1.3 Gaps in The Literature Despite growing discussion of neijuan (involution) in China, empirical work remains uneven. Most studies documenting links between involutional climates and mental health have focused on general university populations rather than vocational colleges, even though vocational students report substantial symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress (Wu & Liu, 2024 ; Yi et al., 2022 ). Conceptualizations of involution have only recently been operationalized with multi-dimensional instruments that distinguish psychological pressure, social-norm pressures, competitive behaviors, and resource scarcity (Wen et al., 2024 ). Within explanatory models, prior research has typically examined bivariate associations or single-mediator pathways, with comparatively fewer tests integrating both a stress appraisal mechanism and a protective factor in one model. Theory, however, clearly motivates such integration: the transactional model of stress and coping positions perceived stress as a proximal mechanism linking environmental demands to emotional outcomes, while resilience is a canonical protective resource that can weaken stress–symptom links (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ; Masten, 2001 ). In addition, much of the available evidence is cross-sectional, limiting inferences about directionality and underscoring the value of precise, theory-driven tests in specific educational contexts (Cohen et al., 1983 ; Kroenke et al., 2009 ). The present study addresses these gaps by examining an integrated moderated-mediation model among Chinese vocational college students. Academic involution is treated as the predictor, perceived stress as the mediator, emotional distress (PHQ-4) as the outcome, and psychological resilience as a protective moderator expected to attenuate stress–distress coupling. Guided by stress-and-coping, conservation/resource, and risk–protective perspectives, the study pursues three aims: (a) estimate the association between academic involution and emotional distress; (b) test whether perceived stress mediates this association; and (c) evaluate whether psychological resilience buffers the stress–distress pathway and, consequently, the indirect effect of involution on distress. Corresponding hypotheses are: H1: Academic involution has a positive relationship with emotional distress. H2: Perceived stress mediates the association between academic involution and emotional distress. H3: Psychological resilience moderates the association between perceived stress and emotional distress such that the association is weaker at higher resilience. Building on H2–H3, an integrative expectation is that the indirect effect of involution on emotional distress via perceived stress will be weaker at higher levels of resilience (index of moderated mediation), consistent with resource-buffering accounts. 2 Methods 2.1 Participant This cross-sectional survey used an online questionnaire administered at a public vocational college in Wuzhou, Guangxi (China). The survey link was sent to program counselors, who posted it in official WeChat class groups. Before accessing the items, students viewed an information/consent page stating that participation was voluntary, they could stop at any time without penalty, and all responses were anonymous and used only for research. Only currently enrolled students could proceed; no incentives were offered. After data screening, the final analytic sample comprised N = 663 respondents with no missing data on demographic variables. The sample was predominantly female (577/663, 87.0%), with male students accounting for 13.0% (86/663). Participants’ ages ranged from 17 to 22 years (M = 19.08, SD = 1.01; median = 19). By year level, first-year students comprised 36.7% (243/663), second-year 23.4% (155/663), and third-year 40.0% (265/663). Regarding place of origin, 30.6% reported rural backgrounds (203/663), 25.8% county towns (171/663), 43.0% prefecture-level cities (285/663), and 0.6% provincial capitals or above (4/663). The questionnaire used a forced-response format: each item had to be answered to submit the survey. Participation remained entirely voluntary, and students could close the browser at any point without penalty; partial responses were not retained. Consequently, the analytic dataset contained no item-level missing data. 2.2 Measurement 2.2.1 Academic Involution Academic involution was assessed using the involution questionnaire developed by Wen et al. ( 2024 ).This questionnaire was assessed with the 18-item, four-factor Involution Perception Scale developed in cultural-psychology work on neijuan in China—dimensions: Psychological Pressure (ST), Social Norms (SN), Competition Behavior (CB), and Resource Scarcity (RS) (e.g., “I feel frustrated in study/work”, “Most people around me keep working beyond minimum requirements”, “People around me gain recognition via competition”, “Too few resources to receive what I deserve”). Positively worded items within the ST subscale (e.g., “I feel full of energy in study/work”) are reverse-scored so that higher scores reflect higher perceived involutional pressure. Items were rated on a 7-point agreement scale; subscale scores and a total score (mean of all items) were computed, with higher scores indicating stronger perceived academic involution. The original scale shows sound psychometrics and a stable four-factor structure across student and worker samples in China, with good internal consistency and acceptable convergent/discriminant validity and provides representative items for each facet (Wen et al., 2024 ). In the present sample, internal consistency was α(total) = .905; α(ST) = .876; α(SN) = .874; α(CB) = .912; α(RS) = .879. A confirmatory factor analysis supported excellent fit (χ²/df = 1.691, CFI = .911, TLI = .894, NNFI = 0.894, GFI = 0.990, SRMR = .044, RMSEA = .032). 2.2.2 Perceived Stress Perceived stress over the past month was measured with the 4-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-4) (Cohen et al., 1983 ). Items are rated on a 0–4 frequency scale (0 = never to 4 = very often) and summed (range 0–16), with Items 2 and 3 reverse-scored (“felt confident about your ability to handle personal problems”; “felt things were going your way”). Prior Chinese studies report acceptable reliability and construct validity for Chinese PSS versions, including evidence in community samples and psychometric reviews; as is typical for very brief forms, reliability is modest but adequate (Du et al., 2023 ; Huang et al., 2020 ; She et al., 2021 ). In this study, α = .70; model fit was excellent (χ²/df = 0.671, CFI = .896, TLI = .901, NNFI = 0.901, GFI = 0.910, SRMR = .034, RMSEA = .028). 2.2.3 Emotional Distress Emotional distress (past two weeks) was assessed with the PHQ-4, which combines the GAD-2 (anxiety) and PHQ-2 (depression) into a 4-item screener scored 0–3 (not at all to nearly every day)(Kroenke et al., 2009 ). Subscales are summed (0–6 each) and a total score 0–12 indexes global distress; higher scores indicate more severe symptoms. The PHQ-4 shows a robust two-factor structure and strong validity in the original development paper and has accumulating psychometric support in Chinese samples, including longitudinal measurement invariance in healthcare students and recent adolescent validation. (Meng et al., 2024 ; Xu et al., 2025 ). In this study, internal consistency was αtotal = .748; αANX = .657; αDEP = .731; CFA fit was excellent (χ²/df = 0.597, CFI = .991, TLI = .990, NNFI = 0.990, GFI = 0.968, SRMR = .004, RMSEA = .001). 2.2.4 Resilience Resilience was measured with the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS-6) (Smith et al., 2008 ). Items use a 1–5 agreement scale; three items are reverse-scored (Items 2, 4, 6; e.g., “I have a hard time making it through stressful events”), and a mean score is computed (higher = greater “bounce-back” capacity). The BRS has been repeatedly validated, and Chinese studies (e.g., university students and community samples) support its factor structure and reliability, often outperforming other brief resilience measures (Fung, 2020 ; Lai & Yue, 2014 ). In the current sample, internal consistency was α = .867 with good fit (χ²/df = 2.022, CFI = .978, TLI = .956, NNFI = 0.956, GFI = 0.968, SRMR = .027, RMSEA = .024). 2.3 Data Analysis All analyses were conducted in JASP 0.19.3 with PROCESS macro (Model 59) for conditional process analysis (Hayes, 2018 ). Because the questionnaire enforced forced responses, there was no item-level missingness; the analytic N was 663. Prior to hypothesis testing, distributions of the study variables were inspected (skewness/kurtosis within ± 2), and assumptions for parametric tests were checked. For group comparisons, homogeneity of variances was examined with Levene’s test; where violated, Welch’s t or Welch’s ANOVA and Games–Howell post-hoc tests were applied (Field, 2024 ). Because all variables were self-report and collected in a single session, potential common-method bias (CMB) was screened before group-difference testing. A Harman single-factor test was conducted by submitting all measurement items to an unrotated exploratory factor analysis (principal-axis factoring) and examining the variance explained by the first factor; values substantially below ~ 40% were interpreted as evidence that CMB is unlikely to be a pervasive artifact (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). As a robustness check, a single-factor confirmatory model was also estimated and compared to the specified measurement model; poor fit of the single-factor solution further reduces concern about CMB (Podsakoff et al., 2012 ; Williams et al., 2010 ). First, descriptive statistics (means, SDs, ranges) summarized the four focal constructs—academic involution, perceived stress, emotional distress (PHQ-4 total), and psychological resilience (BRS)—and the distribution of demographic variables (sex, year level, place of origin, age). To be conservative, prior to correlational analyses, independent-samples t tests were used to test sex differences on each of the four constructs (effect size Cohen’s d with 95% CIs; small/medium/large benchmarks per Cohen) (Cohen, 2013 ). Then one-way ANOVAs evaluated differences across year level (first, second, third) and place of origin (rural, county town, prefecture-level city, provincial capital or above) for each construct (effect size partial η²; post-hoc tests as noted above). Next, Pearson product–moment correlations estimated associations among the four continuous variables (two-tailed, α = .05). Finally, the hypothesized moderated-mediation model was tested with PROCESS Model 59, specifying academic involution (X) → perceived stress (M) → emotional distress (Y), with psychological resilience (W) as the moderator of a path (X→M), b path (M→Y), and direct path (X→Y). All continuous predictors were meant to be centered before computing interaction terms. Bias-corrected bootstrap CIs (5,000 resamples) were used to infer indirect and conditional effects. Significance of conditional indirect effects was evaluated via the index of moderated mediation with 95% bootstrap CIs (Hayes, 2015 ). Interactions were probed using simple-slope analyses and the Johnson–Neyman technique to identify regions of significance across levels of resilience. Demographic covariates (sex, year level, place of origin, age) were entered as controls in the PROCESS model; results are reported with unstandardized coefficients and 95% CIs and visualized at low/mean/high (− 1 SD / mean / +1 SD) resilience. 2.4 Ethical Consideration The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki and applicable institutional guidelines for human participant research. Ethical approval was obtained from the university ethics committee (institution name withheld for peer review). Recruitment used an online survey link shared with program counselors, who posted it in official QQ class groups. To minimize any perception of coercion, the invitation emphasized that participation was entirely voluntary, unrelated to coursework or academic evaluation, and that counselors and teachers would not see individual responses. No incentives were offered. Eligibility required participants to be 18 years or older. Before any items were displayed, students viewed an electronic information sheet and consent statement describing the study purpose and procedures, minimal risks and potential benefits, data protection measures, the voluntary nature of participation, and the right to discontinue at any time without penalty. Consent was recorded electronically (checkbox) prior to proceeding. A forced-response format was used so that all items had to be completed to submit the questionnaire; however, participants could close the browser at any point, in which case partial responses were not retained. The questionnaire contained brief screenings of stress and emotional symptoms (PSS-4, PHQ-4); because such items may evoke mild discomfort, the debrief page included contact information for on-campus counseling services and commonly available mental-health helplines. No personally identifying information (e.g., name, student ID, phone, exact class) was collected, and responses were recorded anonymously. Data were stored in encrypted, password-protected files on secure institutional servers with access restricted to the research team. Only aggregated results are reported. Consistent with the anonymous design, once a response was submitted it could not be individually located for deletion; participants were informed of this limitation during consent. Data will be retained for a standard archival period (e.g., five years) solely for research verification and will not be shared publicly at the individual level. 3 Results 3.1 Common method bias To assess potential common-method bias, all measurement items were submitted to an unrotated exploratory factor analysis (Harman’s single-factor test). The first factor accounted for 10.6% of the total variance—well below the conventional 40% benchmark—indicating that serious common-method bias was unlikely to threaten the findings (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). 3.2 Intergroup differences and correlation analysis Independent-samples t tests indicated one significant gender difference: psychological resilience was slightly higher among female than male (female: M = 3.36, SD = 0.90; male: M = 3.10, SD = 0.97), t (661) = 2.51, p = .012, d = 0.29 (small effect). No significant gender differences emerged for academic involution, perceived stress, or emotional distress (PHQ-4). Results were substantively unchanged when using Welch’s correction where variance heterogeneity was indicated. Across first-year (n = 243), second-year (n = 155), and third-year (n = 265) students, no grade-level differences were observed on any focal construct. Welch’s one-way ANOVAs were nonsignificant for academic involution (F(2, 392) = 0.07, p = .935, η 2 < 0.001), perceived stress (F(2, 388) = 0.78, p = .461, η 2 < 0.001), emotional distress (PHQ-4) (F(2, 394) = 0.66, p = .517, η 2 < 0.001), and psychological resilience (F(2, 392) = 0.21, p = .813, η 2 < 0.001). Given the absence of omnibus effects, no post-hoc comparisons were pursued. Welch’s ANOVAs indicated marginal group effects for academic involution (Welch F (3, 15.1) = 3.23, p = .052, η 2 = 0.008) and perceived stress (Welch F (3, 15.1) = 3.19, p = .054, η 2 = 0.009). Descriptively, students from provincial-capital or above backgrounds reported the highest scores (INV: M = 4.85; PSS: M = 3.06; n = 4) compared with rural (INV: 3.87; PSS: 2.24), county-town (INV: 3.93; PSS: 2.31), and prefecture-level city origins (INV: 3.85; PSS: 2.27). However, Games–Howell post-hoc tests were nonsignificant for all pairwise contrasts (all p s ≥ .13), suggesting that the trend was driven largely by the very small provincial-capital subgroup and should be interpreted with caution. No place-of-origin differences were found for emotional distress (PHQ-4) or resilience (both p s ≥ .14). For the sake of conservatism, gender, grade, and place of origin will be controlled when conducting correlation analysis and moderated mediation model analysis. As shown in Table 1 , the focal variables showed the following bivariate patterns (two-tailed, α = .05). Academic involution was positively associated with both perceived stress ( r = .376, p < .001) and emotional distress ( r = .387, p < .001), and weakly negatively related to resilience ( r = − .122, p < .01). Perceived stress correlated positively with emotional distress ( r = .553, p < .001) and negatively with resilience ( r = − .216, p < .001). Resilience was inversely related to emotional distress ( r = − .328, p < .001). Table 1 Correlation analysis results Variables M SD 1.Involution 2.Perceived Stress 3.Emotional Distress 1.Involution 3.934 0.91 — 2.Perceived Stress 2.275 0.728 0.376*** — 3.Emotional Distress 0.922 0.705 0.383*** 0.553*** — 4.resilience 3.324 0.914 -0.122** -0.216*** -0.328*** * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 The pattern—risk links from involution to stress and distress, and protective links for resilience—supports proceeding to the hypothesized moderated-mediation analysis. 3.3 Moderated mediation model This study used 5,000 bias-corrected percentile bootstrapping to estimate 95% confidence intervals for indirect and conditional indirect effects in Hayes Macro PROCESS Model 59. Significance was considered when the interval did not contain 0. All continuous variables were mean-centered, and interaction terms were constructed. Standard errors, z values, and p-values ​​for path coefficients were calculated using the delta method. Interactions were tested and presented using simple slope and Johnson–Neyman techniques. As shown in Table 2 , academic involution significantly predicted emotional distress controlling for other terms (direct effect: B = 0.426, SE = 0.096, z = 4.451, p < .001, 95% CI [0.224, 0.606]). In addition, perceived stress strongly predicted emotional distress (B = 0.822, SE = 0.106, z = 7.762, p < .001, 95% CI [0.595, 1.041]). On the a path, involution positively predicted perceived stress (B = 0.522, SE = 0.108, z = 4.853, p < .001, 95% CI [0.327, 0.737]). Together these effects indicate a significant partial mediation whereby higher involution is associated with more distress via higher perceived stress. The main effect of resilience on perceived stress was not significant (B = 0.146, p = .252). Table 2 Path coefficient analysis results 95% Confidence Interval Path Estimate Std. Error z-value p Lower Upper Involution → Emotional distress 0.426 0.096 4.451 < .001 0.224 0.606 Perceived stress → Emotional distress 0.822 0.106 7.762 < .001 0.595 1.041 Resilience → Emotional distress 0.469 0.11 4.276 < .001 0.273 0.663 Involution*Resilience → Emotional distress -0.081 0.028 -2.949 0.003 -0.131 -0.025 Perceived stress* Resilience → Emotional distress -0.131 0.032 -4.144 < .001 -0.194 -0.065 Involution → Perceived stress 0.522 0.108 4.853 < .001 0.327 0.737 Resilience → Perceived stress 0.146 0.128 1.145 0.252 -0.091 0.383 Involution* Resilience → Perceived stress -0.072 0.031 -2.299 0.021 -0.133 -0.016 Note. Confidence intervals are bias-corrected percentile bootstrapped. Standard errors, z -values and p -values are based on the delta method. Resilience exerted a protective (buffering) role by moderating the key links in the model. Specifically, resilience attenuated (i) the direct association between involution and emotional distress ( B for INV × RES = − 0.081, SE = 0.028, z = − 2.949, p = .003, 95% CI [− 0.131, − 0.025]); (ii) the association between perceived stress and emotional distress ( B for PSS × RES = − 0.131, SE = 0.032, z = − 4.144, p < .001, 95% CI [− 0.194, − 0.065]); and (iii) the association between involution and perceived stress ( B for INV × RES = − 0.072, SE = 0.031, z = − 2.299, p = .021, 95% CI [− 0.133, − 0.016]). These negative interaction coefficients indicate that as resilience increases, both the direct and indirect (stress-linked) effects of involution on emotional distress become weaker, consistent with the hypothesized moderated mediation. Simple-slope probing of the interactions (Table 3 ) showed that the direct effect of academic involution on emotional distress was significant at all tested levels of resilience but diminished as resilience increased: at low resilience ( M − 1 SD on the moderator used for probing) B = 0.237, SE = 0.038, z = 6.292, p < .001, 95% CI [0.152, 0.315]; at the mean level B = 0.155, SE = 0.025, z = 6.261, p < .001, 95% CI [0.105, 0.208]; and at high resilience ( M + 1 SD) B = 0.074, SE = 0.037, z = 2.036, p = .042, 95% CI [0.009, 0.140]. Table 3 Path effect sizes of different levels of psychological resilience 95% Confidence Interval RE Estimate Std. Error z-value p Lower Upper Involution → Emotional distress M-SD 0.237 0.038 6.292 < .001 0.152 0.315 Involution → Emotional distress M 0.155 0.025 6.261 < .001 0.105 0.208 Involution → Emotional distress M + SD 0.074 0.037 2.036 0.042 0.009 0.14 Involution → Perceived stress → Emotional distress M-SD 0.183 0.026 6.968 < .001 0.132 0.248 Involution → Perceived stress → Emotional distress M 0.109 0.014 7.688 < .001 0.083 0.14 Involution → Perceived stress → Emotional distress M + SD 0.054 0.015 3.642 < .001 0.029 0.089 Note. Confidence intervals are bias-corrected percentile bootstrapped. Standard errors, z -values and p -values are based on the delta method. A similar buffering pattern emerged for the indirect effect via perceived stress: at low resilience the indirect effect was largest ( B = 0.183, SE = 0.026, z = 6.968, p < .001, 95% CI [0.132, 0.248]); at the mean level it was moderate ( B = 0.109, SE = 0.014, z = 7.688, p < .001, 95% CI [0.083, 0.140]); and at high resilience it was smallest ( B = 0.054, SE = 0.015, z = 3.642, p < .001, 95% CI [0.029, 0.089]). Taken together, these conditional effects indicate that greater psychological resilience weakens both the direct pathway from involution to distress and the stress-mediated pathway, consistent with the proposed protective (buffering) role of resilience. Simple-slope probing confirmed the buffering role of resilience in the moderated-mediation model (Table 3 ; Fig. 1 ). The direct effect of involution on emotional distress remained significant at low, mean, and high resilience but decreased monotonically as resilience increased (low: B = 0.237, SE = 0.038, z = 6.292, p < .001; mean: B = 0.155, SE = 0.025, z = 6.261, p < .001; high: B = 0.074, SE = 0.037, z = 2.036, p = .042). The indirect effect via perceived stress showed the same pattern—largest at low resilience (B = 0.183, SE = 0.026, z = 6.968, p < .001), moderate at the mean (B = 0.109, SE = 0.014, z = 7.688, p < .001), and smallest at high resilience (B = 0.054, SE = 0.015, z = 3.642, p < .001)—indicating that resilience weakens both the direct and stress-mediated links from involution to distress. The J–N analysis identified a boundary at approximately + 1 SD of resilience, above which the INV→ED effect’s 95% CI includes zero, whereas below this boundary the effect is significantly positive and grows as resilience decreases. Together, these tests visually and inferentially confirm the protective (buffering) role of resilience in both the direct and stress-mediated pathways from academic involution to emotional distress. 4 Discussion 4.1 Finding Interpretation Figure 2 depicts the final moderated-mediation model with unstandardized path estimates. Consistent with the hypotheses, academic involution showed a significant direct effect on emotional distress ( B = 0.426) and an indirect effect via perceived stress (INV → PSS B = 0.522; PSS → ED B = 0.822). Psychological resilience acted as a protective moderator on all three links: it weakened the paths from INV → ED ( B for INV×RES = − 0.081), from PSS → ED (PSS×RES = − 0.131), and from INV → PSS (INV×RES = − 0.072). Simple-slope and Johnson–Neyman probing showed that both the direct and indirect (stress-linked) effects of involution on distress were largest at low resilience, attenuated at mean resilience, and smallest or nonsignificant at high resilience (J–N boundary ≈ + 1 SD), indicating a robust buffering role of resilience. The bivariate pattern aligns with these paths: involution correlated positively with perceived stress and emotional distress and weakly negatively with resilience; perceived stress correlated positively with distress and negatively with resilience; and resilience correlated negatively with distress. These associations echo prior work showing that intensifying academic competition and over-investment are tied to greater stress and internalizing symptoms among Chinese college populations (Barbayannis et al., 2022 ; Wu & Liu, 2024 ; Yi et al., 2022 ) and that resilience relates inversely to stress and distress in student samples (Hu et al., 2024 ; Liu et al., 2024 ; Ma et al., 2022 ). The present model extends those findings by demonstrating that perceived stress is a mechanism linking involution to distress while resilience systematically weakens both the 3 paths in the mediation model. Theoretically, the context of academic involution places a high emphasis on relative rankings and continuous escalation, and its psychological mechanisms are quite similar to those of upward society: peers continue to study longer hours, obtain higher grades, and are visible in the class, which easily triggers the threatening interpretation of "I am falling behind (Festinger, 1954 ; Gibbons & Buunk, 1999 ; Suls et al., 2002 )." From the stress-coping perspective, when external demands are assessed as exceeding available resources and sense of control, higher perceived stress will occur, which in turn increases emotional distress such as anxiety and depression (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ). At the same time, both the job demand-resource model and the effort-reward imbalance model view an environment of "high demands and low resources or low rewards" as a risk condition for stress and health impairment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007 ; Siegrist, 1996 ). Conservation of resources theory also points out that constant competition and scarce rewards can trigger a spiral of resource depletion (time, energy, and self-efficacy), increasing stress and transforming it into anxiety-depressive symptoms (Hobfoll, 2012 ; Hobfoll, 1989 ). Therefore, the positive paths of involution → perceived stress and perceived stress → emotional distress observed in this study are consistent with both theory and existing empirical findings among Chinese college students or vocational school students (Wen et al., 2024 ; Yi et al., 2022 ). On the other hand, psychological resilience represents a resource caravan, including enhanced cognitive reappraisal, problem-focused and emotion regulation strategies, and the mobilization of social support (Hobfoll, 2012 ; Masten, 2001 ). When faced with involutionary signals, highly resilient individuals are more likely to reframe demands as challenges rather than threats, set boundaries and prioritize them, and seek help early. This enhances their sense of control, reduces imbalance, and mitigates the impact of involution on perceived stress (INV × RES is negative). In addition to stressful appraisals, involution can also influence emotional distress through affective/cognitive pathways such as status anxiety, perfectionism, fear of being judged, and rumination. High resilience, associated with hope/optimism, meaning-making, and self-compassion, can inhibit rumination and negative self-focus, thereby weakening the direct effect of involution on distress (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005; Masten, 2001 ). Resilience is a classic stress response buffer: better reappraisal and emotion regulation transform the same level of perceived stress into lower anxiety and depression; this is also manifested physiologically and behaviorally as faster recovery, less persistent worry, and earlier support seeking (Ong et al., 2006 ). Therefore, the negative interaction observed on the stress-symptom pathway (PSS × RES < 0) was expected. Taken together, the integrated perspective of social comparison + stress-coping + job demand-resource + conservation of resources + resilience can simultaneously explain the mediating mechanism (involution increases stress, stress leads to distress) and the three buffering pathways (resilience reduces stress generation, reduces direct emotional impact, and reduces stress reactivity), thereby forming the moderated mediation model verified in this study. 4.2 Significance 4.2.1 Theoretical Significance On a theoretical level, this study extends the empirical associations of "academic involution" to vocational college students and integrates multiple classic frameworks using a moderated mediation model: involution can be viewed as a high-demand and low-resource, low-reward, and highly ranked educational context that reinforces threatening interpretations and feelings of loss of control through social comparison (particularly upward comparison), thereby increasing perceived stress and leading to emotional distress such as anxiety and depression. This is consistent with the inferences of the stress-coping perspective, the job demands-resources model, and the effort-reward imbalance model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007 ; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ; Siegrist, 1996 ). At the same time, conservation of resources theory suggests that resource loss spirals are more likely to occur in environments with intense competition and sparse returns, further increasing stress and symptoms (Hobfoll, 2012 ; Hobfoll, 1989 ). This study also shows that psychological resilience has a buffering effect along three key pathways (involution → stress, involution → emotional distress, and stress → emotional distress), complementing previous studies that have focused solely on a single pathway. This study also provides integrative evidence for the localized expansion of theories such as social comparison, stress-coping, job demand-resource, and conservation of resources in the context of higher vocational education in China. It also responds to recent calls for research on the psychological measurement and mechanisms of "involution" in the Chinese context (Wen et al., 2024 ). 4.2.2 Practical Significance In practice, China's universities and vocational education are currently facing the combined pressures of a continuously increasing number of graduates, intensifying labor market competition, and slowing macroeconomic momentum. A World Bank report indicates that China's economic growth rate will slow after 2024, with consumption and real estate still a drag (Bank, 2024a, June , 2024b, December). Furthermore, official statistics, based on the new caliber, show relatively high urban unemployment rates for young people (e.g., 17.6% for non-school-aged 16–24 in September 2024; this remains high in early 2025), indicating significant employment pressure for young people (Reuters, 2024, Oct 22, 2025, Mar 20). At the same time, recent epidemiological studies have shown that levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among Chinese vocational college students are significant (Wu & Liu, 2024 ). Within this macro and campus context, the importance of psychological resilience education is particularly prominent: systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials have shown that interventions centered on resilience/positive education in schools (such as PERMA, growth-oriented thinking, and emotion regulation and cognitive reappraisal training) can reduce stress and emotional distress and enhance adaptation and well-being in the short and medium term (Abulfaraj et al., 2024 ; Jianping et al., 2024 ; Qu et al., 2024 ). At a practical level, combining the "involution → perceived stress → emotional distress, with psychological resilience as a buffer" model can provide evidence-based intervention pathways for schools and society. First, regarding the modifiable mechanisms of stress and emotional distress, mindfulness-based stress reduction interventions for Chinese university students have been demonstrated in numerous studies to have significant effects on anxiety, depression, and stress. These interventions can also achieve substantial improvements online or in low-intensity formats, making them suitable for promotion in vocational colleges through coursework or workshops (short-term classroom practice and homework-based exercises can enhance retention). A meta-analysis of Chinese samples showed that mindfulness interventions significantly reduced anxiety in Chinese college students. Another review of randomized controlled trials also supported the effectiveness of MBSR on multiple indicators. Low-intensity/action-based mindfulness interventions can also reduce distress in Chinese college students, demonstrating its scalability (Hall et al., 2018 ; Li et al., 2022 ; Pan et al., 2024 ). Second, consistent with this study's finding that resilience has a protective effect, a systematic review of college students found that resilience-oriented curricula (including modules such as reappraisal, emotion regulation, problem-solving, and social support mobilization) can improve mental health and well-being to a small to moderate degree. A sweeping review of Chinese school settings also advocates for an integrated approach of "universal promotion—tiered prevention—screening and referral," linking campus psychological services with healthcare. This aligns with national policy's emphasis on developing a strong school mental health faculty and referral system (Abulfaraj et al., 2024 ; Qu et al., 2024 ). Thirdly, given the close connection between involution and social comparison, reducing comparison signals and optimizing feedback mechanisms are worthwhile. Research indicates that academic social comparison increases the fear of negative evaluation, making it a potential intervention target for reducing stress and increasing effectiveness. In Chinese writing and science and engineering instruction, adjusting comparison and feedback mechanisms can influence students' anxiety and motivation (Hong et al., 2022 ; Pigart et al., 2024 ). When applied to families and classrooms, it is recommended to increase non-comparative, process-oriented feedback and reduce single ranking signals. In terms of facilitating resources and protective factors, a growth mindset can enhance well-being and growth attitudes in a sample of Chinese students and is associated with better psychological well-being. Recent single-session growth mindset interventions have also demonstrated feasibility and effectiveness in Chinese participants, making them suitable as a low-cost option for all students (Jianping et al., 2024 ; Yu et al., 2024 ). Furthermore, peer support, as a scalable human resource model, shows promise both empirically and at the policy level in China. Peer crisis intervention and peer education, initiated in universities, are gradually becoming institutionalized, and the national government and various departments are promoting peer and community support for adolescent mental health. Research in community and university settings has shown that peer support can improve psychological indicators and is acceptable. Randomized trial evidence supports the effectiveness of online peer support and digital platforms in reducing distress (Fan et al., 2019 ; Fan et al., 2022 ; Jiang et al., 2024 ; Yeo et al., 2023 ). Regarding specific implementation on campus, research on social and emotional learning (SEL) courses in China has shown that they can reduce anxiety and depression. This suggests that vocational colleges can integrate SEL, mindfulness, and resilience modules with career planning and job-seeking skills training to both reduce stress and enhance job adaptation (Li & Hesketh, 2024 ). Finally, given that regional disparities and disconnects persist in school mental health practices, we recommend implementing regular screening and tiered services (self-help resources → peers and groups → professional counseling → medical referral) based on the framework proposed by the scanning review using brief questionnaires such as the PHQ-4/PSS. This approach should also be combined with the strengthening of local resources and hotline platforms at the municipal level to create a closed loop of "school-community-medical care (Qu et al., 2024 )." 4.3 Limitation Several constraints should be acknowledged when interpreting these findings. First, the cross-sectional design precludes strong causal inference. Although the hypothesized ordering (involution → perceived stress → emotional distress, buffered by resilience) is theory-driven, reverse or reciprocal relations are plausible—for example, students who feel distressed may appraise their environment as more involutional, or high perceived stress may heighten upward social comparison. Future studies using multi-wave (e.g., cross-lagged panel) or experimental/intervention designs are needed to strengthen causal claims. Second, sampling and generalizability are limited. Data came from a single vocational college in Wuzhou, Guangxi, with a predominantly female sample (87%). The recruitment channel (survey links posted by counselors to WeChat class groups) may introduce self-selection (e.g., more engaged/online students) and subtle authority-related pressures, even though anonymity and voluntariness were emphasized. Place-of-origin contrasts should be interpreted cautiously because the provincial-capital subgroup was very small (n = 4). Replication across regions, institutional types, majors, and more balanced sex distributions is needed. Third, all constructions were measured by brief self-report scales in a single session. While the Harman single-factor test suggested little pervasive common-method bias (first factor = 10.6%), this test has limited diagnostic value; unmeasured method effects (mood, social desirability) may remain. Fourth, the moderated mediation was estimated with PROCESS on observed scores, assuming linearity, additivity within interactions, and no measurement error. Latent-variable SEM could model measurement error, test alternative specifications (e.g., moderated paths at the latent level), and evaluate invariance more rigorously. In addition, only a small set of covariates (sex, grade, place of origin) was included; omitted confounders such as socioeconomic status, academic load, major, sleep, prior mental health, family climate, and campus resources might influence both perceived stress and distress, biasing estimates. Finally, the forced-response survey format ensured complete data but may have increased satisficing (e.g., straight-lining) for a minority of respondents; although model fit and correlations were coherent, future work could incorporate attention checks, response-time screens, and paradata to monitor data quality. Collectively, these limitations point to the value of longitudinal, multi-site, multi-method studies—ideally integrating resilience-building interventions—to more precisely identify mechanisms and boundary conditions for academic involution’s impact on mental health in vocational education contexts. 4.4 Prospect Future work can prioritize designs that speak more directly to directionality and change. A simple next step is a multi-wave panel (e.g., beginning–midterm–end of semester) to track whether rises in academic involution precede increases in perceived stress and, in turn, emotional distress. Daily or weekly diary/EMA designs could capture short-term “comparison → stress → affect” dynamics. For causal leverage, classroom- or program-level trials are feasible in vocational settings—e.g., reducing comparison signals in assessment, adding study-resource supports, or offering brief resilience/stress-management modules—and observing downstream changes in stress and distress. Where randomization is hard, quasi-experimental opportunities (policy tweaks, grading changes, internship allocation rules) can be used. Broadening scope will also help. Multi-site sampling across regions, majors, and school tiers would test generalizability and allow multi-level models that separate student tendencies from class/school “involution climate.” Linking student surveys with administrative data (attendance, coursework load, GPA) and near-term outcomes (internship quality, job-search stress) would connect mental-health processes to educational and transition metrics. Measurement can be refined without overburdening students. Establishing invariance for the involution scale in vocational cohorts, trying a short form, and combining self-report with a few low-friction indicators (sleep/phone use summaries, brief informant ratings) would reduce shared-method bias. Analytically, it is useful to probe non-linearities or thresholds (when healthy striving tips into involution), heterogeneity (profiles such as high-involution/high-resilience), and additional mechanisms and assets (e.g., social comparison orientation, perfectionistic concerns, fear of negative evaluation, hope, self-compassion). Finally, any promising practices—curricular, counseling, or peer-based—should be evaluated for feasibility, scalability, and cost-effectiveness so that vocational colleges can realistically implement them. Declarations Ethical approval This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education, Palacký University Olomouc (Approval No.: IGA_013_2025; Date: 1.3.2025). All procedures complied with the Declaration of Helsinki and institutional guidelines; the protocol was additionally cleared by Wuzhou Vocational College. Consent to participate Written informed consent was obtained from students, and written assent was obtained from all student participants before data collection. Consent to publish Not applicable. The manuscript contains no individual person’s data in any form. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Author contributions Jing Lu - Data collection, Research conception, Manuscript review. Hongyang Liu - Data analysis, Writing the original draft. Funding The Autonomous Region Education Department's 2025 Guangxi University Young and Middle-aged Teachers' Scientific Research Basic Capacity Enhancement Project "Research on the Knowledge Innovation Mechanism of Municipal Industry-Education Alliance" (Project No.: 2025KY1966); This study is also supported by the Dean’s Grant Fund of the Faculty of Education, Palacký University (GFD_Pdf_2025_02) and the Internal Grant Agency (IGA_2025_013). 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BMC Public Health , 25 (1), 1355. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21994-z Yeo, G., Loo, G., Oon, M., Pang, R., & Ho, D. (2023). A Digital Peer Support Platform to Translate Online Peer Support for Emerging Adult Mental Well-being: Randomized Controlled Trial. JMIR Ment Health , 10 , e43956. https://doi.org/10.2196/43956 Yi, D., Wu, J., Zhang, M., Zeng, Q., Wang, J., Liang, J., & Cai, Y. (2022). Does Involution Cause Anxiety? An Empirical Study from Chinese Universities. Int J Environ Res Public Health , 19 (16). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19169826 Yu, C., Zhao, S., Jin, L., Wang, Y., & Lin, D. (2024). A single-session growth mindset intervention among Chinese junior secondary school students. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being , 16 (4), 2397-2420. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12596 Zhou, X., Bambling, M., Bai, X., & Edirippulige, S. (2023). Chinese school adolescents’ stress experience and coping strategies: a qualitative study. BMC Psychology , 11 (1), 91. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01137-y Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers invited by journal 11 Nov, 2025 Editor invited by journal 17 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 14 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 14 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 13 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7848869","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":547401051,"identity":"70b0c013-b501-498e-a8c8-87e43b99c8de","order_by":0,"name":"Jing Lu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wuzhou Vocational College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jing","middleName":"","lastName":"Lu","suffix":""},{"id":547401052,"identity":"136dd288-2f0a-48df-aaa3-9fd1c45ce31e","order_by":1,"name":"Hongyang Liu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAziLnbGB4QOQ5iNeCzNjA+MMIM1GghYg4iFGizl77+HXPDV37BqYmdukbdvuyLExMD/+gE+LZc+5NGueY8+SG5gZ26Rz254ZszGwGRjg02JwI8fMmIftcDIDRMvhxDYGHoYEwlr+QbVYQrUcIKDF+DFv22E7sBZGiBZgcOPTcuaMGePcvsMJbMyMzUCPAf3CzGaMTweDwfEe4w9vvh2252dvf3jjR9kdOX72ZvwhBgRsUsDoALoHDA6AI4gQYP74g4HBngGuZRSMglEwCkYBGgAAoSxDgWscaYYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Palacký University, Olomouc","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hongyang","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-13 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18:24:20","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":11851,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7848869/v1/b9a321e4f1222cb8ed1aacd2.png"},{"id":96454212,"identity":"b5ee4829-6841-4709-90ca-ebf6e01e4615","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-21 10:02:28","extension":"xml","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":191177,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"eabd225204c54f26905a721fbb60dd0c1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7848869/v1/560ceb3e8d3761d7f10f1b92.xml"},{"id":96410315,"identity":"bcf802b7-ae5d-407f-8b4f-9c77fdf6951f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-20 18:24:21","extension":"html","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":201739,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7848869/v1/7ed9dfa97fe05137e07801b5.html"},{"id":96410296,"identity":"124731b9-009b-4b98-a4ac-e756a2f69f64","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-20 18:24:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":272817,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSimple‐slope and Johnson–Neyman (J–N) plots for the moderating effect of psychological resilience on the link between academic involution and emotional distress. Left: Predicted emotional distress from academic involution at low (−1 SD), mean, and high (+1 SD) resilience. The simple slopes are B = 0.237, 0.155, and 0.074 (all p ≤.042), showing that the positive INV→ED association progressively weakens as resilience increases. Right: J–N curve depicting the conditional INV→ED effect (solid line) with its 95% bootstrap CIs (dashed). The effect decreases with resilience and becomes non-significant at ~+1 SD of resilience, indicating that at very high resilience the association is statistically indistinguishable from zero. Notes: variables were mean-centered; coefficients were estimated with PROCESS Model 59 controlling for sex, grade, place of origin, and age; CIs are based on 5,000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1Copy.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7848869/v1/7f6abab55fa5e3fc649e053e.jpg"},{"id":96410297,"identity":"123d366a-291d-4c98-98d2-81db0f3452c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-20 18:24:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33574,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eModerated-mediation model linking academic involution to emotional distress via perceived stress, with psychological resilience as moderator. Paths display unstandardized coefficients from PROCESS Model 59 (5,000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples; predictors mean-centered). Resilience moderates the X→M (involution→perceived stress), M→Y (perceived stress→emotional distress), and X→Y (direct) paths. Covariates (sex, grade level, place of origin, age) were controlled. Coefficients: INV→PSS = 0.522***; PSS→ED = 0.822***; INV→ED = 0.426***; INV×RES→ED = −0.081**; PSS×RES→ED = −0.131***; INV×RES→PSS = −0.072***.\u003cbr\u003e\nNote. *** p \u0026lt; .001, ** p \u0026lt; .01.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2Copy.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7848869/v1/93dbf019172c69d5200032eb.jpg"},{"id":96708268,"identity":"b8bad728-a9b0-4a26-862a-a959718f8e87","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 09:59:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1359705,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7848869/v1/da092dfc-a7b3-4065-8ebf-008f6eabec63.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Academic Involution and Emotional Distress in Vocational College Students: A Moderated Mediation via Perceived Stress and Psychological Resilience","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.1 Background\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn mainland China, the buzzword neijuan (involution) has quickly become shorthand for escalating, zero-sum competition that stretches from the classroom to the workplace. The term captures a pervasive sense of \u0026ldquo;running harder without moving forward,\u0026rdquo; now frequently used by students and early-career workers to describe doing more for diminishing returns in tightly rationed opportunity structures (Jiang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Qian \u0026amp; Bram, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Emerging empirical work suggests that such over-competition environments are linked to higher perceived stress and poorer emotional well-being among youth and young professionals (Barbayannis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mingze et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Within China specifically, recent studies report substantial symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress among vocational and university cohorts, underscoring the need to understand psychological mechanisms in these settings (Wu \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Collectively, these observations point to an urgent but still nascent research agenda on how \u0026ldquo;involutional\u0026rdquo; academic climates relate to stress appraisal and emotional distress among Chinese vocational college students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe transactional model of stress and coping views stress as an appraisal process that links situational demands to outcomes via perceived (un)controllability and coping resources (Lazarus \u0026amp; Folkman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e), typically operationalized with the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, frameworks such as the Job Demands\u0026ndash;Resources model and Effort\u0026ndash;Reward Imbalance conceptualize \u0026ldquo;too many demands, too few resources or rewards\u0026rdquo; contexts\u0026mdash;highly consistent with involution\u0026mdash;as risk conditions for strain and distress (Bakker \u0026amp; Demerouti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Siegrist, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Conservation of Resources theory further predicts loss spirals when resources are scarce and competition is intense, while highlighting the protective role of resource caravans (Hobfoll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e). Psychological resilience\u0026mdash;often described as \u0026ldquo;ordinary magic\u0026rdquo;\u0026mdash;is one such protective resource, repeatedly shown to buffer links between stress and internalizing symptoms in student populations (Masten, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Guided by these perspectives, this study tested a moderated-mediation model in a cross-sectional sample of Chinese vocational college students: academic involution as the independent variable, perceived stress as the mediator, emotional distress as the outcome, and psychological resilience as a protective moderator expected to attenuate both direct and indirect (stress-linked) effects (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Kroenke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Masten, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.2 Literature Review\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.2.1 The relationship between academic involution and emotional distress\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Academic involution\u0026rdquo; (\u003cem\u003eneijuan\u003c/em\u003e) describes a hyper-competitive, zero-sum study climate in which escalating effort yields diminishing returns, often accompanied by long hours and performance pressures (Gu \u0026amp; Mao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In Chinese higher education\u0026mdash;including vocational colleges\u0026mdash;this climate has been widely linked to heightened stress and common mental health symptoms (anxiety, depression) in student populations (Chai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Wu \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Conceptually, involutional environments amplify perceived demands and social comparison, which have been repeatedly associated with emotional distress in college cohorts (Barbayannis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Empirically, multi-site surveys show positive associations between involutional tendencies and anxiety in university students, with \u0026ldquo;passive\u0026rdquo; forms of involution particularly detrimental (Yi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Given PHQ-4 captures ultra-brief anxiety\u0026ndash;depressive distress (Kroenke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), the expectation is that stronger academic involution relates to higher emotional distress among vocational students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.2.2 The mediating role of perceived stress\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived stress is the appraisal that environmental demands exceed personal coping resources (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e), a core mechanism in the transactional stress\u0026ndash;coping model (Lazarus \u0026amp; Folkman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). In involutional contexts, intense competition and limited rewards are likely to be internalized as high perceived stress, which then predicts proximal distress (Gu \u0026amp; Mao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Recent studies with Chinese college students consistently link higher PSS scores to greater depressive and anxiety symptoms, and several models show perceived stress as a mediator between adverse academic contexts and mental health outcomes (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Work specifically on involution suggests perceived stress (and anxiety) carry indirect effects from involutional tendencies to maladaptive outcomes (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Together, theory and data support a stress-appraisal pathway from academic involution to emotional distress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.2.3 The moderating role of resilience\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePsychological resilience\u0026mdash;adaptive capacity to maintain or regain functioning under stress\u0026mdash;acts as a protective resource that can weaken risk\u0026ndash;outcome links (Masten, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). In student samples, resilience is inversely related to perceived stress and internalizing symptoms, and often attenuates (buffers) the impact of stressors on distress (Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Crucially, a large study of Chinese college students found that ego resilience moderated the pathway from perceived stress to depressive symptoms\u0026mdash;the stress\u0026ndash;distress association was stronger among those with lower resilience (Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Related work in health and education settings similarly documents resilience operating as a buffer within stress\u0026ndash;mental health models (Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Grounded in risk-protective and resource-based perspectives, resilience is therefore expected to mitigate the harmful effect of perceived stress on emotional distress among vocational students, implying a weaker indirect effect of involution at higher resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.3 Gaps in The Literature\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite growing discussion of \u003cem\u003eneijuan\u003c/em\u003e (involution) in China, empirical work remains uneven. Most studies documenting links between involutional climates and mental health have focused on general university populations rather than vocational colleges, even though vocational students report substantial symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress (Wu \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conceptualizations of involution have only recently been operationalized with multi-dimensional instruments that distinguish psychological pressure, social-norm pressures, competitive behaviors, and resource scarcity (Wen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Within explanatory models, prior research has typically examined bivariate associations or single-mediator pathways, with comparatively fewer tests integrating both a stress appraisal mechanism and a protective factor in one model. Theory, however, clearly motivates such integration: the transactional model of stress and coping positions perceived stress as a proximal mechanism linking environmental demands to emotional outcomes, while resilience is a canonical protective resource that can weaken stress\u0026ndash;symptom links (Lazarus \u0026amp; Folkman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Masten, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, much of the available evidence is cross-sectional, limiting inferences about directionality and underscoring the value of precise, theory-driven tests in specific educational contexts (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Kroenke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study addresses these gaps by examining an integrated moderated-mediation model among Chinese vocational college students. Academic involution is treated as the predictor, perceived stress as the mediator, emotional distress (PHQ-4) as the outcome, and psychological resilience as a protective moderator expected to attenuate stress\u0026ndash;distress coupling. Guided by stress-and-coping, conservation/resource, and risk\u0026ndash;protective perspectives, the study pursues three aims: (a) estimate the association between academic involution and emotional distress; (b) test whether perceived stress mediates this association; and (c) evaluate whether psychological resilience buffers the stress\u0026ndash;distress pathway and, consequently, the indirect effect of involution on distress. Corresponding hypotheses are:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1: Academic involution has a positive relationship with emotional distress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2: Perceived stress mediates the association between academic involution and emotional distress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3: Psychological resilience moderates the association between perceived stress and emotional distress such that the association is weaker at higher resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on H2\u0026ndash;H3, an integrative expectation is that the indirect effect of involution on emotional distress via perceived stress will be weaker at higher levels of resilience (index of moderated mediation), consistent with resource-buffering accounts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Participant\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis cross-sectional survey used an online questionnaire administered at a public vocational college in Wuzhou, Guangxi (China). The survey link was sent to program counselors, who posted it in official WeChat class groups. Before accessing the items, students viewed an information/consent page stating that participation was voluntary, they could stop at any time without penalty, and all responses were anonymous and used only for research. Only currently enrolled students could proceed; no incentives were offered. After data screening, the final analytic sample comprised N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;663 respondents with no missing data on demographic variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sample was predominantly female (577/663, 87.0%), with male students accounting for 13.0% (86/663). Participants\u0026rsquo; ages ranged from 17 to 22 years (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.08, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.01; median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19). By year level, first-year students comprised 36.7% (243/663), second-year 23.4% (155/663), and third-year 40.0% (265/663). Regarding place of origin, 30.6% reported rural backgrounds (203/663), 25.8% county towns (171/663), 43.0% prefecture-level cities (285/663), and 0.6% provincial capitals or above (4/663).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire used a forced-response format: each item had to be answered to submit the survey. Participation remained entirely voluntary, and students could close the browser at any point without penalty; partial responses were not retained. Consequently, the analytic dataset contained no item-level missing data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Measurement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Academic Involution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic involution was assessed using the involution questionnaire developed by Wen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).This questionnaire was assessed with the 18-item, four-factor Involution Perception Scale developed in cultural-psychology work on neijuan in China\u0026mdash;dimensions: Psychological Pressure (ST), Social Norms (SN), Competition Behavior (CB), and Resource Scarcity (RS) (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I feel frustrated in study/work\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Most people around me keep working beyond minimum requirements\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;People around me gain recognition via competition\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;Too few resources to receive what I deserve\u0026rdquo;). Positively worded items within the ST subscale (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I feel full of energy in study/work\u0026rdquo;) are reverse-scored so that higher scores reflect higher perceived involutional pressure. Items were rated on a 7-point agreement scale; subscale scores and a total score (mean of all items) were computed, with higher scores indicating stronger perceived academic involution. The original scale shows sound psychometrics and a stable four-factor structure across student and worker samples in China, with good internal consistency and acceptable convergent/discriminant validity and provides representative items for each facet (Wen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present sample, internal consistency was α(total)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.905; α(ST)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.876; α(SN)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.874; α(CB)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.912; α(RS)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.879. A confirmatory factor analysis supported excellent fit (χ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.691, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.911, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.894, NNFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.894, GFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.990, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.044, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.032).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Perceived Stress\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived stress over the past month was measured with the 4-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-4) (Cohen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). Items are rated on a 0\u0026ndash;4 frequency scale (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;never to 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very often) and summed (range 0\u0026ndash;16), with Items 2 and 3 reverse-scored (\u0026ldquo;felt confident about your ability to handle personal problems\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;felt things were going your way\u0026rdquo;). Prior Chinese studies report acceptable reliability and construct validity for Chinese PSS versions, including evidence in community samples and psychometric reviews; as is typical for very brief forms, reliability is modest but adequate (Du et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; She et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.70; model fit was excellent (χ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.671, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.896, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.901, NNFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.901, GFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.910, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.034, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.028).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 Emotional Distress\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotional distress (past two weeks) was assessed with the PHQ-4, which combines the GAD-2 (anxiety) and PHQ-2 (depression) into a 4-item screener scored 0\u0026ndash;3 (not at all to nearly every day)(Kroenke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Subscales are summed (0\u0026ndash;6 each) and a total score 0\u0026ndash;12 indexes global distress; higher scores indicate more severe symptoms. The PHQ-4 shows a robust two-factor structure and strong validity in the original development paper and has accumulating psychometric support in Chinese samples, including longitudinal measurement invariance in healthcare students and recent adolescent validation. (Meng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, internal consistency was αtotal\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.748; αANX\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.657; αDEP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.731; CFA fit was excellent (χ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.597, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.991, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.990, NNFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.990, GFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.968, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.4 Resilience\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResilience was measured with the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS-6) (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Items use a 1\u0026ndash;5 agreement scale; three items are reverse-scored (Items 2, 4, 6; e.g., \u0026ldquo;I have a hard time making it through stressful events\u0026rdquo;), and a mean score is computed (higher\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;greater \u0026ldquo;bounce-back\u0026rdquo; capacity). The BRS has been repeatedly validated, and Chinese studies (e.g., university students and community samples) support its factor structure and reliability, often outperforming other brief resilience measures (Fung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lai \u0026amp; Yue, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In the current sample, internal consistency was α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.867 with good fit (χ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.022, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.978, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.956, NNFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.956, GFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.968, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.027, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll analyses were conducted in JASP 0.19.3 with PROCESS macro (Model 59) for conditional process analysis (Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Because the questionnaire enforced forced responses, there was no item-level missingness; the analytic \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e was 663. Prior to hypothesis testing, distributions of the study variables were inspected (skewness/kurtosis within \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2), and assumptions for parametric tests were checked. For group comparisons, homogeneity of variances was examined with Levene\u0026rsquo;s test; where violated, Welch\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e or Welch\u0026rsquo;s ANOVA and Games\u0026ndash;Howell post-hoc tests were applied (Field, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBecause all variables were self-report and collected in a single session, potential common-method bias (CMB) was screened before group-difference testing. A Harman single-factor test was conducted by submitting all measurement items to an unrotated exploratory factor analysis (principal-axis factoring) and examining the variance explained by the first factor; values substantially below ~\u0026thinsp;40% were interpreted as evidence that CMB is unlikely to be a pervasive artifact (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). As a robustness check, a single-factor confirmatory model was also estimated and compared to the specified measurement model; poor fit of the single-factor solution further reduces concern about CMB (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Williams et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, descriptive statistics (means, SDs, ranges) summarized the four focal constructs\u0026mdash;academic involution, perceived stress, emotional distress (PHQ-4 total), and psychological resilience (BRS)\u0026mdash;and the distribution of demographic variables (sex, year level, place of origin, age). To be conservative, prior to correlational analyses, independent-samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e tests were used to test sex differences on each of the four constructs (effect size Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e with 95% CIs; small/medium/large benchmarks per Cohen) (Cohen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Then one-way ANOVAs evaluated differences across year level (first, second, third) and place of origin (rural, county town, prefecture-level city, provincial capital or above) for each construct (effect size partial η\u0026sup2;; post-hoc tests as noted above). Next, Pearson product\u0026ndash;moment correlations estimated associations among the four continuous variables (two-tailed, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, the hypothesized moderated-mediation model was tested with PROCESS Model 59, specifying academic involution (X) \u0026rarr; perceived stress (M) \u0026rarr; emotional distress (Y), with psychological resilience (W) as the moderator of a path (X\u0026rarr;M), b path (M\u0026rarr;Y), and direct path (X\u0026rarr;Y). All continuous predictors were meant to be centered before computing interaction terms. Bias-corrected bootstrap CIs (5,000 resamples) were used to infer indirect and conditional effects. Significance of conditional indirect effects was evaluated via the index of moderated mediation with 95% bootstrap CIs (Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Interactions were probed using simple-slope analyses and the Johnson\u0026ndash;Neyman technique to identify regions of significance across levels of resilience. Demographic covariates (sex, year level, place of origin, age) were entered as controls in the PROCESS model; results are reported with unstandardized coefficients and 95% CIs and visualized at low/mean/high (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 SD / mean / +1 SD) resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Ethical Consideration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki and applicable institutional guidelines for human participant research. Ethical approval was obtained from the university ethics committee (institution name withheld for peer review). Recruitment used an online survey link shared with program counselors, who posted it in official QQ class groups. To minimize any perception of coercion, the invitation emphasized that participation was entirely voluntary, unrelated to coursework or academic evaluation, and that counselors and teachers would not see individual responses. No incentives were offered.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEligibility required participants to be 18 years or older. Before any items were displayed, students viewed an electronic information sheet and consent statement describing the study purpose and procedures, minimal risks and potential benefits, data protection measures, the voluntary nature of participation, and the right to discontinue at any time without penalty. Consent was recorded electronically (checkbox) prior to proceeding. A forced-response format was used so that all items had to be completed to submit the questionnaire; however, participants could close the browser at any point, in which case partial responses were not retained. The questionnaire contained brief screenings of stress and emotional symptoms (PSS-4, PHQ-4); because such items may evoke mild discomfort, the debrief page included contact information for on-campus counseling services and commonly available mental-health helplines.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo personally identifying information (e.g., name, student ID, phone, exact class) was collected, and responses were recorded anonymously. Data were stored in encrypted, password-protected files on secure institutional servers with access restricted to the research team. Only aggregated results are reported. Consistent with the anonymous design, once a response was submitted it could not be individually located for deletion; participants were informed of this limitation during consent. Data will be retained for a standard archival period (e.g., five years) solely for research verification and will not be shared publicly at the individual level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Common method bias\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo assess potential common-method bias, all measurement items were submitted to an unrotated exploratory factor analysis (Harman\u0026rsquo;s single-factor test). The first factor accounted for 10.6% of the total variance\u0026mdash;well below the conventional 40% benchmark\u0026mdash;indicating that serious common-method bias was unlikely to threaten the findings (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Intergroup differences and correlation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndependent-samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e tests indicated one significant gender difference: psychological resilience was slightly higher among female than male (female: \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.36, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.90; male: \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.10, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.97), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(661)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.51, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.012, \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.29 (small effect). No significant gender differences emerged for academic involution, perceived stress, or emotional distress (PHQ-4). Results were substantively unchanged when using Welch\u0026rsquo;s correction where variance heterogeneity was indicated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcross first-year (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;243), second-year (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;155), and third-year (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;265) students, no grade-level differences were observed on any focal construct. Welch\u0026rsquo;s one-way ANOVAs were nonsignificant for academic involution (F(2, 392)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.935, η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), perceived stress (F(2, 388)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.461, η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), emotional distress (PHQ-4) (F(2, 394)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.66, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.517, η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and psychological resilience (F(2, 392)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.813, η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Given the absence of omnibus effects, no post-hoc comparisons were pursued.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWelch\u0026rsquo;s ANOVAs indicated marginal group effects for academic involution (Welch \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3, 15.1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.052, η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008) and perceived stress (Welch \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3, 15.1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.19, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.054, η\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009). Descriptively, students from provincial-capital or above backgrounds reported the highest scores (INV: \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.85; PSS: \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.06; \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4) compared with rural (INV: 3.87; PSS: 2.24), county-town (INV: 3.93; PSS: 2.31), and prefecture-level city origins (INV: 3.85; PSS: 2.27). However, Games\u0026ndash;Howell post-hoc tests were nonsignificant for all pairwise contrasts (all \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;.13), suggesting that the trend was driven largely by the very small provincial-capital subgroup and should be interpreted with caution. No place-of-origin differences were found for emotional distress (PHQ-4) or resilience (both \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;.14).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the sake of conservatism, gender, grade, and place of origin will be controlled when conducting correlation analysis and moderated mediation model analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the focal variables showed the following bivariate patterns (two-tailed, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05). Academic involution was positively associated with both perceived stress (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.376, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and emotional distress (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.387, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and weakly negatively related to resilience (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.122, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01). Perceived stress correlated positively with emotional distress (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.553, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and negatively with resilience (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.216, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Resilience was inversely related to emotional distress (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.328, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelation analysis results\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.Involution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.Perceived Stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.Emotional Distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.Involution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.934\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.Perceived Stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.275\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.728\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.376***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.Emotional Distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.922\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.705\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.383***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.553***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.resilience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.324\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.914\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.122**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.216***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.328***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u0026nbsp;p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, *** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe pattern\u0026mdash;risk links from involution to stress and distress, and protective links for resilience\u0026mdash;supports proceeding to the hypothesized moderated-mediation analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Moderated mediation model\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study used 5,000 bias-corrected percentile bootstrapping to estimate 95% confidence intervals for indirect and conditional indirect effects in Hayes Macro PROCESS Model 59. Significance was considered when the interval did not contain 0. All continuous variables were mean-centered, and interaction terms were constructed. Standard errors, z values, and p-values ​​for path coefficients were calculated using the delta method. Interactions were tested and presented using simple slope and Johnson\u0026ndash;Neyman techniques.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, academic involution significantly predicted emotional distress controlling for other terms (direct effect: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.426, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.096, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.451, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.224, 0.606]). In addition, perceived stress strongly predicted emotional distress (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.822, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.106, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.762, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.595, 1.041]). On the a path, involution positively predicted perceived stress (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.522, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.108, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.853, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.327, 0.737]). Together these effects indicate a significant partial mediation whereby higher involution is associated with more distress via higher perceived stress. The main effect of resilience on perceived stress was not significant (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.146, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.252).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath coefficient analysis results\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEstimate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ez-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.426\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.451\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.224\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.606\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived stress \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.822\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.762\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.595\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.041\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResilience \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.469\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.276\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.273\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.663\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution*Resilience \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.081\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.949\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived stress* Resilience \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.194\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Perceived stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.522\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.853\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.737\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResilience \u0026rarr; Perceived stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.145\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.252\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.091\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.383\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution* Resilience \u0026rarr; Perceived stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.299\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.133\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e \u0026nbsp;Confidence intervals are bias-corrected percentile bootstrapped. Standard errors, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e -values and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e -values are based on the delta method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResilience exerted a protective (buffering) role by moderating the key links in the model. Specifically, resilience attenuated (i) the direct association between involution and emotional distress (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e for INV \u0026times; RES\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.081, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.028, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.949, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003, 95% CI [\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.131, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.025]); (ii) the association between perceived stress and emotional distress (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e for PSS \u0026times; RES\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.131, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.032, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4.144, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.194, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.065]); and (iii) the association between involution and perceived stress (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e for INV \u0026times; RES\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.072, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.031, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.299, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.021, 95% CI [\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.133, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.016]). These negative interaction coefficients indicate that as resilience increases, both the direct and indirect (stress-linked) effects of involution on emotional distress become weaker, consistent with the hypothesized moderated mediation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimple-slope probing of the interactions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) showed that the direct effect of academic involution on emotional distress was significant at all tested levels of resilience but diminished as resilience increased: at low resilience (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 SD on the moderator used for probing) \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.237, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.038, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.292, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.152, 0.315]; at the mean level \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.155, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.261, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.105, 0.208]; and at high resilience (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;1 SD) \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.074, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.037, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.036, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.042, 95% CI [0.009, 0.140].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath effect sizes of different levels of psychological resilience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEstimate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Error\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ez-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM-SD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.237\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.292\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.152\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.315\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.155\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.261\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.208\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.036\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Perceived stress \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM-SD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.183\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.968\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.248\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Perceived stress \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.688\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvolution \u0026rarr; Perceived stress \u0026rarr; Emotional distress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.642\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.089\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e \u0026nbsp;Confidence intervals are bias-corrected percentile bootstrapped. Standard errors, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e -values and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e -values are based on the delta method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA similar buffering pattern emerged for the indirect effect via perceived stress: at low resilience the indirect effect was largest (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.183, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.026, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.968, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.132, 0.248]); at the mean level it was moderate (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.109, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.688, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.083, 0.140]); and at high resilience it was smallest (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.054, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015, \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.642, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.029, 0.089]). Taken together, these conditional effects indicate that greater psychological resilience weakens both the direct pathway from involution to distress and the stress-mediated pathway, consistent with the proposed protective (buffering) role of resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimple-slope probing confirmed the buffering role of resilience in the moderated-mediation model (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The direct effect of involution on emotional distress remained significant at low, mean, and high resilience but decreased monotonically as resilience increased (low: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.237, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.038, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.292, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; mean: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.155, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.261, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; high: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.074, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.037, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.036, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.042). The indirect effect via perceived stress showed the same pattern\u0026mdash;largest at low resilience (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.183, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.026, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.968, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), moderate at the mean (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.109, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.688, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and smallest at high resilience (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.054, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.642, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001)\u0026mdash;indicating that resilience weakens both the direct and stress-mediated links from involution to distress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe J\u0026ndash;N analysis identified a boundary at approximately\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;1 SD of resilience, above which the INV\u0026rarr;ED effect\u0026rsquo;s 95% CI includes zero, whereas below this boundary the effect is significantly positive and grows as resilience decreases. Together, these tests visually and inferentially confirm the protective (buffering) role of resilience in both the direct and stress-mediated pathways from academic involution to emotional distress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Finding Interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e depicts the final moderated-mediation model with unstandardized path estimates. Consistent with the hypotheses, academic involution showed a significant direct effect on emotional distress (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.426) and an indirect effect via perceived stress (INV \u0026rarr; PSS \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.522; PSS \u0026rarr; ED \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.822). Psychological resilience acted as a protective moderator on all three links: it weakened the paths from INV \u0026rarr; ED (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e for INV\u0026times;RES\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.081), from PSS \u0026rarr; ED (PSS\u0026times;RES\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.131), and from INV \u0026rarr; PSS (INV\u0026times;RES\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.072). Simple-slope and Johnson\u0026ndash;Neyman probing showed that both the direct and indirect (stress-linked) effects of involution on distress were largest at low resilience, attenuated at mean resilience, and smallest or nonsignificant at high resilience (J\u0026ndash;N boundary\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;1 SD), indicating a robust buffering role of resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe bivariate pattern aligns with these paths: involution correlated positively with perceived stress and emotional distress and weakly negatively with resilience; perceived stress correlated positively with distress and negatively with resilience; and resilience correlated negatively with distress. These associations echo prior work showing that intensifying academic competition and over-investment are tied to greater stress and internalizing symptoms among Chinese college populations (Barbayannis et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Wu \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and that resilience relates inversely to stress and distress in student samples (Hu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ma et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The present model extends those findings by demonstrating that perceived stress is a mechanism linking involution to distress while resilience systematically weakens both the 3 paths in the mediation model.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTheoretically, the context of academic involution places a high emphasis on relative rankings and continuous escalation, and its psychological mechanisms are quite similar to those of upward society: peers continue to study longer hours, obtain higher grades, and are visible in the class, which easily triggers the threatening interpretation of \u0026quot;I am falling behind (Festinger, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1954\u003c/span\u003e; Gibbons \u0026amp; Buunk, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Suls et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u0026quot; From the stress-coping perspective, when external demands are assessed as exceeding available resources and sense of control, higher perceived stress will occur, which in turn increases emotional distress such as anxiety and depression (Lazarus \u0026amp; Folkman, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, both the job demand-resource model and the effort-reward imbalance model view an environment of \u0026quot;high demands and low resources or low rewards\u0026quot; as a risk condition for stress and health impairment (Bakker \u0026amp; Demerouti, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Siegrist, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Conservation of resources theory also points out that constant competition and scarce rewards can trigger a spiral of resource depletion (time, energy, and self-efficacy), increasing stress and transforming it into anxiety-depressive symptoms (Hobfoll, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Hobfoll, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the positive paths of involution \u0026rarr; perceived stress and perceived stress \u0026rarr; emotional distress observed in this study are consistent with both theory and existing empirical findings among Chinese college students or vocational school students (Wen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, psychological resilience represents a resource caravan, including enhanced cognitive reappraisal, problem-focused and emotion regulation strategies, and the mobilization of social support (Hobfoll, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Masten, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). When faced with involutionary signals, highly resilient individuals are more likely to reframe demands as challenges rather than threats, set boundaries and prioritize them, and seek help early. This enhances their sense of control, reduces imbalance, and mitigates the impact of involution on perceived stress (INV \u0026times; RES is negative).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition to stressful appraisals, involution can also influence emotional distress through affective/cognitive pathways such as status anxiety, perfectionism, fear of being judged, and rumination. High resilience, associated with hope/optimism, meaning-making, and self-compassion, can inhibit rumination and negative self-focus, thereby weakening the direct effect of involution on distress (Fergus \u0026amp; Zimmerman, 2005; Masten, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResilience is a classic stress response buffer: better reappraisal and emotion regulation transform the same level of perceived stress into lower anxiety and depression; this is also manifested physiologically and behaviorally as faster recovery, less persistent worry, and earlier support seeking (Ong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the negative interaction observed on the stress-symptom pathway (PSS \u0026times; RES\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0) was expected.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTaken together, the integrated perspective of social comparison\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;stress-coping\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;job demand-resource\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;conservation of resources\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;resilience can simultaneously explain the mediating mechanism (involution increases stress, stress leads to distress) and the three buffering pathways (resilience reduces stress generation, reduces direct emotional impact, and reduces stress reactivity), thereby forming the moderated mediation model verified in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Significance\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Theoretical Significance\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn a theoretical level, this study extends the empirical associations of \u0026quot;academic involution\u0026quot; to vocational college students and integrates multiple classic frameworks using a moderated mediation model: involution can be viewed as a high-demand and low-resource, low-reward, and highly ranked educational context that reinforces threatening interpretations and feelings of loss of control through social comparison (particularly upward comparison), thereby increasing perceived stress and leading to emotional distress such as anxiety and depression. This is consistent with the inferences of the stress-coping perspective, the job demands-resources model, and the effort-reward imbalance model (Bakker \u0026amp; Demerouti, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Lazarus \u0026amp; Folkman, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Siegrist, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, conservation of resources theory suggests that resource loss spirals are more likely to occur in environments with intense competition and sparse returns, further increasing stress and symptoms (Hobfoll, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Hobfoll, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e). This study also shows that psychological resilience has a buffering effect along three key pathways (involution \u0026rarr; stress, involution \u0026rarr; emotional distress, and stress \u0026rarr; emotional distress), complementing previous studies that have focused solely on a single pathway. This study also provides integrative evidence for the localized expansion of theories such as social comparison, stress-coping, job demand-resource, and conservation of resources in the context of higher vocational education in China. It also responds to recent calls for research on the psychological measurement and mechanisms of \u0026quot;involution\u0026quot; in the Chinese context (Wen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Practical Significance\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn practice, China\u0026apos;s universities and vocational education are currently facing the combined pressures of a continuously increasing number of graduates, intensifying labor market competition, and slowing macroeconomic momentum. A World Bank report indicates that China\u0026apos;s economic growth rate will slow after 2024, with consumption and real estate still a drag (Bank, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a, June\u003c/span\u003e, 2024b, December). Furthermore, official statistics, based on the new caliber, show relatively high urban unemployment rates for young people (e.g., 17.6% for non-school-aged 16\u0026ndash;24 in September 2024; this remains high in early 2025), indicating significant employment pressure for young people (Reuters, 2024, Oct 22, 2025, Mar 20).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, recent epidemiological studies have shown that levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among Chinese vocational college students are significant (Wu \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Within this macro and campus context, the importance of psychological resilience education is particularly prominent: systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials have shown that interventions centered on resilience/positive education in schools (such as PERMA, growth-oriented thinking, and emotion regulation and cognitive reappraisal training) can reduce stress and emotional distress and enhance adaptation and well-being in the short and medium term (Abulfaraj et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Jianping et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Qu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt a practical level, combining the \u0026quot;involution \u0026rarr; perceived stress \u0026rarr; emotional distress, with psychological resilience as a buffer\u0026quot; model can provide evidence-based intervention pathways for schools and society. First, regarding the modifiable mechanisms of stress and emotional distress, mindfulness-based stress reduction interventions for Chinese university students have been demonstrated in numerous studies to have significant effects on anxiety, depression, and stress. These interventions can also achieve substantial improvements online or in low-intensity formats, making them suitable for promotion in vocational colleges through coursework or workshops (short-term classroom practice and homework-based exercises can enhance retention). A meta-analysis of Chinese samples showed that mindfulness interventions significantly reduced anxiety in Chinese college students. Another review of randomized controlled trials also supported the effectiveness of MBSR on multiple indicators. Low-intensity/action-based mindfulness interventions can also reduce distress in Chinese college students, demonstrating its scalability (Hall et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecond, consistent with this study\u0026apos;s finding that resilience has a protective effect, a systematic review of college students found that resilience-oriented curricula (including modules such as reappraisal, emotion regulation, problem-solving, and social support mobilization) can improve mental health and well-being to a small to moderate degree. A sweeping review of Chinese school settings also advocates for an integrated approach of \u0026quot;universal promotion\u0026mdash;tiered prevention\u0026mdash;screening and referral,\u0026quot; linking campus psychological services with healthcare. This aligns with national policy\u0026apos;s emphasis on developing a strong school mental health faculty and referral system (Abulfaraj et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Qu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThirdly, given the close connection between involution and social comparison, reducing comparison signals and optimizing feedback mechanisms are worthwhile. Research indicates that academic social comparison increases the fear of negative evaluation, making it a potential intervention target for reducing stress and increasing effectiveness. In Chinese writing and science and engineering instruction, adjusting comparison and feedback mechanisms can influence students\u0026apos; anxiety and motivation (Hong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pigart et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). When applied to families and classrooms, it is recommended to increase non-comparative, process-oriented feedback and reduce single ranking signals.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn terms of facilitating resources and protective factors, a growth mindset can enhance well-being and growth attitudes in a sample of Chinese students and is associated with better psychological well-being. Recent single-session growth mindset interventions have also demonstrated feasibility and effectiveness in Chinese participants, making them suitable as a low-cost option for all students (Jianping et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, peer support, as a scalable human resource model, shows promise both empirically and at the policy level in China. Peer crisis intervention and peer education, initiated in universities, are gradually becoming institutionalized, and the national government and various departments are promoting peer and community support for adolescent mental health. Research in community and university settings has shown that peer support can improve psychological indicators and is acceptable. Randomized trial evidence supports the effectiveness of online peer support and digital platforms in reducing distress (Fan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Fan et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Jiang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yeo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegarding specific implementation on campus, research on social and emotional learning (SEL) courses in China has shown that they can reduce anxiety and depression. This suggests that vocational colleges can integrate SEL, mindfulness, and resilience modules with career planning and job-seeking skills training to both reduce stress and enhance job adaptation (Li \u0026amp; Hesketh, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinally, given that regional disparities and disconnects persist in school mental health practices, we recommend implementing regular screening and tiered services (self-help resources \u0026rarr; peers and groups \u0026rarr; professional counseling \u0026rarr; medical referral) based on the framework proposed by the scanning review using brief questionnaires such as the PHQ-4/PSS. This approach should also be combined with the strengthening of local resources and hotline platforms at the municipal level to create a closed loop of \u0026quot;school-community-medical care (Qu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Limitation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeveral constraints should be acknowledged when interpreting these findings. First, the cross-sectional design precludes strong causal inference. Although the hypothesized ordering (involution \u0026rarr; perceived stress \u0026rarr; emotional distress, buffered by resilience) is theory-driven, reverse or reciprocal relations are plausible\u0026mdash;for example, students who feel distressed may appraise their environment as more involutional, or high perceived stress may heighten upward social comparison. Future studies using multi-wave (e.g., cross-lagged panel) or experimental/intervention designs are needed to strengthen causal claims.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecond, sampling and generalizability are limited. Data came from a single vocational college in Wuzhou, Guangxi, with a predominantly female sample (87%). The recruitment channel (survey links posted by counselors to WeChat class groups) may introduce self-selection (e.g., more engaged/online students) and subtle authority-related pressures, even though anonymity and voluntariness were emphasized. Place-of-origin contrasts should be interpreted cautiously because the provincial-capital subgroup was very small (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4). Replication across regions, institutional types, majors, and more balanced sex distributions is needed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThird, all constructions were measured by brief self-report scales in a single session. While the Harman single-factor test suggested little pervasive common-method bias (first factor\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.6%), this test has limited diagnostic value; unmeasured method effects (mood, social desirability) may remain.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFourth, the moderated mediation was estimated with PROCESS on observed scores, assuming linearity, additivity within interactions, and no measurement error. Latent-variable SEM could model measurement error, test alternative specifications (e.g., moderated paths at the latent level), and evaluate invariance more rigorously. In addition, only a small set of covariates (sex, grade, place of origin) was included; omitted confounders such as socioeconomic status, academic load, major, sleep, prior mental health, family climate, and campus resources might influence both perceived stress and distress, biasing estimates.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinally, the forced-response survey format ensured complete data but may have increased satisficing (e.g., straight-lining) for a minority of respondents; although model fit and correlations were coherent, future work could incorporate attention checks, response-time screens, and paradata to monitor data quality. Collectively, these limitations point to the value of longitudinal, multi-site, multi-method studies\u0026mdash;ideally integrating resilience-building interventions\u0026mdash;to more precisely identify mechanisms and boundary conditions for academic involution\u0026rsquo;s impact on mental health in vocational education contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Prospect\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFuture work can prioritize designs that speak more directly to directionality and change. A simple next step is a multi-wave panel (e.g., beginning\u0026ndash;midterm\u0026ndash;end of semester) to track whether rises in academic involution precede increases in perceived stress and, in turn, emotional distress. Daily or weekly diary/EMA designs could capture short-term \u0026ldquo;comparison \u0026rarr; stress \u0026rarr; affect\u0026rdquo; dynamics. For causal leverage, classroom- or program-level trials are feasible in vocational settings\u0026mdash;e.g., reducing comparison signals in assessment, adding study-resource supports, or offering brief resilience/stress-management modules\u0026mdash;and observing downstream changes in stress and distress. Where randomization is hard, quasi-experimental opportunities (policy tweaks, grading changes, internship allocation rules) can be used.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBroadening scope will also help. Multi-site sampling across regions, majors, and school tiers would test generalizability and allow multi-level models that separate student tendencies from class/school \u0026ldquo;involution climate.\u0026rdquo; Linking student surveys with administrative data (attendance, coursework load, GPA) and near-term outcomes (internship quality, job-search stress) would connect mental-health processes to educational and transition metrics.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMeasurement can be refined without overburdening students. Establishing invariance for the involution scale in vocational cohorts, trying a short form, and combining self-report with a few low-friction indicators (sleep/phone use summaries, brief informant ratings) would reduce shared-method bias. Analytically, it is useful to probe non-linearities or thresholds (when healthy striving tips into involution), heterogeneity (profiles such as high-involution/high-resilience), and additional mechanisms and assets (e.g., social comparison orientation, perfectionistic concerns, fear of negative evaluation, hope, self-compassion). Finally, any promising practices\u0026mdash;curricular, counseling, or peer-based\u0026mdash;should be evaluated for feasibility, scalability, and cost-effectiveness so that vocational colleges can realistically implement them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education, Palack\u0026yacute; University Olomouc (Approval No.: IGA_013_2025; Date: 1.3.2025). All procedures complied with the Declaration of Helsinki and institutional guidelines; the protocol was additionally cleared by\u0026nbsp;Wuzhou Vocational College.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWritten informed consent was obtained from students, and written assent was obtained from all student participants before data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. The manuscript contains no individual person\u0026rsquo;s data in any form.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJing Lu - Data collection, Research conception, Manuscript review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHongyang Liu - Data analysis, Writing the original draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Autonomous Region Education Department\u0026apos;s 2025 Guangxi University Young and Middle-aged Teachers\u0026apos; Scientific Research Basic Capacity Enhancement Project \u0026quot;Research on the Knowledge Innovation Mechanism of Municipal Industry-Education Alliance\u0026quot; (Project No.: 2025KY1966); This study is also supported by the Dean\u0026rsquo;s Grant Fund of the Faculty of Education, Palack\u0026yacute; University (GFD_Pdf_2025_02) and the Internal Grant Agency (IGA_2025_013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDe-identified data may be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request and with appropriate ethical approvals; public sharing is restricted by confidentiality requirements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreregistration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbulfaraj, G. 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Chinese school adolescents\u0026rsquo; stress experience and coping strategies: a qualitative study. \u003cem\u003eBMC Psychology\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 11\u003c/em\u003e(1), 91. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01137-y \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"academic involution, perceived stress, psychological resilience, emotional distress, moderated mediation, vocational college students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7848869/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7848869/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective\u003c/strong\u003e: This study tested a moderated-mediation model in which perceived stress (PSS) mediates the association between academic involution (INV) and emotional distress (PHQ-4), with psychological resilience (BRS) buffering all three paths.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: A cross-sectional online survey of Chinese vocational students (N=663; forced-response, no item-level missing) used an 18-item INV scale, PSS-4, PHQ-4 and BRS-6. Analyses included group tests, correlations and PROCESS Model 59 with 5,000 bias-corrected bootstraps; sex, grade and place of origin were covariates; Harman’s single factor=10.6%.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e: INV correlated positively with PSS and distress; resilience correlated negatively with both. In PROCESS, INV predicted higher distress and higher PSS, and PSS predicted higher distress (all ps\u0026lt;.001). Resilience attenuated INV→PSS, PSS→distress and the direct INV→distress link; the INV→distress slope declined from low to high resilience and became nonsignificant around +1 SD (Johnson–Neyman).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion\u003c/strong\u003e: Involution relates to distress partly via stress, while resilience systematically buffers these effects in vocational colleges.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Academic Involution and Emotional Distress in Vocational College Students: A Moderated Mediation via Perceived Stress and Psychological Resilience","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-20 18:24:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7848869/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-11T11:34:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-17T07:57:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T23:02:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T23:01:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-10-13T12:05:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ad6d09be-66a4-45d3-b820-a9ed0ba09be2","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 20th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-20T18:24:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-20 18:24:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7848869","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7848869","identity":"rs-7848869","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}