The Evolution of Motor Development in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis

The Evolution of Motor Development in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Evolution of Motor Development in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis Sinan AKIN, Piyami ÇAKTO, Cemre Nilay LOFÇA This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448304/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective Due to technological advancements and similar environmental changes, the fundamental motor skills of generations are evolving. It is a matter of curiosity what kind of change has occurred in children's motor proficiency levels due to this change. Therefore, this study aimed to reveal the course of motor proficiency levels of children starting first grade in primary school over a specific period. Method The study covered 10 years. Excluding the pandemic period, measurements were taken from first-grade primary school students at two-year intervals in schools with different socio-economic characteristics. Information from the Ministry of National Education revealed that an average of 6,000 children started first grade in the designated years. Although the numbers varied between the years in which measurements were taken from the designated schools, the sample size for each measurement year consisted of an average of 600 students. Students' motor proficiency was assessed using the short form of the second version of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Test (BOT2-SF). Predictive analyses were performed using One-Way ANOVA and linear regression analysis on the obtained data. Results The findings revealed significant differences between the groups in body coordination, strength and agility, gross motor skills, and the total test score (p < 0.05), while no significant differences were observed between the groups in manual dexterity, hand coordination, or fine motor skills. Linear regression analysis results indicate an upward trend in manual dexterity, while the acceleration in other dimensions is negative. Conclusion In conclusion, although the data analysis results do not reveal very strong results, a negative trend in basic motor skills, such as body coordination and hand coordination, increases the risk of negatively impacting individuals' future quality of life, daily life, and the development of professional skills. Motor competence Motor development fine motor skills gross motor skills longitudinal Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Motor development serves as a foundational component that significantly influences physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth during early childhood. In addition to providing physical competence, motor skills are essential for facilitating children's exploration, communication, and learning (Gallahue & Ozmun, 1994 ; Adolph & Hoch, 2020 ). Supporting motor development in early childhood contributes not only to a healthy lifestyle but also to academic achievement and social integration (Cameron et al., 2016 ; Williams & Monsma, 2017 ; Schmidt et al., 2017 ; Gencigör & Akın, 2024 ). Both environmental and genetic factors play substantial roles in shaping motor development. Research indicates that children residing in areas with low socioeconomic status often demonstrate below-average motor development (Durand et al., 2019 ; Verheijen et al., 2020 ; Fink et al., 2019 ). The social and physical environment, family structure, and daily activities are therefore critical determinants of motor skill development. It is known that the constant changes and developments experienced in today's world directly affect children's motor development. The environmental factors affecting children's motor development have changed significantly in the last decade. With the development of technology, increasing technology addiction, increased screen time, and decreased opportunities for children to play outdoors negatively affect the development of motor skills (Berger et al., 2021 ; Niemistö et. al., 2019 ; Lawrance & Choe, 2021). In parallel, the decrease in green spaces, increase in urbanization, and safety concerns limit children's access to physical play areas; this restricts the natural movement experiences necessary for motor development (Durand et al., 2019 ; Freitas et. al., 2022 ; Kabisch et. al., 2019 ). Along with studies showing that environmental factors are important for motor skill development, dynamic systems theory also provides an important framework. The theory states that an individual's motor development. It emphasizes that motor development is shaped by the interaction of biological predispositions, environmental conditions, and task characteristics (Kamm et. al, 1990 ; Favazza & Siperstein, 2016 ). This approach argues that motor development does not follow a fixed and unidirectional course; it is a dynamic process shaped by the child's environment. In this context, motor competencies acquired in early childhood are of critical importance not only for developmental but also for functional and occupational outcomes. Motor competencies acquired at an early age affect success in many fields such as sports, arts, professions requiring manual dexterity, and educational processes (Williams & Holley, 2013 ; Loprinzi et. al., 2015 ). Therefore, motor development is a critical parameter not only for individual health and academic success, but also for social productivity. For this reason, knowing children's motor skills is important for creating appropriate intervention programs. In addition, children's basic motor skill competencies are important because they affect the quality of the professional and life skills of future adults. This study aims to reveal the changes in children's motor skill levels under the influence of environmental variables by examining the trends in motor skills of children aged 6–7 who started first grade in primary school, using a 10-year longitudinal data set. METHODS Participants Our research sample consisted of 7-year-old first-grade students in the 2015–2016 (n = 608), 2017–2018 (n = 602), 2019–2020 (n = 614), 2022–2023 (n = 618), and 2024–2025 (n = 624) academic years. Because the aim was a general survey, schools with different socioeconomic and cultural characteristics were preferred. Measurements were taken regularly from the same schools in the specified academic years. The number of participants varied depending on the number of students enrolled in the selected schools during that period. Measurements were initiated in biennial periods, but the closure of schools due to the pandemic in March 2019 caused the next measurement to be postponed to 2022. Measurements Our motor proficiency assessment tool was the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Test-2 Short Form (BOT-2 SF), developed by Bruininks and Bruininks (Bruininks&Bruininks, 2005 ). BOT-2 SF Fine motor skill precision (Drawing a line along the curved path - Folding paper), Fine motor integrity (Star copying - Square copying), Manual dexterity (Coin transfer), Hand-Arm coordination (Releasing the ball and catching it with both hands - Bouncing the ball repeatedly with the preferred hand), Bidirectional coordination (Jumping: Synchronized with the arm and leg on the same side - Foot and Finger tapping: Synchronized to the same side), Balance (Walking forward on the walking line - Standing on the balance beam with the preferred foot with eyes open), Running speed and agility (Stable hop on the preferred foot), Strength (Sit-ups, Push-ups on the knees) are 8 sub-dimensions, and Fine hand control (Fine motor skill precision and Fine motor skill integrity), Hand coordination (Manual dexterity - Hand-arm coordination), Body coordination (Bidirectional coordination - Balance) and Strength and agility (Running speed and agility - Power). It consists of a composite section. The total score is obtained by summing the scores obtained from the composite sections. The evaluations were evaluated according to the criteria specified in the user manual. The internal validity of the test was 0.80 on average; the test-retest validity was 0.80 on average; and the inter-interviewer consistency was 0.98. Data Analysis For data processing, raw data were entered into SPSS 26.0, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was applied to verify the normal distribution of the data. Because the skewness and kurtosis values ​​were between + 3 and 3, the assumption of normality was assumed (Jondeau & Rockinger, 2003 ). In this context, the data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (One-Way ANOVA). Because the data did not meet the assumption of homogeneity, the Welch test results were interpreted. Additionally, the Games-Howell second-step test was used for multiple comparisons of results with significant differences. Data analysis was conducted using the BOT-2 SF total score and integrated scores. In addition, linear regression analysis was applied as a predictive analysis. Furthermore, because gender is not a determining factor for motor proficiency (Pollatou et al., 2005 ), gender was ignored in the analyses. We set statistical significance at p < .05. RESULTS As seen in Figure A, there is a fluctuating course in fine hand control skills; however, the acceleration of the process is positive. On the other hand, it was determined that the numerical difference detected in the years evaluated was not significant (F(4;1528.351) = .527; p > .05; η2 = .001). When Figure B, which is for hand coordination skills, is examined, it is seen that fluctuations occurred in this area as well in the years measured, however, unlike the fine hand control area, the acceleration was observed to be negative and, however, the difference between the years measured is not significant as in the fine motor hand control area (F(4;1521.702) = .398; p > .05; η2 = .000). When Figure C is examined, it is seen that there is a parallel acceleration, although partially positive, due to the joint effect of both fine hand control scores and hand coordination scores. As in the fine motor skill sub-domains, despite the numerical change between years, there was no significant difference (F(4;1526.604) = .337; p > .05; η2 = .000). A negative fluctuating decrease was observed in body coordination values ​​over the years (Figure D), and this decrease was statistically significant (F(4;1519.719) = 3.727; p < .01; η2 = .005). Although there was a significant difference between the groups, the effect size was seen to be small. This reveals that the difference is not a real difference. The source of this difference is the difference between the children who started first grade in primary school in 2015 and 2022. When the strength and agility values ​​are examined, a similar negative change in body coordination is observed (Figure E). This decrease between years is also statistically significant (F(4;1527.806) = 3.210; p < .05; η2 = .004). However, the low effect size does not reflect a real difference, as in the body coordination results. Again, the statistical difference was observed between 1st grade students who started school between 2015 and 2022. In gross motor skills, as in body coordination and strength, and agility, a negative decrease is observed depending on the years (Figure F). The numerical difference between years was also found to be statistically significant (F(4;1526.620) = 4.946; p < .001 η2 = .007). The small effect size results again indicate that there is no real difference. When the graph regarding the BOT-2 Total Score comparison is examined, although fine and gross motor skills and sub-domains exhibit different trends from each other, motor skill development in general has a negative course depending on the years (Figure G). The negative tendency related to these years revealed a statistically significant difference between first-grade students who started school in the specified years (F(4;1522.476) = 2.678; p < .05; η2 = .003). The effect size is again observed to be low. The source of this difference is again seen to be between children who started first-grade primary school between 2015 and 2022. While some statistical results indicate significant differences between groups, the effect size appears to be small. Statistical significance depends on the number of participants in the sample, and based on the effect size, this significance doesn't actually create a real difference. However, this doesn't mean that the negative decline over the 10-year period can be ignored. The linear regression analysis results shown in the graphs suggest that future projections suggest that the decline will continue if no intervention is made. DISCUSSION Fine motor skills play a critical role in children's development. Studies in the literature indicate that fine motor skills begin in early childhood and accelerate in the preschool period. A study by Ulutaş, Demir, and Yayan ( 2017 ) revealed that motor development education programs improve the fine motor skills of 5- and 6-year-old children. The development of children's fine motor skills is directly related to hand-eye coordination and cognitive processes. However, the fluctuating course of development can be explained by environmental factors, educational programs, and individual differences. In our study, the lack of statistical significance in the numerical differences observed over the years suggests that development is a natural process and may plateau at certain periods. International studies demonstrate a strong relationship between fine motor skills and academic achievement and cognitive development. Li et al.'s ( 2025 ) systematic review revealed a moderate correlation between fine motor skills, particularly with math and reading skills. Wang and Wang's (2024) study shows that fine motor skills are positively correlated with students' writing, reading, and math performance. However, some studies suggest that the development of fine motor skills is affected by individual differences and environmental factors and may therefore follow a fluctuating course (He et al., 2024 ; Fathirezaie et al., 2021 ). Academic studies on the development of hand coordination skills indicate that these skills are influenced by individual differences and environmental factors. A study by Yurtsever-Kılıçgün and Kılıçkaya (2018) examined the effect of weaving training on children's hand-eye coordination and revealed that children who received training performed better in these skills. Research by Selvakumar, Wesley, & Vasu ( 2025 ) shows that balance exercises improve hand-eye coordination and are associated with academic achievement. However, some studies suggest that the development of hand coordination skills may fluctuate and decline at certain periods. Orhan et al. ( 2018 ) examined the relationship between hand-eye coordination, attention, and motor skills in school-aged children and revealed that these skills may vary with age. A study by Patel and Bansal (2018) examined the effect of exercises on hand-eye coordination and revealed that exercises improve this skill. However, it is noted that development may fluctuate due to individual differences and environmental factors. Saparia, Dlıs, & Hanıf (2020) examined the impact of hand-eye coordination and revealed that this skill may vary among sports education students. The study demonstrates that individual differences and training programs are decisive factors in hand coordination skills. The negative acceleration observed in our findings can be explained by technology addiction, security concerns, unplanned construction, training programs, and a lack of stimulation resulting from environmental processes such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The literature indicates that there are periods when motor skill development can stagnate or regress. This may be associated with children's exposure to different learning experiences throughout their development, physical activity levels, and neurodevelopmental factors. The literature indicates that the development of fine motor skills is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors and, therefore, can follow a fluctuating course. A study by Ulutaş, Demir, & Yayan ( 2017 ) examined the effects of motor development training programs on the gross and fine motor skills of 5- and 6-year-old children and demonstrated significant progress in the development of these skills. However, it has been noted that development can plateau at certain periods, and individual differences are influential. Oña, Pernalete, & Jardón ( 2024 ) presented a multimodal framework for the assessment of fine and gross motor skills and examined how hand-eye coordination changes during the developmental process. The study reveals that motor skill development is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors and, therefore, can exhibit a parallel acceleration. Park and Son's (2022) study examined how fine motor skills can be improved through training and demonstrated that individual differences are decisive in this developmental process. The parallel acceleration observed in our findings appears consistent with these studies. In this context, studies on the development of fine motor skills support the idea that numerical changes observed over time may not be statistically significant and that development may follow a fluctuating course as a natural process. They demonstrate a negative, fluctuating decline in body coordination values ​​over time, which is statistically significant. The literature indicates that motor skills can vary over time and can be influenced by factors such as environmental factors, age, and physical activity level. A study by Koeppel, Eckert, & Huber ( 2022 ) revealed a negative trend in motor competencies in children over time. Examining the body coordination tests of 35,000 second-grade students, the study revealed a significant decline over time. Dunsky's (2019) study examined the effects of balance and coordination exercises on the quality of life of older individuals and revealed that coordination skills decline with age. The study indicates that impairments in the vestibular, visual, and somatosensory systems can lead to loss of coordination. These studies support the idea that the negative fluctuating decline observed in body coordination values ​​over time is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors. It shows a statistically significant decrease in strength and agility values, parallel to the negative change in body coordination. International literature reveals that motor skills can vary over time and are affected by factors such as individual differences, environmental factors, age, and physical activity level. A study by Tatlisu et al. ( 2019 ) determined a negative correlation between agility and flexibility and showed that these variables can vary over time. Buhmann, Stual, & Sayers' (2022) research emphasizes that individual differences are decisive in the development of skills. Furthermore, a study by Spiteri et al. ( 2014 ) showed that various programs have an impact on skill development and that individual strength components drive change. The decrease observed in your findings is statistically significant, particularly between first-grade students who started school in 2015 and 2022, supporting that the early motor development process is directly affected by educational programs, physical activity levels, and environmental factors. It shows a statistically significant decline in gross motor skills over time, including body coordination, strength, and agility. The literature indicates that motor skills can vary over time and are affected by factors such as environmental factors, age, and physical activity level. Wang & Wang's (2024) systematic review examined the relationship between gross motor skills and academic achievement, revealing that the development of these skills is directly linked to educational programs and physical activity levels. Fernandes et al.'s ( 2016 ) study shows that motor coordination is strongly correlated with cognitive functions and academic achievement. Jafar et al.'s ( 2023 ) study revealed that structured physical training programs improve motor skills and provide significant improvements in coordination, agility, and movement accuracy. These studies support that the negatively fluctuating decline observed in gross motor skills over time is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors. Our findings indicate a generally negative trend in children's motor development between 2015 and 2024, and a statistically significant difference is particularly evident between children who started first grade in primary school between 2015 and 2022. Turkish literature indicates that motor skill development is directly affected by educational programs, physical activity levels, and environmental factors. Köse et al. ( 2021 ) evaluated the Turkish adaptation of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Test 2 (BOT-2), demonstrating the importance of individual differences in children's motor skill development. Furthermore, Karakaş's (2018) study examined the relationship between physical fitness and motor development, emphasizing that motor skills can vary over time. Several studies in the international literature indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic has affected children's motor skills. A longitudinal study conducted in the Netherlands by Den Uil et al. ( 2023 ) showed that COVID-19 restrictions did not have a direct decisive impact on children's motor skill development, but individual differences played a significant role. Quenzer-Alfred's (2024) study, on the other hand, revealed a significant decline in preschool children's motor skills, particularly gross motor skills, during the pandemic. The negative trend and statistical difference in motor skill development observed in your findings appear consistent with general trends in the literature and can be explained by factors such as decreased physical activity during the COVID-19 period, changes in education, and individual differences. CONCLUSION This study examined the basic motor skill proficiencies of children who entered first grade of primary school at two-year intervals over a 10-year period. The findings indicate that children's motor skill levels vary significantly over time, depending on environmental conditions. Particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant decline in motor proficiency was observed in children aged 3–6 who spent their childhoods at home; a limited recovery trend was observed in the post-pandemic period. The results are consistent with dynamic systems theory, which argues that motor development is shaped not only by biological maturation but also by the interplay of the multifaceted systems within which a child operates. According to this theory, motor development is a dynamic organizational process that emerges through the simultaneous and reciprocal interaction of individual characteristics, environmental conditions, and task requirements. The changes in motor skills observed in the study can be explained by factors such as the reduction in environmental stimuli to which children are exposed (e.g., staying home during the pandemic, physical activity restrictions), spatial limitations (insufficient play spaces), the increased use of technological devices, and difficulties in accessing preschool education. The severe reduction in environmental stimuli during the pandemic period limited the variety, repetition, and exploration required by children's motor systems, disrupting motor skill development as predicted by theory. However, with the partial improvement of environmental conditions in the post-pandemic period, the motor system's capacity to reorganize itself has been activated, and a recovery, albeit limited, has occurred. This is consistent with the principles of "self-organization" and "plasticity" in dynamic systems. In conclusion, this research demonstrates that motor development is not a static or universal process, but rather a dynamic process shaped by the physical, social, and cultural contexts within which children are embedded. It is clear that to support children's motor skill proficiency, the surrounding systems—family, school, society, and the physical environment—must be consciously structured. The quality and diversity of movement experiences offered, particularly in early childhood, play a critical role in the sustainability of motor development. Basic motor skills are not merely developmental achievements specific to childhood; they also form the foundation for individuals' future cognitive, social, athletic, and professional lives. The downward trend in your data points to some critical future risks in this context. A decline in fine motor skills can make it difficult to achieve proficiency in professions requiring manual dexterity and fine coordination, particularly in healthcare, technology, engineering, art, design, and crafts. Performance may decline in tasks requiring cognitive-motor integration, such as hand-eye coordination and sustained attention. There is a bidirectional relationship between motor development and executive functions (planning, problem-solving, and attention control). Underdevelopment of these skills can lead to decreased academic achievement and poor strategic thinking skills in the workplace. Motor skills acquired in childhood foster social interaction and cooperation through sports and group activities. This fundamental deficiency can impair critical business skills such as teamwork, flexibility, and leadership in adulthood. Low motor proficiency at an early age can trigger a lifestyle lacking in physical activity, which can lead to health problems such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and related loss of employment later in life. With advancing technology and digitalization, many professions require both cognitive and motor flexibility. It will be difficult for individuals with low motor proficiency to adapt to this workforce transformation. Their ability to perform tasks requiring precision and speed, particularly in areas such as manufacturing, assembly, and robotic-assisted work, may be limited. This poses a significant risk for the future. SUGGESTIONS The physical activity content of preschool education programs should be improved : The preschool period stands out as a critical period for the development of basic skills. Therefore, preschool education programs should be restructured to encourage children's daily participation in planned and free movement activities. Awareness campaigns should be expanded for families : Increased screen time and decreased outdoor activities, especially in the post-pandemic period, have limited children's mobility opportunities. Families should be provided guidance on children's physical movement needs, the importance of motor development, and motor skill-supporting games that can be implemented in the home environment. Safe and accessible play areas should be planned : The number and quality of play areas where children can move freely in natural environments should be increased. Prioritizing the provision of safe outdoor play areas accessible to every child in collaboration with municipalities, schools, and local governments should be prioritized. A balance should be struck between technology use and physical activity : The intensive use of technological tools limits children's natural movement needs. Therefore, it is recommended to limit screen time in early childhood and support technology with creative and movement-intensive applications (e.g., augmented reality-based physical games). Motor development monitoring should be expanded nationally : Children's motor skill development should be regularly monitored for early diagnosis and intervention. A system that periodically screens children's basic motor skills could be developed in collaboration with the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Health. Crisis response plans should be developed for pandemic-like situations : In the event of future lockdowns, in-home physical activity guides that support children's motor development should be prepared and made available on digital platforms. Declarations Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Kütahya Dumlupınar University Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Board (Protocol Number: 3300540-444). Written informed consent to participate was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participants, as all participants were under 18 years of age. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (2013). Consent for Publication Written informed consent for participation and publication was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participants. Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Clinical Trial Number Not applicable. Funding This study did not receive any external or institutional funding. Author Contribution SA and CNL contributed to the conceptualization and methodology of the study. SA and CNL performed the formal analysis. SA and CNL wrote the original draft of the manuscript. SA, PC, and CNL reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank all the families and children who participated in this study. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Adolph KE, Hoch JE. The Importance of Motor Skills for Development. Building Future Health Well-Being Thriving Toddlers Young Child. 2020;136–44. https://doi.org/10.1159/000511511 . Berger S, Horger M, DeMasi A, Karasik L. Motor Development in Context. Oxf Res Encyclopedia Psychol. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.60 . Bruininks R, Bruininks B. (2005). Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (2nd ed.). Minneapolis, MN:NCS Pearson. Buhmann R, Stuelcken M, Sayers M. 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Effect of 4 week exercise program on hand eye coordination. International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health , 5 (4), 81–84. Pollatou E, Karadimou K, Gerodimos V. Gender differences in musical aptitude, rhythmic ability and motor performance in preschool children. Early Child Dev Care. 2005;175(4):361–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443042000270786 . Quenzer-Alfred C. Transition at a standstill: preschoolers’ motor development during the COVID-19 pandemic. Early Years. 2024;1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2024.2372614 . SAPARİA A, DLIS F, HANIF AS. (2020). Plyometric Training Methods and Hand Eye Coordination on Volleyball Smash Skills in Sport Education Students, Tadulako University. International E-Journal of Educational Studies , 4(8), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.31458/iejes.709841 Schmidt M, Egger F, Benzing V, Jäger K, Conzelmann A, Roebers C, Pesce C. Disentangling the relationship between children’s motor ability, executive function and academic achievement. PLoS ONE. 2017;12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182845 . Selvakumar K, Wesley O, Vasu DT. A Study to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Balance Exercise in Improving hand to Eye Coordination among University Students in Selangor. Res Journal Pharm Technology. 2025;684–90. https://doi.org/10.52711/0974-360x.2025.00101 . Spiteri T, Nimphius S, Hart NH, Specos C, Sheppard JM, Newton RU. Contribution of Strength Characteristics to Change of Direction and Agility Performance in Female Basketball Athletes. J Strength Conditioning Res. 2014;28(9):2415–23. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000000547 . Tatlisu B, Karakurt S, Agirbas O, Ucan I. The Relationshıp Between Strength, Speed, Flexibility, Agility, and Anaerobic Power in Elite Athletes. Power. 2019;255(181):528. Ulutaş A, Demir E, Yayan EH. Motor Gelişim Eğitim Programının 5–6 Yaş Çocukların Kaba ve İnce Motor Becerilerine Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 2017;17(3):1523–38. https://doi.org/10.17240/aibuefd.2017.17.31178-338846 . Verheijen M, Houweling A, Groeniger O, Jansen P, Van Lenthe F. Trajectories of socioeconomic inequality in social, cognitive, and motor development: A birth-cohort. Eur J Pub Health. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa165.383 . Wang L, Wang L. Relationships between Motor Skills and Academic Achievement in School-Aged Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children. 2024;11(3):336. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11030336 . Williams H, Monsma E. (2017). Assessment of Gross Motor Development., 397–464. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315089362-21 Williams J, Holley P. Linking Motor Development in Infancy and Early Childhood to Later School Learning. Australian J Child Family Health Nurs. 2013;10:15–21. Yurtsever Kılıçgün M, Kılıçkaya A. 6 Yaş Çocukların İki El Kullanımı ve El-Göz Koordinasyonu Becerilerine Dokuma Eğitiminin Etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 2018;38(2):449–68. https://doi.org/10.17152/gefad.377011 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8448304","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":588314598,"identity":"78c31140-5f02-47f5-9621-b81845a00329","order_by":0,"name":"Sinan AKIN","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dumlupinar University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sinan","middleName":"","lastName":"AKIN","suffix":""},{"id":588314599,"identity":"3d566123-309b-49a4-9f8b-990ed95d10c1","order_by":1,"name":"Piyami ÇAKTO","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Dumlupinar University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Piyami","middleName":"","lastName":"ÇAKTO","suffix":""},{"id":588314600,"identity":"faf5b16a-0fc3-412d-affb-318c6da11d56","order_by":2,"name":"Cemre Nilay LOFÇA","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA70lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYPACCwb2BgbGBzxgTgJRWiQYeA4wMBvAtRwgUgubBFFa+Nu70z58YJCQ42E//Kzi7Y7DDPzsOQbMH/fgMf7M2c0zZzBIGPPwpJndnHvmMINkzxsDhgPPcGsxkMjdzMzDIJG4X4LB7DZv22EGgxs5QC14XGYg/3Yz8x+glh4J9m/FIC32BLVI8G5mZgBr4TFjBtsiQUCLxJnczYw9BiC/5BRLzj2TziNx5lnBgTN4tPC3n93M8KPCBhhixzd+eLvDWo6/PXnjgwo8WqDOg9KMDQzgqCGoAQGAWkbBKBgFo2AUYAAAnC5NLRwTcTUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Dumlupinar University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cemre","middleName":"Nilay","lastName":"LOFÇA","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-25 10:23:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448304/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448304/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102326518,"identity":"8a35b77b-7251-45f1-bf09-d11fb5759e43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 14:35:54","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86165,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLegend not included with this version\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8448304/v1/6925d5b108b0f65f4bee1280.png"},{"id":106404693,"identity":"a28a597e-2bd2-4742-a469-19885629df35","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:16:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":653493,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8448304/v1/c7bfc3b9-0848-4514-857d-8dfbc331a9c5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Evolution of Motor Development in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eMotor development serves as a foundational component that significantly influences physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth during early childhood. In addition to providing physical competence, motor skills are essential for facilitating children's exploration, communication, and learning (Gallahue \u0026amp; Ozmun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Adolph \u0026amp; Hoch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Supporting motor development in early childhood contributes not only to a healthy lifestyle but also to academic achievement and social integration (Cameron et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Williams \u0026amp; Monsma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Schmidt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Gencig\u0026ouml;r \u0026amp; Akın, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Both environmental and genetic factors play substantial roles in shaping motor development. Research indicates that children residing in areas with low socioeconomic status often demonstrate below-average motor development (Durand et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Verheijen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Fink et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The social and physical environment, family structure, and daily activities are therefore critical determinants of motor skill development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is known that the constant changes and developments experienced in today's world directly affect children's motor development. The environmental factors affecting children's motor development have changed significantly in the last decade. With the development of technology, increasing technology addiction, increased screen time, and decreased opportunities for children to play outdoors negatively affect the development of motor skills (Berger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Niemist\u0026ouml; et. al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Lawrance \u0026amp; Choe, 2021). In parallel, the decrease in green spaces, increase in urbanization, and safety concerns limit children's access to physical play areas; this restricts the natural movement experiences necessary for motor development (Durand et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Freitas et. al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kabisch et. al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Along with studies showing that environmental factors are important for motor skill development, dynamic systems theory also provides an important framework. The theory states that an individual's motor development. It emphasizes that motor development is shaped by the interaction of biological predispositions, environmental conditions, and task characteristics (Kamm et. al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Favazza \u0026amp; Siperstein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This approach argues that motor development does not follow a fixed and unidirectional course; it is a dynamic process shaped by the child's environment. In this context, motor competencies acquired in early childhood are of critical importance not only for developmental but also for functional and occupational outcomes. Motor competencies acquired at an early age affect success in many fields such as sports, arts, professions requiring manual dexterity, and educational processes (Williams \u0026amp; Holley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Loprinzi et. al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, motor development is a critical parameter not only for individual health and academic success, but also for social productivity. For this reason, knowing children's motor skills is important for creating appropriate intervention programs. In addition, children's basic motor skill competencies are important because they affect the quality of the professional and life skills of future adults.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to reveal the changes in children's motor skill levels under the influence of environmental variables by examining the trends in motor skills of children aged 6\u0026ndash;7 who started first grade in primary school, using a 10-year longitudinal data set.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research sample consisted of 7-year-old first-grade students in the 2015\u0026ndash;2016 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;608), 2017\u0026ndash;2018 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;602), 2019\u0026ndash;2020 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;614), 2022\u0026ndash;2023 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;618), and 2024\u0026ndash;2025 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;624) academic years. Because the aim was a general survey, schools with different socioeconomic and cultural characteristics were preferred. Measurements were taken regularly from the same schools in the specified academic years. The number of participants varied depending on the number of students enrolled in the selected schools during that period. Measurements were initiated in biennial periods, but the closure of schools due to the pandemic in March 2019 caused the next measurement to be postponed to 2022.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur motor proficiency assessment tool was the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Test-2 Short Form (BOT-2 SF), developed by Bruininks and Bruininks (Bruininks\u0026amp;Bruininks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). BOT-2 SF Fine motor skill precision (Drawing a line along the curved path - Folding paper), Fine motor integrity (Star copying - Square copying), Manual dexterity (Coin transfer), Hand-Arm coordination (Releasing the ball and catching it with both hands - Bouncing the ball repeatedly with the preferred hand), Bidirectional coordination (Jumping: Synchronized with the arm and leg on the same side - Foot and Finger tapping: Synchronized to the same side), Balance (Walking forward on the walking line - Standing on the balance beam with the preferred foot with eyes open), Running speed and agility (Stable hop on the preferred foot), Strength (Sit-ups, Push-ups on the knees) are 8 sub-dimensions, and Fine hand control (Fine motor skill precision and Fine motor skill integrity), Hand coordination (Manual dexterity - Hand-arm coordination), Body coordination (Bidirectional coordination - Balance) and Strength and agility (Running speed and agility - Power). It consists of a composite section. The total score is obtained by summing the scores obtained from the composite sections. The evaluations were evaluated according to the criteria specified in the user manual. The internal validity of the test was 0.80 on average; the test-retest validity was 0.80 on average; and the inter-interviewer consistency was 0.98.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor data processing, raw data were entered into SPSS 26.0, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was applied to verify the normal distribution of the data. Because the skewness and kurtosis values ​​were between +\u0026thinsp;3 and 3, the assumption of normality was assumed (Jondeau \u0026amp; Rockinger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, the data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (One-Way ANOVA). Because the data did not meet the assumption of homogeneity, the Welch test results were interpreted. Additionally, the Games-Howell second-step test was used for multiple comparisons of results with significant differences. Data analysis was conducted using the BOT-2 SF total score and integrated scores. In addition, linear regression analysis was applied as a predictive analysis. Furthermore, because gender is not a determining factor for motor proficiency (Pollatou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), gender was ignored in the analyses. We set statistical significance at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs seen in Figure A, there is a fluctuating course in fine hand control skills; however, the acceleration of the process is positive. On the other hand, it was determined that the numerical difference detected in the years evaluated was not significant (F(4;1528.351)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.527; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05; η2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001). When Figure B, which is for hand coordination skills, is examined, it is seen that fluctuations occurred in this area as well in the years measured, however, unlike the fine hand control area, the acceleration was observed to be negative and, however, the difference between the years measured is not significant as in the fine motor hand control area (F(4;1521.702)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.398; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05; η2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.000). When Figure C is examined, it is seen that there is a parallel acceleration, although partially positive, due to the joint effect of both fine hand control scores and hand coordination scores. As in the fine motor skill sub-domains, despite the numerical change between years, there was no significant difference (F(4;1526.604)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.337; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05; η2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.000). A negative fluctuating decrease was observed in body coordination values ​​over the years (Figure D), and this decrease was statistically significant (F(4;1519.719)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.727; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; η2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.005). Although there was a significant difference between the groups, the effect size was seen to be small. This reveals that the difference is not a real difference. The source of this difference is the difference between the children who started first grade in primary school in 2015 and 2022. When the strength and agility values ​​are examined, a similar negative change in body coordination is observed (Figure E). This decrease between years is also statistically significant (F(4;1527.806)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.210; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05; η2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004). However, the low effect size does not reflect a real difference, as in the body coordination results. Again, the statistical difference was observed between 1st grade students who started school between 2015 and 2022. In gross motor skills, as in body coordination and strength, and agility, a negative decrease is observed depending on the years (Figure F). The numerical difference between years was also found to be statistically significant (F(4;1526.620)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.946; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001 η2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.007). The small effect size results again indicate that there is no real difference. When the graph regarding the BOT-2 Total Score comparison is examined, although fine and gross motor skills and sub-domains exhibit different trends from each other, motor skill development in general has a negative course depending on the years (Figure G). The negative tendency related to these years revealed a statistically significant difference between first-grade students who started school in the specified years (F(4;1522.476)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.678; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05; η2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003). The effect size is again observed to be low. The source of this difference is again seen to be between children who started first-grade primary school between 2015 and 2022.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile some statistical results indicate significant differences between groups, the effect size appears to be small. Statistical significance depends on the number of participants in the sample, and based on the effect size, this significance doesn't actually create a real difference. However, this doesn't mean that the negative decline over the 10-year period can be ignored. The linear regression analysis results shown in the graphs suggest that future projections suggest that the decline will continue if no intervention is made.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eFine motor skills play a critical role in children's development. Studies in the literature indicate that fine motor skills begin in early childhood and accelerate in the preschool period. A study by Ulutaş, Demir, and Yayan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that motor development education programs improve the fine motor skills of 5- and 6-year-old children. The development of children's fine motor skills is directly related to hand-eye coordination and cognitive processes. However, the fluctuating course of development can be explained by environmental factors, educational programs, and individual differences. In our study, the lack of statistical significance in the numerical differences observed over the years suggests that development is a natural process and may plateau at certain periods. International studies demonstrate a strong relationship between fine motor skills and academic achievement and cognitive development. Li et al.'s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) systematic review revealed a moderate correlation between fine motor skills, particularly with math and reading skills. Wang and Wang's (2024) study shows that fine motor skills are positively correlated with students' writing, reading, and math performance. However, some studies suggest that the development of fine motor skills is affected by individual differences and environmental factors and may therefore follow a fluctuating course (He et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Fathirezaie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademic studies on the development of hand coordination skills indicate that these skills are influenced by individual differences and environmental factors. A study by Yurtsever-Kılı\u0026ccedil;g\u0026uuml;n and Kılı\u0026ccedil;kaya (2018) examined the effect of weaving training on children's hand-eye coordination and revealed that children who received training performed better in these skills. Research by Selvakumar, Wesley, \u0026amp; Vasu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) shows that balance exercises improve hand-eye coordination and are associated with academic achievement. However, some studies suggest that the development of hand coordination skills may fluctuate and decline at certain periods. Orhan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) examined the relationship between hand-eye coordination, attention, and motor skills in school-aged children and revealed that these skills may vary with age. A study by Patel and Bansal (2018) examined the effect of exercises on hand-eye coordination and revealed that exercises improve this skill. However, it is noted that development may fluctuate due to individual differences and environmental factors. Saparia, Dlıs, \u0026amp; Hanıf (2020) examined the impact of hand-eye coordination and revealed that this skill may vary among sports education students. The study demonstrates that individual differences and training programs are decisive factors in hand coordination skills. The negative acceleration observed in our findings can be explained by technology addiction, security concerns, unplanned construction, training programs, and a lack of stimulation resulting from environmental processes such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The literature indicates that there are periods when motor skill development can stagnate or regress. This may be associated with children's exposure to different learning experiences throughout their development, physical activity levels, and neurodevelopmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature indicates that the development of fine motor skills is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors and, therefore, can follow a fluctuating course. A study by Ulutaş, Demir, \u0026amp; Yayan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) examined the effects of motor development training programs on the gross and fine motor skills of 5- and 6-year-old children and demonstrated significant progress in the development of these skills. However, it has been noted that development can plateau at certain periods, and individual differences are influential. O\u0026ntilde;a, Pernalete, \u0026amp; Jard\u0026oacute;n (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) presented a multimodal framework for the assessment of fine and gross motor skills and examined how hand-eye coordination changes during the developmental process. The study reveals that motor skill development is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors and, therefore, can exhibit a parallel acceleration. Park and Son's (2022) study examined how fine motor skills can be improved through training and demonstrated that individual differences are decisive in this developmental process. The parallel acceleration observed in our findings appears consistent with these studies. In this context, studies on the development of fine motor skills support the idea that numerical changes observed over time may not be statistically significant and that development may follow a fluctuating course as a natural process. They demonstrate a negative, fluctuating decline in body coordination values ​​over time, which is statistically significant. The literature indicates that motor skills can vary over time and can be influenced by factors such as environmental factors, age, and physical activity level. A study by Koeppel, Eckert, \u0026amp; Huber (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) revealed a negative trend in motor competencies in children over time. Examining the body coordination tests of 35,000 second-grade students, the study revealed a significant decline over time. Dunsky's (2019) study examined the effects of balance and coordination exercises on the quality of life of older individuals and revealed that coordination skills decline with age. The study indicates that impairments in the vestibular, visual, and somatosensory systems can lead to loss of coordination. These studies support the idea that the negative fluctuating decline observed in body coordination values ​​over time is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt shows a statistically significant decrease in strength and agility values, parallel to the negative change in body coordination. International literature reveals that motor skills can vary over time and are affected by factors such as individual differences, environmental factors, age, and physical activity level. A study by Tatlisu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) determined a negative correlation between agility and flexibility and showed that these variables can vary over time. Buhmann, Stual, \u0026amp; Sayers' (2022) research emphasizes that individual differences are decisive in the development of skills. Furthermore, a study by Spiteri et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) showed that various programs have an impact on skill development and that individual strength components drive change. The decrease observed in your findings is statistically significant, particularly between first-grade students who started school in 2015 and 2022, supporting that the early motor development process is directly affected by educational programs, physical activity levels, and environmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt shows a statistically significant decline in gross motor skills over time, including body coordination, strength, and agility. The literature indicates that motor skills can vary over time and are affected by factors such as environmental factors, age, and physical activity level. Wang \u0026amp; Wang's (2024) systematic review examined the relationship between gross motor skills and academic achievement, revealing that the development of these skills is directly linked to educational programs and physical activity levels. Fernandes et al.'s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) study shows that motor coordination is strongly correlated with cognitive functions and academic achievement. Jafar et al.'s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) study revealed that structured physical training programs improve motor skills and provide significant improvements in coordination, agility, and movement accuracy. These studies support that the negatively fluctuating decline observed in gross motor skills over time is influenced by individual differences and environmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings indicate a generally negative trend in children's motor development between 2015 and 2024, and a statistically significant difference is particularly evident between children who started first grade in primary school between 2015 and 2022. Turkish literature indicates that motor skill development is directly affected by educational programs, physical activity levels, and environmental factors. K\u0026ouml;se et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) evaluated the Turkish adaptation of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Test 2 (BOT-2), demonstrating the importance of individual differences in children's motor skill development. Furthermore, Karakaş's (2018) study examined the relationship between physical fitness and motor development, emphasizing that motor skills can vary over time. Several studies in the international literature indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic has affected children's motor skills. A longitudinal study conducted in the Netherlands by Den Uil et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) showed that COVID-19 restrictions did not have a direct decisive impact on children's motor skill development, but individual differences played a significant role. Quenzer-Alfred's (2024) study, on the other hand, revealed a significant decline in preschool children's motor skills, particularly gross motor skills, during the pandemic. The negative trend and statistical difference in motor skill development observed in your findings appear consistent with general trends in the literature and can be explained by factors such as decreased physical activity during the COVID-19 period, changes in education, and individual differences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the basic motor skill proficiencies of children who entered first grade of primary school at two-year intervals over a 10-year period. The findings indicate that children's motor skill levels vary significantly over time, depending on environmental conditions. Particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant decline in motor proficiency was observed in children aged 3\u0026ndash;6 who spent their childhoods at home; a limited recovery trend was observed in the post-pandemic period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results are consistent with dynamic systems theory, which argues that motor development is shaped not only by biological maturation but also by the interplay of the multifaceted systems within which a child operates. According to this theory, motor development is a dynamic organizational process that emerges through the simultaneous and reciprocal interaction of individual characteristics, environmental conditions, and task requirements. The changes in motor skills observed in the study can be explained by factors such as the reduction in environmental stimuli to which children are exposed (e.g., staying home during the pandemic, physical activity restrictions), spatial limitations (insufficient play spaces), the increased use of technological devices, and difficulties in accessing preschool education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe severe reduction in environmental stimuli during the pandemic period limited the variety, repetition, and exploration required by children's motor systems, disrupting motor skill development as predicted by theory. However, with the partial improvement of environmental conditions in the post-pandemic period, the motor system's capacity to reorganize itself has been activated, and a recovery, albeit limited, has occurred. This is consistent with the principles of \"self-organization\" and \"plasticity\" in dynamic systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this research demonstrates that motor development is not a static or universal process, but rather a dynamic process shaped by the physical, social, and cultural contexts within which children are embedded. It is clear that to support children's motor skill proficiency, the surrounding systems\u0026mdash;family, school, society, and the physical environment\u0026mdash;must be consciously structured. The quality and diversity of movement experiences offered, particularly in early childhood, play a critical role in the sustainability of motor development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic motor skills are not merely developmental achievements specific to childhood; they also form the foundation for individuals' future cognitive, social, athletic, and professional lives. The downward trend in your data points to some critical future risks in this context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA decline in fine motor skills can make it difficult to achieve proficiency in professions requiring manual dexterity and fine coordination, particularly in healthcare, technology, engineering, art, design, and crafts. Performance may decline in tasks requiring cognitive-motor integration, such as hand-eye coordination and sustained attention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a bidirectional relationship between motor development and executive functions (planning, problem-solving, and attention control). Underdevelopment of these skills can lead to decreased academic achievement and poor strategic thinking skills in the workplace.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMotor skills acquired in childhood foster social interaction and cooperation through sports and group activities. This fundamental deficiency can impair critical business skills such as teamwork, flexibility, and leadership in adulthood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow motor proficiency at an early age can trigger a lifestyle lacking in physical activity, which can lead to health problems such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and related loss of employment later in life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith advancing technology and digitalization, many professions require both cognitive and motor flexibility. It will be difficult for individuals with low motor proficiency to adapt to this workforce transformation. Their ability to perform tasks requiring precision and speed, particularly in areas such as manufacturing, assembly, and robotic-assisted work, may be limited. This poses a significant risk for the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSUGGESTIONS\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe physical activity content of preschool education programs should be improved\u003c/b\u003e: The preschool period stands out as a critical period for the development of basic skills. Therefore, preschool education programs should be restructured to encourage children's daily participation in planned and free movement activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAwareness campaigns should be expanded for families\u003c/b\u003e: Increased screen time and decreased outdoor activities, especially in the post-pandemic period, have limited children's mobility opportunities. Families should be provided guidance on children's physical movement needs, the importance of motor development, and motor skill-supporting games that can be implemented in the home environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSafe and accessible play areas should be planned\u003c/b\u003e: The number and quality of play areas where children can move freely in natural environments should be increased. Prioritizing the provision of safe outdoor play areas accessible to every child in collaboration with municipalities, schools, and local governments should be prioritized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eA balance should be struck between technology use and physical activity\u003c/b\u003e: The intensive use of technological tools limits children's natural movement needs. Therefore, it is recommended to limit screen time in early childhood and support technology with creative and movement-intensive applications (e.g., augmented reality-based physical games).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMotor development monitoring should be expanded nationally\u003c/b\u003e: Children's motor skill development should be regularly monitored for early diagnosis and intervention. A system that periodically screens children's basic motor skills could be developed in collaboration with the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCrisis response plans should be developed for pandemic-like situations\u003c/b\u003e: In the event of future lockdowns, in-home physical activity guides that support children's motor development should be prepared and made available on digital platforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of K\u0026uuml;tahya Dumlupınar University Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Board (Protocol Number: 3300540-444). Written informed consent to participate was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participants, as all participants were under 18 years of age. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (2013).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Written informed consent for participation and publication was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study did not receive any external or institutional funding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSA and CNL contributed to the conceptualization and methodology of the study. SA and CNL performed the formal analysis. SA and CNL wrote the original draft of the manuscript. SA, PC, and CNL reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank all the families and children who participated in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdolph KE, Hoch JE. The Importance of Motor Skills for Development. 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Gazi \u0026Uuml;niversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fak\u0026uuml;ltesi Dergisi. 2018;38(2):449\u0026ndash;68. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.17152/gefad.377011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.17152/gefad.377011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Motor competence, Motor development, fine motor skills, gross motor skills, longitudinal","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448304/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448304/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to technological advancements and similar environmental changes, the fundamental motor skills of generations are evolving. It is a matter of curiosity what kind of change has occurred in children's motor proficiency levels due to this change. Therefore, this study aimed to reveal the course of motor proficiency levels of children starting first grade in primary school over a specific period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study covered 10 years. Excluding the pandemic period, measurements were taken from first-grade primary school students at two-year intervals in schools with different socio-economic characteristics. Information from the Ministry of National Education revealed that an average of 6,000 children started first grade in the designated years. Although the numbers varied between the years in which measurements were taken from the designated schools, the sample size for each measurement year consisted of an average of 600 students. Students' motor proficiency was assessed using the short form of the second version of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Test (BOT2-SF). Predictive analyses were performed using One-Way ANOVA and linear regression analysis on the obtained data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed significant differences between the groups in body coordination, strength and agility, gross motor skills, and the total test score (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), while no significant differences were observed between the groups in manual dexterity, hand coordination, or fine motor skills. Linear regression analysis results indicate an upward trend in manual dexterity, while the acceleration in other dimensions is negative.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, although the data analysis results do not reveal very strong results, a negative trend in basic motor skills, such as body coordination and hand coordination, increases the risk of negatively impacting individuals' future quality of life, daily life, and the development of professional skills.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Evolution of Motor Development in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-10 14:35:49","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448304/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f987ae99-ff3d-4a65-8db4-4b46999d0ea5","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 10th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-08T05:41:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-10 14:35:49","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8448304","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8448304","identity":"rs-8448304","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}