High-Performance Impact-Resistant Shear-Thickening Gel Composites Enabled by Optimally-Dispersed Carbon Nanotubes

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Borate-crosslinked STG matrices were synthesized using hydroxyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane and boric acid. Rheological analysis demonstrates that a CNT loading of 0.25 wt% maximizes enhancement of the storage modulus, achieving values of 124.5 kPa at 0.1 Hz (exceeding the pure STG by 463%) and 284.2 kPa at 100 Hz, while preserving viscoelastic balance. The compressive modulus (100 mm/min) increased by approximately 180% via CNT-enabled load transfer (from 93 kPa to 259 kPa), while tensile stress surged 21.8-fold to 82.7 kPa at 100 mm/min. Impact tests show 0.25% CNT-STG reduces peak force by 80.1% (3,331 N versus 16,750 N) and extends dissipation duration by 206.5%. Helmet simulations under industrial impact standards confirm 27.7% peak force reduction (from 4,663 N to 3,373 N) with 26.2% longer impact duration, demonstrating synergistic energy redistribution via CNT networks. Optimal dispersion enables hierarchical dissipation through interfacial slippage, dislocation motion, and elastic storage, avoiding agglomeration at high loadings. This establishes a nanoscale design paradigm for high-performance STG composites with rapid thickening, structural stability, and superior impact protection. Shear-thickening Carbon nanotubes Polymer Impact-Resistant Protective Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Introduction Shear-thickening fluids (STFs) and Shear-thickening gels (STGs) have attracted considerable attention due to their unique non-Newtonian behavior, demonstrating exceptional potential in impact protection, flexible sensing, and smart damping applications[1–12]. STFs achieve rapid viscosity transitions through shear-induced hydrocluster formation, enabling instantaneous energy dissipation under high-strain-rate impacts[7, 11, 13–16]. However, their inherent liquid-state characteristics—poor long-term stability, leakage risks, and delayed shear-thickening responses under dynamic loading—severely limit practical deployment[1, 2, 17–19]. In contrast, STGs overcome these limitations by incorporating dynamic crosslinking networks (e.g., boroxine bonds), which lock shear-thickening effects into reversible solid-like phase transitions. This strategy enhances structural integrity (2–3-fold increase in storage modulus, G ’) while preserving rapid responsiveness, effectively mitigating cold-flow behavior [1, 3, 10, 19–22]. Despite these advances, residual cold-flow-induced deformation, suboptimal shear-thickening sensitivity, and inefficient energy dissipation at high strain rates continue to hinder STG applications in high-impact scenarios such as ballistic armor and sports protective gear, necessitating innovative material design approaches. Recent efforts to optimize STGs have focused on nanoscale/microscale reinforcements. Rigid fillers like carbon black (CB) [2], carbonyl iron [10], silica (SiO₂) [19, 23], carbon fibers [23], and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) [24] improve storage modulus and creep resistance, though particle agglomeration often leads to stress concentration and mechanical degradation. Li et al. [25] developed magnetic STG composites capable of absorbing 70.17% energy under low-velocity impacts. Parisi et al. [26] integrated STGs into auxetic foams, achieving a 50% reduction in peak impact force. Fiber-reinforced systems (e.g., Kevlar/STG) enhance energy dissipation through interfacial friction[2, 18, 27], while Wang et al. [28] reported a two-fold improvement in impact resistance via STG-impregnated polyurethane foam. Nasim et al. [29] further optimized dynamic responsiveness using hydrogen-bonded polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) networks. Nevertheless, reconciling filler dispersion homogeneity with strain-rate sensitivity remains a critical challenge for designing STG composites that simultaneously achieve high modulus, rapid shear-thickening, and structural stability. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), with their ultrahigh surface area (~ 300 m²/g), exceptional mechanical strength (elastic modulus ~ 1 TPa), and 3D network-forming capability, present a promising solution for next-generation STGs[8, 12, 30–38]. In polymer matrices, CNTs create adaptive interfaces through synergistic physical entanglement and chemical bonding, enhancing both stiffness and energy dissipation efficiency. Notably, Sha et al. [35] demonstrated that CNTs’ tubular geometry facilitates confined-space shear thickening, achieving a remarkable 585% increase in storage modulus. Practical applications include CNT/PVA/STF-coated Kevlar fabrics with 240.2% higher energy absorption [12], CNT/iron-reinforced STGs with a 585% rise in G ’ [39], and STG/CNT/Kevlar composites exhibiting superior stab resistance[32]. However, critical knowledge gaps persist regarding CNT dispersion mechanisms, percolation thresholds, and their interplay with dynamic crosslinking networks—particularly how CNT architectures modulate strain-rate sensitivity and energy dissipation pathways. Addressing the persistent challenges of cold-flow behavior, sluggish shear-thickening response, and inefficient energy dissipation in STGs, this study introduces a solvent-assisted strategy to integrate CNTs into borate-crosslinked STG matrices. The effects of CNT content (0 ~ 1.0% by mass) on microstructure evolution, dynamic rheological behavior, quasi-static mechanical properties (compression/tension), and high-strain-rate impact performance (drop-weight tests, helmet simulations) are systematically investigated. The findings establish a theoretical framework for designing advanced STG composites that synergistically combine high modulus, rapid shear-thickening responsiveness, and superior impact resistance, paving the way for next-generation protective materials. Materials and Methods Materials Boric acid (BA, AR grade, CAS: 10043-35-3, Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.) was used as the precursor for synthesizing shear-thickening gel (STG). Hydroxyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS-OH, viscosity: 70 cSt, Hebang Chemical Co., Ltd., Shanghai) served as the matrix material, with ethyl acetate (EA, AR grade, Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai) acting as the solvent system. CNTs (outer diameter: 8 ~ 15 nm, length: 30 ~ 50 µm, specific surface area: >140 m²/g, Chengdu Organic Chemicals Co., Ltd.) were employed as nanoscale reinforcements. Fabrication of CNT-STG Composites As illustrated in Fig. 1 , the synthesis of CNT-reinforced STG (CNT-STG) involves two sequential stages: STG matrix formation and CNT integration (Figs. 1 a–b). To prevent potential random scission of PDMS chains induced by BA at elevated temperatures—a process detrimental to achieving well-defined polyborosiloxane molecular structures—a solvent was introduced to reduce reaction viscosity, while hydroxyl-terminated PDMS-OH facilitated controlled crosslinking. The STG synthesis protocol commenced with dissolving PDMS-OH precursors and BA in EA, followed by reaction at 130°C for 3 h under continuous stirring. The product was subsequently dried at 90°C for 6 h to obtain the STG. For CNT incorporation, the STG was redissolved in isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to form an STG-IPA solution, which was then blended with a pre-dispersed CNT-IPA suspension (3.1 wt.% CNTs). The mixture underwent sequential homogenization via ultrasonication (40 kHz, 15 min), magnetic stirring (3 h), and solvent evaporation at 90°C for 3 h, yielding the final CNT-STG composites after complete drying. To evaluate CNT loading effects, five sample groups were prepared with CNT mass fractions of 0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0%. Characterization Microstructural and spectroscopic analysis : Prior to characterization, STG samples were dried at 60°C for 24 h and homogenized with potassium bromide (KBr) for FT-IR analysis (Thermo Fisher Scientific Nicolet iS10). The morphology of CNT-IPA and CNT-STG-IPA suspensions was examined by TEM (JEOL JEM-F200) after ultrasonic dispersion and deposition onto copper grids. SEM (Hitachi SU8230) was employed to observe fractured cross-sections of CNT-STG composites, which were sputter-coated with 5 nm gold to analyze interfacial structure and failure mechanisms. Rheological characterization : Rheological properties were measured using a rotational rheometer (Anton Paar MCR 302, Austria) equipped with a PP20 parallel plate (diameter: 20 mm). The sample (20 mm diameter × 1 mm thickness) was subjected to frequency sweeps (0.1 to 100 Hz) at 25°C under 1% fixed strain. Creep tests were conducted to assess cold-flow behavior, with details of applied stress and recovery parameters to be specified based on experimental protocols. Mechanical testing Compression tests : Following ISO 7743:2007, cylindrical specimens (29 mm diameter×12.5 mm height) were compressed to 25% strain using a microcomputer-controlled universal testing machine (500 N load cell). Strain was calculated as the ratio of real-time displacement to initial height ( l 0 = 12.5 mm). Strain rate effects were investigated at crosshead speeds of 10, 100, and 250 mm/min, with three independent replicates per condition. Tensile tests : Type I dumbbell specimens (ISO 37:2005) were die-cut and tested at identical crosshead speeds (10, 100, 250 mm/min). All data were statistically validated to ensure reproducibility. Low-velocity impact testing To evaluate the energy absorption characteristics of CNT-STG composites under low-velocity impacts, a custom-built test system (Fig. 2 c) was employed. The setup comprised: ( 1 ) a drop-weight impact device (Peng Testing Equipment Co., Ltd., Chengde, China), (2) a dynamic signal acquisition system (DH5920N, Donghua Testing Technology Co., Ltd., China) with dedicated data analysis software (sampling frequency: 1 kHz), and (3) a hemispherical impactor (diameter: 20 mm, mass: 0.75 kg) fabricated from stainless steel. The impactor tip featured a 2.5 mm fillet radius to mitigate edge effects. Disk-shaped specimens (100 mm diameter × 10 mm thickness) were freely mounted on a rigid steel base. Impact energy 10J was controlled by adjusting the drop height via an electromagnetic elevation system. A piezoelectric force transducer (20 kN range) embedded in the base recorded force-time histories during free-fall impacts. Helmet impact resistance testing To quantify the protective performance of CNT-STG as helmet paddings, a drop-weight/headform coupled test system (Fig. 2 d) was developed following China National Standard GA 294–2023 (Police anti-Riot Helmets). The apparatus included: ( 1 ) a 5.0 kg steel drop-weight with a hemispherical impact surface (48 ± 1 mm diameter), (2) a polycarbonate (PC) standard helmet shell, and (3) a base-integrated piezoelectric transducer (20 kN range, 10 kHz sampling rate). Three sample groups were tested: control (no padding), Group A (STG padding), and Group B (CNT-STG padding), with square paddings (150 × 150 × 10 mm³) affixed to the inner crown region. Impacts were performed via 1.0 m free-fall drops, and energy absorption efficiency was calculated relative to the control group using peak force-time curve averages from three repeated tests. The data acquisition system synchronously recorded transient responses during impact events. Results and Discussion​ FTIR and TEM analysis The FTIR spectrum of STG in the 4000–500 cm⁻¹ range is shown in Fig. 3. The absorption peak at 2970 cm⁻¹ corresponds to the asymmetric stretching vibration of methyl groups. A strong absorption band at 1260 cm⁻¹ confirms the presence of Si–CH₃ groups, while peaks at 1020 cm⁻¹ and 1093 cm⁻¹ are attributed to Si–O bonds. Notably, the characteristic absorption band at 1340 cm⁻¹ is assigned to the symmetric stretching vibration of Si–O–B bonds, indicating successful chemical bonding between boric acid and hydroxyl groups at the PDMS chain terminals to form the target compound STG. Figure 4 illustrates the morphological evolution of CNT dispersions and their composites with STG. In the pristine CNT-IPA system (Fig. 4a), CNTs exhibit excellent monodispersion without observable agglomeration, confirming a stable colloidal dispersion. For the CNT 0.25% -STG composite (Fig. 4b), TEM reveals uniform encapsulation of CNTs by the STG matrix, evidenced by the homogeneous dark contrast along the nanotube surfaces, which suggests effective interfacial interactions and thorough infiltration of the gel network. However, at a higher CNT loading of 1.0% (Fig. 4c), phase separation becomes prominent, as indicated by reduced transparency and incomplete STG encapsulation. The interfacial defects observed at this concentration likely arise from excessive CNT surface area occupying the gelation-active sites of STG molecular chains, thereby disrupting the kinetics of three-dimensional network formation [23]. Rheological properties The CNT content exhibits a nonlinear influence on the cold flow behavior and mechanical integrity of CNT-STG composites (Fig. 5). At low CNT concentrations (0 ~ 0.25%), the material’s rigidity increases significantly, with the suspended length decreasing from 3 cm (pure STG) to 2 cm after 60 min. This enhancement is attributed to the formation of a uniformly dispersed CNT network that restricts molecular chain slippage. Conversely, at 1.0% CNT, severe phase separation and interfacial decoupling lead to pronounced structural disorder, resulting in a dramatic increase in suspended length (> 10 cm). These results highlight a dynamic balance between reinforcement and flow inhibition: well-dispersed CNTs improve rigidity at low concentrations, while excessive CNT loadings induce network discontinuity. Rheological characterization (Fig. 6) revealed that CNT content exerts significant regulatory effects on the dynamic viscoelastic behavior of STG. Comparative analysis of five CNT loadings (0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) identified distinct trends: At 0.1 Hz, pure STG (0% CNT) exhibited a storage modulus ( G ') of 22.1 kPa and a loss modulus ( G '') of 25.7 kPa, with G '' > G ', indicative of viscous-dominated flow. Upon increasing CNT content to 0.25%, both moduli rose dramatically to 124.5 kPa ( G ') and 81.3 kPa ( G ''), corresponding to 463% and 216% enhancements, respectively. The marked transition to G ' > G '' at this concentration signifies the formation of a three-dimensional CNT network through physical entanglement, which substantially enhanced elastic dominance. However, further increasing CNT to 0.5% and 1.0% reduced low-frequency G ' to 87.0 kPa and 19.9 kPa, respectively, with G '' similarly declining to 63.4 kPa and 22.9 kPa. Interfacial defects observed in CNT-enriched regions further confirmed that excessive CNT loading critically disrupts the gelation dynamics of STG. These results underscore the concentration-dependent dual role of CNTs: optimal dispersion (≤ 0.25%) strengthens the elastic network, while agglomeration (> 0.25%) introduces structural discontinuities that compromise performance. In the high-frequency regime (> 10 Hz, particularly at 100 Hz), all composites displayed shear-thickening characteristics. The CNT 0.25% -STG composite demonstrated the highest G ' of 284.2 kPa, representing enhancements of 87.5%, 57.1%, 16.7%, and 84.6% compared to samples with 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0% CNT, respectively, while maintaining comparable G '' values across all compositions. For the CNT 0.25% -STG composite, G ' increased sharply from 124.5 kPa at 0.1 Hz to 284.2 kPa at 100 Hz (128% enhancement), and G '' rose from 81.3 kPa to 148.6 kPa (83% increase). Notably, the lower growth rate of G '' relative to G ' suggests elastic energy storage dominated the dynamic response, though viscous dissipation—driven by particle collisions and rapid structural reorganization—remained significant. These results elucidate a "moderate reinforcement" mechanism mediated by CNT dispersion states. At low concentrations (≤ 0.25%), uniformly dispersed CNTs establish a three-dimensional network that enhances elastic behavior and optimizes energy dissipation pathways through interfacial interactions [8, 23, 33]. In contrast, excessive CNT loading (> 0.25%) induces localized stress concentrations and network defects, leading to performance degradation. The consistency between rheological properties and cold flow behavior further confirms that the synergistic optimization of macroscopic mechanical performance relies critically on balancing CNT dispersion quality with interfacial coupling efficiency. Compressive and tensile properties As illustrated in Fig. 7, the strain-stress behavior of CNT-reinforced STG composites under compressive loading exhibits pronounced strain-rate dependence and reinforcement effects. At a low loading rate (10 mm/min), all CNT-STG systems displayed nonlinear stress-strain curves (Figs. 7a–c), attributed to molecular chain relaxation and rearrangement within the gel matrix during slow deformation [23]. However, increasing the loading rate to 100 mm/min and 250 mm/min triggered a transition to linear elastic behavior accompanied by significant shear-thickening effects. This shift arises from the activation of shear-thickening mechanisms at high strain rates, where intensified interparticle friction and hydrodynamic interactions suppress molecular chain slippage, thereby enhancing instantaneous stiffness [34, 40]. Further analysis of modulus data (calculated at 0.1% strain, Fig. 7d) revealed a non-monotonic relationship between CNT content and compressive modulus across all loading rates. For instance, at 100 mm/min, the modulus increased from 93 kPa (0% CNT) to 259 kPa (0.25% CNT), demonstrating that optimal CNT loading enhances load transfer efficiency via high surface area and strong interfacial bonding while constraining localized matrix deformation. Beyond 0.25% CNT, however, the modulus declined to 219 kPa (0.5% CNT) and 105 kPa (1.0% CNT). This reversal likely stems from CNT aggregation-induced stress concentration and compromised dispersion quality, which degrade the composite’s load-bearing capacity[16]. Such behavior aligns with the "critical filler content" theory in nanocomposites, wherein excessive filler disrupts matrix continuity and introduces structural defects. Tensile testing demonstrated that CNT incorporation significantly enhanced both the mechanical properties and strain-rate sensitivity of STG. As shown in Fig. 8, the CNT 0.25% -STG sample exhibited distinct stress-strain behavior across loading rates: at 10 mm/min and 100 mm/min, it achieved maximum tensile stresses of 6.4 kPa and 82.7 kPa, respectively, without fracture. At 250 mm/min, the stress increased to 137.4 kPa but culminated in material failure. In contrast, pure STG (CNT 0% -STG) displayed a notably lower stress value of 3.8 kPa at 100 mm/min, underscoring CNT’s role in reinforcing interfacial strength and suppressing molecular chain slippage. Further analysis revealed pronounced strain-rate dependency in the CNT 0.25% -STG system. At low loading rates (10–100 mm/min), shear-thickening mechanisms dominated energy dissipation, where synergistic interactions between the gel network and CNTs delayed crack propagation through dynamic structural reorganization, maintaining high ductility (evidenced by the smooth fracture surface in Fig. 8b). Conversely, under high-speed loading (250 mm/min), the rapid external load application exceeded the material’s internal relaxation capacity, causing abrupt stiffening of the shear-thickened network. This triggered localized stress concentration and brittle fracture, as reflected by the ridged morphology observed in Fig. 8c. Impact absorption performance Drop-weight impact tests were conducted to evaluate the energy absorption capabilities of STG composites with varying CNT contents (0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 1%) on a rigid substrate. Without buffering material, the peak impact force reached 16,750 N with a duration of 0.323 ms (Fig. 9). Introducing CNT-STG composites significantly improved impact mitigation, with peak forces for 0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1% CNT compositions measuring 6,358 N, 4,556 N, 3,331 N, 3,624 N, and 3,907 N, respectively—corresponding to reductions of 62.1%, 72.8%, 80.1%, 78.4%, and 76.7% compared to the non-buffered case. Notably, increasing CNT content beyond 0.25% (to 0.5% and 1%) caused a 17.3% rebound in peak force, indicating diminished energy absorption efficiency at higher loadings. Concurrently, impact duration extended from 0.550 ms (0% CNT) to 0.990 ms (0.25% CNT), a 206.5% increase, before slightly decreasing to 0.870 ms at 1% CNT, further highlighting the nonlinear relationship between CNT concentration and energy dissipation. The superior performance of low-CNT composites (0.1–0.25%) originates from their uniformly dispersed three-dimensional reinforcement networks. These networks efficiently dissipate impact energy through interfacial slippage, dislocation motion, and the intrinsic elastic deformation of CNTs. In contrast, higher CNT concentrations (0.5–1.0%) promote aggregation, leading to localized stress concentrations that initiate matrix microcrack propagation and reduce overall energy absorption efficiency. The prolonged impact duration at moderate CNT levels reflects progressive energy release via viscoelastic deformation and pore collapse mechanisms. However, excessive CNT loading induces interfacial debonding, disrupting energy dissipation pathways and shortening duration (e.g., 1.0% CNT). Observed post-impact fluctuations in the force-time profiles may arise from residual stress relaxation or dynamic rebound of the composite’s layered structure, illustrating the complex energy redistribution processes within the material. This study evaluated the protective efficacy of CNT 0.25% -STG composites as buffer layers in anti-riot helmets under GA 294–2023 testing standards. Drop-weight impact tests revealed that integrating the CNT-STG layer reduced peak impact force on a headform by 27.7% (from 4,663 N to 3,373 N) while extending impact duration by 26.2% (0.01038 s to 0.01310 s), as shown in Fig. 10. This dual improvement—attenuating instantaneous force and prolonging energy dissipation—demonstrates the composite’s ability to redistribute impact energy efficiently. The performance enhancement stems from synergistic interactions between CNTs and the STG matrix, where CNTs establish a hierarchical network that disperses stress via interfacial slippage and dislocation motion[23, 35, 41]. Simultaneously, increased elastic modulus enables effective kinetic-to-elastic energy conversion, while prolonged energy absorption correlates with progressive pore collapse and delamination. These mechanisms collectively reduce transmitted acceleration peaks, aligning with trauma mitigation principles. The findings validate CNT-STG composites as advanced lightweight buffers with design versatility for protective gear. Future efforts should focus on optimizing CNT distribution gradients and microstructural tailoring to deepen structure-property relationships, enabling precision engineering of next-generation impact-resistant materials. This work establishes a framework for merging nanoscale reinforcement strategies with dynamic performance demands in safety applications. Conclusion​​ This study systematically investigated the effects of CNT content on the performance of STG, demonstrating that 0.25 wt.% CNT optimally enhances mechanical properties and impact absorption. Rheological tests revealed that 0.25 wt.% CNT increased G ' by 128.7% (from 124.5 kPa to 284.3 kPa) across 0.1–100 Hz while maintaining effective energy dissipation. Compressive and tensile experiments further validated these enhancements: at 100 mm/min loading, the compressive modulus rose from 93 kPa (pure STG) to 259 kPa (0.25% CNT-STG), while tensile stress at 100 mm/min reached 82.7 kPa—21.8 times higher than pure STG (3.8 kPa). Impact absorption performance peaked at 0.25% CNT, reducing peak force by 80.1% (3,331 N compared to 16,750 N for the non-buffered case) and extending impact duration by 206.5% (from 0.550 ms to 0.990 ms). In helmet applications under GA 294 standards, the 0.25% CNT-STG buffer layer reduced peak impact force by 27.7% (from 4,663 N to 3,373 N) and prolonged energy dissipation duration by 26.2% (from 0.01038 s to 0.01310 s). These results establish that precise CNT loading (0.25 wt.%) synergistically strengthens STG’s mechanical integrity and energy dissipation capacity, offering a validated strategy for designing advanced protective materials through nanoscale reinforcement optimization. Declarations Funding This work was supported by the Science and Technology Innovation Plan of Shanghai Science and Technology Commission (Grant No. 23YF1407800). Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Availability of data and material Data will be made available on request. Code availability Not applicable. Author’ contributions Guangming Yang: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, project administration, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, visualization, writing-original draft, writing-review and editing. Haipeng Li: Investigation, Resources. Fei Pan: Investigation, Data curation. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge financial support from the Science and Technology Innovation Plan of Shanghai Science and Technology Commission (Grant No. 23YF1407800). 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Smart Mater Struct 32, 074004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/acd91c Liu Z, Zhao Y, Zhang X, Tian H, Shi B, Chen Z, Jia L, Han Y, Wei S, Yan R, (2024) Rheological characterization and synergistic energy absorption under fluid–solid interaction of shear thickening gel/3D angle interlocking composites. Polym Compos 45, 9088–9102. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.28396 Wang S, Xuan S, Wang Y, Xu C, Mao Y, Liu M, Bai L, Jiang W, Gong X, (2016) Stretchable Polyurethane Sponge Scaffold Strengthened Shear Stiffening Polymer and Its Enhanced Safeguarding Performance. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 8, 4946–4954. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b12083 Zarrin N, Abbasi M, Sadighi M, Goodarz M, (2024) Energy dissipating of shear thickening gel reinforced with PVA polymer. Polym Bull 81, 11893–11910. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-024-05264-3 Yang G, Feng X, Wang W, OuYang Q, Liu L, (2021) Effective interlaminar reinforcing and delamination monitoring of carbon fibrous composites using a novel nano-carbon woven grid. Compos Sci Technol 213, 108959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2021.108959 Yang G, Feng X, Wang W, OuYang Q, Liu L, Wu Z, (2021) Graphene and carbon nanotube-based high-sensitive film sensors for in-situ monitoring out-of-plane shear damage of epoxy composites. Compos Part B Eng 204, 108494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108494 Wang S, Xuan S, Liu M, Bai L, Zhang S, Sang M, Jiang W, Gong X, (2017) Smart wearable Kevlar-based safeguarding electronic textile with excellent sensing performance. Soft Matter 13, 2483–2491. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7SM00095B Sun L, Wang G, Zhang C, Jin Q, Song Y, (2021) On the rheological properties of multi-walled carbon nano-polyvinylpyrrolidone/silicon-based shear thickening fluid. Nanotechnol Rev 10, 1339–1348. https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2021-0087 Chen Q, Liu M, Xuan S, Jiang W, Cao S, Gong X, (2017) Shear dependent electrical property of conductive shear thickening fluid. Mater Des 121, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.02.056 Sha X, Yu K, Cao H, Qian K, (2013) Shear thickening behavior of nanoparticle suspensions with carbon nanofillers. J Nanopart Res 15, 1816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-013-1816-x Vigilato MÁ, Horn M, Martins VCA, Plepis AMG, (2015) Rheological Study of Gels Based on Chitosan and Carbon Nanotubes. Braz J Therm Anal 4, 35-38. https://doi.org/10.18362/bjta.v4.i1-2.59 Li D, Wang R, Liu X, Fang S, Sun Y, (2018) Shear-Thickening Fluid Using Oxygen-Plasma-Modified Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes to Improve the Quasi-Static Stab Resistance of Kevlar Fabrics. Polymers 10, 1356. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121356 Taç V, Gürses E, (2019) Micromechanical modelling of carbon nanotube reinforced composite materials with a functionally graded interphase. J Compos Mater 53, 4337–4348. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998319857126 Fan X, Wang S, Zhang S, Wang Y, Gong X, (2019) Magnetically sensitive nanocomposites based on the conductive shear-stiffening gel. J Mater Sci 54, 6971–6981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03360-8 Hasanzadeh M, Mottaghitalab V, Babaei H, Rezaei M, (2016) The influence of carbon nanotubes on quasi-static puncture resistance and yarn pull-out behavior of shear-thickening fluids (STFs) impregnated woven fabrics. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 88, 263–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.06.006 Wei M, Lv Y, Sun L, Sun H, (2020) Rheological properties of multi-walled carbon nanotubes/silica shear thickening fluid suspensions. Colloid Polym Sci 298, 243–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-020-04599-3 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files image1.png Graphical abstract Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 04 Aug, 2025 Reviews received at journal 18 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 10 Jul, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 07 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 19 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 19 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 16 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6906815","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":482174349,"identity":"b7d6cce3-15a2-4a90-b732-5022a49191fa","order_by":0,"name":"Guangming Yang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2klEQVRIie3PvQrCMBDA8ZRCuhy6nij1FQJCVzefI1k6VRFcOgi2KHZQ9z6Go2MkUJe4O+ojiIuLHwVHxdTNIf/5ftwdITbbH0a9qVS3+2PS3aXpkcdjM6lBISRQlxOtFDvqwkx8jDovcuiFjdPMrXAYFFwi0IGTQxCLhJJ6tuDGXyRDGLnNZXAQmxZBvV+bt3CGzrylS6IpYdg3EIyYLI2zxCgYirlbjWwTyUWOYUiqkfIw5SSyw0Ap5LoA4y/tbKouJfGZl6bnazz269nqO3kLfhu32Ww228eeEnJOd9p32SYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"The Third Research Institute of the Ministry of Public Security","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Guangming","middleName":"","lastName":"Yang","suffix":""},{"id":482174350,"identity":"171d04ab-de06-4be3-af7d-45cdeedecad4","order_by":1,"name":"Haipeng Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Third Research Institute of the Ministry of Public Security","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haipeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":482174351,"identity":"640d5345-ab64-448b-a926-01f2d592313a","order_by":2,"name":"Fei Pan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Third Research Institute of the Ministry of Public Security","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fei","middleName":"","lastName":"Pan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-16 15:08:23","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6906815/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6906815/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86339471,"identity":"94c0b01d-b60a-4c36-a599-6d481bd13114","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":752675,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic diagram of preparation for STG and CNT-enhanced STG composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/2c358c54acaebe1541ec6a10.jpeg"},{"id":86339437,"identity":"b5800d05-9233-4f96-b8f1-346921d15cf7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":755718,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTesting schematic. (a) Tensile, (b) Compression, (c) Low-velocity impact, (d) Helmet impact resistance\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/984811e19aa1f99e87a6eca7.jpeg"},{"id":86340853,"identity":"4f2d97ae-592e-4a3e-8c2a-77f6ea98b968","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:11:51","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":428179,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR spectrum of STG\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/99224d88705116766bd78bb2.png"},{"id":86339473,"identity":"dd2bd450-39a2-422b-8028-467d4fbc25eb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8291306,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTEM images of (a) CNT-isopropanol dispersion, (b) CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG-isopropanol composite, and (c) CNT\u003csub\u003e1.0%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG-isopropanol composite\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/c92039cfaa29f867d8c04f8b.jpeg"},{"id":86339441,"identity":"7374d19c-91cb-49b6-adc5-bd4f1474100a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1362722,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShape evolution of CNT-STG composites with varying CNT content under gravitational flow (0–60 min)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/7a05cedb31ebcc586e638005.jpeg"},{"id":86340856,"identity":"d7111da0-5321-45a7-8392-80726f0e73f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:11:52","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":609968,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFrequency dependence of storage (G') and loss (G'') moduli for CNT-STG composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/2f4c0294d43b41a9cf5e8cd2.png"},{"id":86339442,"identity":"bb31c291-7790-4820-9324-1fdeb4c969db","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":285106,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive stress-strain behavior and modulus of CNT-STG composites at varying strain rates\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/8fe30956a6aa8ab60b7451d4.jpeg"},{"id":86339444,"identity":"a79ae0da-bf57-46b1-bcdb-62e9a1eb86e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":805322,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Tensile stress-strain curves of CNT-STG composites at different strain rates,(b-c) SEM Images of the Tensile Fracture Cross-section of the CNT-STG composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/6832de1771e84f906cdec616.jpeg"},{"id":86339446,"identity":"70fcd44d-5693-485c-b12a-08c8e0da576e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:52","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":612097,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpact force profiles and energy absorption metrics for CNT-STG composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/cf03791bf101fea435097e1f.png"},{"id":86339451,"identity":"f84aaabf-9e4c-48d7-9729-6836f270404a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:52","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":482497,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative impact performance of CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG in helmet applications\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/e8ea6e7194addece8d95ed1f.png"},{"id":86342742,"identity":"8f4b6a90-45e9-4905-b5b0-3c7d901fe3ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:27:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":15030089,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/d8be9d55-f628-4bcd-bf9d-5e0e7819ce85.pdf"},{"id":86339440,"identity":"24515a05-21f7-4a18-b925-a656bffc3e49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-09 14:03:51","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":9927908,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraphical abstract\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6906815/v1/77f79500bc720d79704fe296.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"High-Performance Impact-Resistant Shear-Thickening Gel Composites Enabled by Optimally-Dispersed Carbon Nanotubes","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eShear-thickening fluids (STFs) and Shear-thickening gels (STGs) have attracted considerable attention due to their unique non-Newtonian behavior, demonstrating exceptional potential in impact protection, flexible sensing, and smart damping applications[1\u0026ndash;12]. STFs achieve rapid viscosity transitions through shear-induced hydrocluster formation, enabling instantaneous energy dissipation under high-strain-rate impacts[7, 11, 13\u0026ndash;16]. However, their inherent liquid-state characteristics\u0026mdash;poor long-term stability, leakage risks, and delayed shear-thickening responses under dynamic loading\u0026mdash;severely limit practical deployment[1, 2, 17\u0026ndash;19]. In contrast, STGs overcome these limitations by incorporating dynamic crosslinking networks (e.g., boroxine bonds), which lock shear-thickening effects into reversible solid-like phase transitions. This strategy enhances structural integrity (2\u0026ndash;3-fold increase in storage modulus, \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;) while preserving rapid responsiveness, effectively mitigating cold-flow behavior [1, 3, 10, 19\u0026ndash;22]. Despite these advances, residual cold-flow-induced deformation, suboptimal shear-thickening sensitivity, and inefficient energy dissipation at high strain rates continue to hinder STG applications in high-impact scenarios such as ballistic armor and sports protective gear, necessitating innovative material design approaches.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecent efforts to optimize STGs have focused on nanoscale/microscale reinforcements. Rigid fillers like carbon black (CB) [2], carbonyl iron [10], silica (SiO₂) [19, 23], carbon fibers [23], and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) [24] improve storage modulus and creep resistance, though particle agglomeration often leads to stress concentration and mechanical degradation. Li et al. [25] developed magnetic STG composites capable of absorbing 70.17% energy under low-velocity impacts. Parisi et al. [26] integrated STGs into auxetic foams, achieving a 50% reduction in peak impact force. Fiber-reinforced systems (e.g., Kevlar/STG) enhance energy dissipation through interfacial friction[2, 18, 27], while Wang et al. [28] reported a two-fold improvement in impact resistance via STG-impregnated polyurethane foam. Nasim et al. [29] further optimized dynamic responsiveness using hydrogen-bonded polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) networks. Nevertheless, reconciling filler dispersion homogeneity with strain-rate sensitivity remains a critical challenge for designing STG composites that simultaneously achieve high modulus, rapid shear-thickening, and structural stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarbon nanotubes (CNTs), with their ultrahigh surface area (~\u0026thinsp;300 m\u0026sup2;/g), exceptional mechanical strength (elastic modulus\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;1 TPa), and 3D network-forming capability, present a promising solution for next-generation STGs[8, 12, 30\u0026ndash;38]. In polymer matrices, CNTs create adaptive interfaces through synergistic physical entanglement and chemical bonding, enhancing both stiffness and energy dissipation efficiency. Notably, Sha et al. [35] demonstrated that CNTs\u0026rsquo; tubular geometry facilitates confined-space shear thickening, achieving a remarkable 585% increase in storage modulus. Practical applications include CNT/PVA/STF-coated Kevlar fabrics with 240.2% higher energy absorption [12], CNT/iron-reinforced STGs with a 585% rise in \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; [39], and STG/CNT/Kevlar composites exhibiting superior stab resistance[32]. However, critical knowledge gaps persist regarding CNT dispersion mechanisms, percolation thresholds, and their interplay with dynamic crosslinking networks\u0026mdash;particularly how CNT architectures modulate strain-rate sensitivity and energy dissipation pathways.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAddressing the persistent challenges of cold-flow behavior, sluggish shear-thickening response, and inefficient energy dissipation in STGs, this study introduces a solvent-assisted strategy to integrate CNTs into borate-crosslinked STG matrices. The effects of CNT content (0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;1.0% by mass) on microstructure evolution, dynamic rheological behavior, quasi-static mechanical properties (compression/tension), and high-strain-rate impact performance (drop-weight tests, helmet simulations) are systematically investigated. The findings establish a theoretical framework for designing advanced STG composites that synergistically combine high modulus, rapid shear-thickening responsiveness, and superior impact resistance, paving the way for next-generation protective materials.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoric acid (BA, AR grade, CAS: 10043-35-3, Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.) was used as the precursor for synthesizing shear-thickening gel (STG). Hydroxyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS-OH, viscosity: 70 cSt, Hebang Chemical Co., Ltd., Shanghai) served as the matrix material, with ethyl acetate (EA, AR grade, Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai) acting as the solvent system. CNTs (outer diameter: 8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;15 nm, length: 30\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;50 \u0026micro;m, specific surface area: \u0026gt;140 m\u0026sup2;/g, Chengdu Organic Chemicals Co., Ltd.) were employed as nanoscale reinforcements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFabrication of CNT-STG Composites\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the synthesis of CNT-reinforced STG (CNT-STG) involves two sequential stages: STG matrix formation and CNT integration (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea\u0026ndash;b). To prevent potential random scission of PDMS chains induced by BA at elevated temperatures\u0026mdash;a process detrimental to achieving well-defined polyborosiloxane molecular structures\u0026mdash;a solvent was introduced to reduce reaction viscosity, while hydroxyl-terminated PDMS-OH facilitated controlled crosslinking. The STG synthesis protocol commenced with dissolving PDMS-OH precursors and BA in EA, followed by reaction at 130\u0026deg;C for 3 h under continuous stirring. The product was subsequently dried at 90\u0026deg;C for 6 h to obtain the STG. For CNT incorporation, the STG was redissolved in isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to form an STG-IPA solution, which was then blended with a pre-dispersed CNT-IPA suspension (3.1 wt.% CNTs). The mixture underwent sequential homogenization via ultrasonication (40 kHz, 15 min), magnetic stirring (3 h), and solvent evaporation at 90\u0026deg;C for 3 h, yielding the final CNT-STG composites after complete drying. To evaluate CNT loading effects, five sample groups were prepared with CNT mass fractions of 0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCharacterization\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicrostructural and spectroscopic analysis\u003c/strong\u003e: Prior to characterization, STG samples were dried at 60\u0026deg;C for 24 h and homogenized with potassium bromide (KBr) for FT-IR analysis (Thermo Fisher Scientific Nicolet iS10). The morphology of CNT-IPA and CNT-STG-IPA suspensions was examined by TEM (JEOL JEM-F200) after ultrasonic dispersion and deposition onto copper grids. SEM (Hitachi SU8230) was employed to observe fractured cross-sections of CNT-STG composites, which were sputter-coated with 5 nm gold to analyze interfacial structure and failure mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRheological characterization\u003c/strong\u003e: Rheological properties were measured using a rotational rheometer (Anton Paar MCR 302, Austria) equipped with a PP20 parallel plate (diameter: 20 mm). The sample (20 mm diameter \u0026times; 1 mm thickness) was subjected to frequency sweeps (0.1 to 100 Hz) at 25\u0026deg;C under 1% fixed strain. Creep tests were conducted to assess cold-flow behavior, with details of applied stress and recovery parameters to be specified based on experimental protocols.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMechanical testing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompression tests\u003c/strong\u003e: Following ISO 7743:2007, cylindrical specimens (29 mm diameter\u0026times;12.5 mm height) were compressed to 25% strain using a microcomputer-controlled universal testing machine (500 N load cell). Strain was calculated as the ratio of real-time displacement to initial height (\u003cem\u003el\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.5 mm). Strain rate effects were investigated at crosshead speeds of 10, 100, and 250 mm/min, with three independent replicates per condition. \u003cstrong\u003eTensile tests\u003c/strong\u003e: Type I dumbbell specimens (ISO 37:2005) were die-cut and tested at identical crosshead speeds (10, 100, 250 mm/min). All data were statistically validated to ensure reproducibility.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow-velocity impact testing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the energy absorption characteristics of CNT-STG composites under low-velocity impacts, a custom-built test system (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec) was employed. The setup comprised: (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) a drop-weight impact device (Peng Testing Equipment Co., Ltd., Chengde, China), (2) a dynamic signal acquisition system (DH5920N, Donghua Testing Technology Co., Ltd., China) with dedicated data analysis software (sampling frequency: 1 kHz), and (3) a hemispherical impactor (diameter: 20 mm, mass: 0.75 kg) fabricated from stainless steel. The impactor tip featured a 2.5 mm fillet radius to mitigate edge effects. Disk-shaped specimens (100 mm diameter \u0026times; 10 mm thickness) were freely mounted on a rigid steel base. Impact energy 10J was controlled by adjusting the drop height via an electromagnetic elevation system. A piezoelectric force transducer (20 kN range) embedded in the base recorded force-time histories during free-fall impacts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHelmet impact resistance testing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo quantify the protective performance of CNT-STG as helmet paddings, a drop-weight/headform coupled test system (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed) was developed following China National Standard GA 294\u0026ndash;2023 (Police anti-Riot Helmets). The apparatus included: (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) a 5.0 kg steel drop-weight with a hemispherical impact surface (48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 mm diameter), (2) a polycarbonate (PC) standard helmet shell, and (3) a base-integrated piezoelectric transducer (20 kN range, 10 kHz sampling rate). Three sample groups were tested: control (no padding), Group A (STG padding), and Group B (CNT-STG padding), with square paddings (150 \u0026times; 150 \u0026times; 10 mm\u0026sup3;) affixed to the inner crown region. Impacts were performed via 1.0 m free-fall drops, and energy absorption efficiency was calculated relative to the control group using peak force-time curve averages from three repeated tests. The data acquisition system synchronously recorded transient responses during impact events.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion​","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFTIR and TEM analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe FTIR spectrum of STG in the 4000\u0026ndash;500 cm⁻\u0026sup1; range is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3. The absorption peak at 2970 cm⁻\u0026sup1; corresponds to the asymmetric stretching vibration of methyl groups. A strong absorption band at 1260 cm⁻\u0026sup1; confirms the presence of Si\u0026ndash;CH₃ groups, while peaks at 1020 cm⁻\u0026sup1; and 1093 cm⁻\u0026sup1; are attributed to Si\u0026ndash;O bonds. Notably, the characteristic absorption band at 1340 cm⁻\u0026sup1; is assigned to the symmetric stretching vibration of Si\u0026ndash;O\u0026ndash;B bonds, indicating successful chemical bonding between boric acid and hydroxyl groups at the PDMS chain terminals to form the target compound STG.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;4 illustrates the morphological evolution of CNT dispersions and their composites with STG. In the pristine CNT-IPA system (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4a), CNTs exhibit excellent monodispersion without observable agglomeration, confirming a stable colloidal dispersion. For the CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG composite (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4b), TEM reveals uniform encapsulation of CNTs by the STG matrix, evidenced by the homogeneous dark contrast along the nanotube surfaces, which suggests effective interfacial interactions and thorough infiltration of the gel network. However, at a higher CNT loading of 1.0% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4c), phase separation becomes prominent, as indicated by reduced transparency and incomplete STG encapsulation. The interfacial defects observed at this concentration likely arise from excessive CNT surface area occupying the gelation-active sites of STG molecular chains, thereby disrupting the kinetics of three-dimensional network formation [23].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRheological properties\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CNT content exhibits a nonlinear influence on the cold flow behavior and mechanical integrity of CNT-STG composites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). At low CNT concentrations (0\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;0.25%), the material\u0026rsquo;s rigidity increases significantly, with the suspended length decreasing from 3 cm (pure STG) to 2 cm after 60 min. This enhancement is attributed to the formation of a uniformly dispersed CNT network that restricts molecular chain slippage. Conversely, at 1.0% CNT, severe phase separation and interfacial decoupling lead to pronounced structural disorder, resulting in a dramatic increase in suspended length (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 cm). These results highlight a dynamic balance between reinforcement and flow inhibition: well-dispersed CNTs improve rigidity at low concentrations, while excessive CNT loadings induce network discontinuity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRheological characterization (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6) revealed that CNT content exerts significant regulatory effects on the dynamic viscoelastic behavior of STG. Comparative analysis of five CNT loadings (0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) identified distinct trends: At 0.1 Hz, pure STG (0% CNT) exhibited a storage modulus (\u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e') of 22.1 kPa and a loss modulus (\u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e'') of 25.7 kPa, with \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e'' \u0026gt;\u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e', indicative of viscous-dominated flow. Upon increasing CNT content to 0.25%, both moduli rose dramatically to 124.5 kPa (\u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e') and 81.3 kPa (\u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e''), corresponding to 463% and 216% enhancements, respectively. The marked transition to \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e' \u0026gt;\u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e'' at this concentration signifies the formation of a three-dimensional CNT network through physical entanglement, which substantially enhanced elastic dominance. However, further increasing CNT to 0.5% and 1.0% reduced low-frequency \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e' to 87.0 kPa and 19.9 kPa, respectively, with \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e'' similarly declining to 63.4 kPa and 22.9 kPa. Interfacial defects observed in CNT-enriched regions further confirmed that excessive CNT loading critically disrupts the gelation dynamics of STG. These results underscore the concentration-dependent dual role of CNTs: optimal dispersion (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.25%) strengthens the elastic network, while agglomeration (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.25%) introduces structural discontinuities that compromise performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the high-frequency regime (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 Hz, particularly at 100 Hz), all composites displayed shear-thickening characteristics. The CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG composite demonstrated the highest \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e' of 284.2 kPa, representing enhancements of 87.5%, 57.1%, 16.7%, and 84.6% compared to samples with 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0% CNT, respectively, while maintaining comparable \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e'' values across all compositions. For the CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG composite, \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e' increased sharply from 124.5 kPa at 0.1 Hz to 284.2 kPa at 100 Hz (128% enhancement), and \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e'' rose from 81.3 kPa to 148.6 kPa (83% increase). Notably, the lower growth rate of \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e'' relative to \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e' suggests elastic energy storage dominated the dynamic response, though viscous dissipation\u0026mdash;driven by particle collisions and rapid structural reorganization\u0026mdash;remained significant. These results elucidate a \"moderate reinforcement\" mechanism mediated by CNT dispersion states. At low concentrations (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.25%), uniformly dispersed CNTs establish a three-dimensional network that enhances elastic behavior and optimizes energy dissipation pathways through interfacial interactions [8, 23, 33]. In contrast, excessive CNT loading (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.25%) induces localized stress concentrations and network defects, leading to performance degradation. The consistency between rheological properties and cold flow behavior further confirms that the synergistic optimization of macroscopic mechanical performance relies critically on balancing CNT dispersion quality with interfacial coupling efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompressive and tensile properties\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;7, the strain-stress behavior of CNT-reinforced STG composites under compressive loading exhibits pronounced strain-rate dependence and reinforcement effects. At a low loading rate (10 mm/min), all CNT-STG systems displayed nonlinear stress-strain curves (Figs.\u0026nbsp;7a\u0026ndash;c), attributed to molecular chain relaxation and rearrangement within the gel matrix during slow deformation [23]. However, increasing the loading rate to 100 mm/min and 250 mm/min triggered a transition to linear elastic behavior accompanied by significant shear-thickening effects. This shift arises from the activation of shear-thickening mechanisms at high strain rates, where intensified interparticle friction and hydrodynamic interactions suppress molecular chain slippage, thereby enhancing instantaneous stiffness [34, 40].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther analysis of modulus data (calculated at 0.1% strain, Fig.\u0026nbsp;7d) revealed a non-monotonic relationship between CNT content and compressive modulus across all loading rates. For instance, at 100 mm/min, the modulus increased from 93 kPa (0% CNT) to 259 kPa (0.25% CNT), demonstrating that optimal CNT loading enhances load transfer efficiency via high surface area and strong interfacial bonding while constraining localized matrix deformation. Beyond 0.25% CNT, however, the modulus declined to 219 kPa (0.5% CNT) and 105 kPa (1.0% CNT). This reversal likely stems from CNT aggregation-induced stress concentration and compromised dispersion quality, which degrade the composite\u0026rsquo;s load-bearing capacity[16]. Such behavior aligns with the \"critical filler content\" theory in nanocomposites, wherein excessive filler disrupts matrix continuity and introduces structural defects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTensile testing demonstrated that CNT incorporation significantly enhanced both the mechanical properties and strain-rate sensitivity of STG. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;8, the CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG sample exhibited distinct stress-strain behavior across loading rates: at 10 mm/min and 100 mm/min, it achieved maximum tensile stresses of 6.4 kPa and 82.7 kPa, respectively, without fracture. At 250 mm/min, the stress increased to 137.4 kPa but culminated in material failure. In contrast, pure STG (CNT\u003csub\u003e0%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG) displayed a notably lower stress value of 3.8 kPa at 100 mm/min, underscoring CNT\u0026rsquo;s role in reinforcing interfacial strength and suppressing molecular chain slippage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther analysis revealed pronounced strain-rate dependency in the CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG system. At low loading rates (10\u0026ndash;100 mm/min), shear-thickening mechanisms dominated energy dissipation, where synergistic interactions between the gel network and CNTs delayed crack propagation through dynamic structural reorganization, maintaining high ductility (evidenced by the smooth fracture surface in Fig.\u0026nbsp;8b). Conversely, under high-speed loading (250 mm/min), the rapid external load application exceeded the material\u0026rsquo;s internal relaxation capacity, causing abrupt stiffening of the shear-thickened network. This triggered localized stress concentration and brittle fracture, as reflected by the ridged morphology observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;8c.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImpact absorption performance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDrop-weight impact tests were conducted to evaluate the energy absorption capabilities of STG composites with varying CNT contents (0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 1%) on a rigid substrate. Without buffering material, the peak impact force reached 16,750 N with a duration of 0.323 ms (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). Introducing CNT-STG composites significantly improved impact mitigation, with peak forces for 0%, 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1% CNT compositions measuring 6,358 N, 4,556 N, 3,331 N, 3,624 N, and 3,907 N, respectively\u0026mdash;corresponding to reductions of 62.1%, 72.8%, 80.1%, 78.4%, and 76.7% compared to the non-buffered case. Notably, increasing CNT content beyond 0.25% (to 0.5% and 1%) caused a 17.3% rebound in peak force, indicating diminished energy absorption efficiency at higher loadings. Concurrently, impact duration extended from 0.550 ms (0% CNT) to 0.990 ms (0.25% CNT), a 206.5% increase, before slightly decreasing to 0.870 ms at 1% CNT, further highlighting the nonlinear relationship between CNT concentration and energy dissipation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe superior performance of low-CNT composites (0.1\u0026ndash;0.25%) originates from their uniformly dispersed three-dimensional reinforcement networks. These networks efficiently dissipate impact energy through interfacial slippage, dislocation motion, and the intrinsic elastic deformation of CNTs. In contrast, higher CNT concentrations (0.5\u0026ndash;1.0%) promote aggregation, leading to localized stress concentrations that initiate matrix microcrack propagation and reduce overall energy absorption efficiency. The prolonged impact duration at moderate CNT levels reflects progressive energy release via viscoelastic deformation and pore collapse mechanisms. However, excessive CNT loading induces interfacial debonding, disrupting energy dissipation pathways and shortening duration (e.g., 1.0% CNT). Observed post-impact fluctuations in the force-time profiles may arise from residual stress relaxation or dynamic rebound of the composite\u0026rsquo;s layered structure, illustrating the complex energy redistribution processes within the material.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated the protective efficacy of CNT\u003csub\u003e0.25%\u003c/sub\u003e-STG composites as buffer layers in anti-riot helmets under GA 294\u0026ndash;2023 testing standards. Drop-weight impact tests revealed that integrating the CNT-STG layer reduced peak impact force on a headform by 27.7% (from 4,663 N to 3,373 N) while extending impact duration by 26.2% (0.01038 s to 0.01310 s), as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;10. This dual improvement\u0026mdash;attenuating instantaneous force and prolonging energy dissipation\u0026mdash;demonstrates the composite\u0026rsquo;s ability to redistribute impact energy efficiently. The performance enhancement stems from synergistic interactions between CNTs and the STG matrix, where CNTs establish a hierarchical network that disperses stress via interfacial slippage and dislocation motion[23, 35, 41]. Simultaneously, increased elastic modulus enables effective kinetic-to-elastic energy conversion, while prolonged energy absorption correlates with progressive pore collapse and delamination. These mechanisms collectively reduce transmitted acceleration peaks, aligning with trauma mitigation principles. The findings validate CNT-STG composites as advanced lightweight buffers with design versatility for protective gear. Future efforts should focus on optimizing CNT distribution gradients and microstructural tailoring to deepen structure-property relationships, enabling precision engineering of next-generation impact-resistant materials. This work establishes a framework for merging nanoscale reinforcement strategies with dynamic performance demands in safety applications.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion​​","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study systematically investigated the effects of CNT content on the performance of STG, demonstrating that 0.25 wt.% CNT optimally enhances mechanical properties and impact absorption. Rheological tests revealed that 0.25 wt.% CNT increased \u003cem\u003eG\u003c/em\u003e' by 128.7% (from 124.5 kPa to 284.3 kPa) across 0.1\u0026ndash;100 Hz while maintaining effective energy dissipation. Compressive and tensile experiments further validated these enhancements: at 100 mm/min loading, the compressive modulus rose from 93 kPa (pure STG) to 259 kPa (0.25% CNT-STG), while tensile stress at 100 mm/min reached 82.7 kPa\u0026mdash;21.8 times higher than pure STG (3.8 kPa). Impact absorption performance peaked at 0.25% CNT, reducing peak force by 80.1% (3,331 N compared to 16,750 N for the non-buffered case) and extending impact duration by 206.5% (from 0.550 ms to 0.990 ms). In helmet applications under GA 294 standards, the 0.25% CNT-STG buffer layer reduced peak impact force by 27.7% (from 4,663 N to 3,373 N) and prolonged energy dissipation duration by 26.2% (from 0.01038 s to 0.01310 s). These results establish that precise CNT loading (0.25 wt.%) synergistically strengthens STG\u0026rsquo;s mechanical integrity and energy dissipation capacity, offering a validated strategy for designing advanced protective materials through nanoscale reinforcement optimization.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Science and Technology Innovation Plan of Shanghai Science and Technology Commission (Grant No. 23YF1407800).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest \u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available on request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCode availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor’ contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGuangming Yang: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, project administration, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, visualization, writing-original draft, writing-review and editing. Haipeng Li: Investigation, Resources. Fei Pan: Investigation, Data curation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge financial support from the Science and Technology Innovation Plan of Shanghai Science and Technology Commission (Grant No. 23YF1407800). We also acknowledge Mr. Jiahao Yao (Master's candidate at Donghua University) for his experimental assistance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current submitted articles contain studies that do not involve human or animal subjects, and do not involve pathology reports. Ethics approval does not apply to this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTang F, Dong C, Yang Z, Kang Y, Huang X, Li M, Chen Y, Cao W, Huang C, Guo Y, Wei Y, (2022) Protective performance and dynamic behavior of composite body armor with shear stiffening gel as buffer material under ballistic impact. \u003cem\u003eCompos Sci Technol\u003c/em\u003e 218, 109190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2021.109190\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao C, Wang Y, Cao S, Xuan S, Jiang W, Gong X, (2019) Conductive shear thickening gel/Kevlar wearable fabrics: A flexible body armor with mechano-electric coupling ballistic performance. \u003cem\u003eCompos Sci Technol\u003c/em\u003e 182, 107782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2019.107782\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGe M, Du C, (2023) Preparation process 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https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-020-04599-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"colloid-and-polymer-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":" Learn more about [Colloid and Polymer Science](https://www.springer.com/journal/396) ","snPcode":"396","submissionUrl":"https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cps","title":"Colloid and Polymer Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Shear-thickening, Carbon nanotubes, Polymer, Impact-Resistant, Protective","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6906815/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6906815/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study addresses persistent issues of cold-flow deformation, sluggish shear-thickening response, and poor energy dissipation in shear-thickening gels (STGs) through solvent-assisted integration of optimally dispersed carbon nanotubes (CNTs, 0~1.0 weight percent (wt%)). Borate-crosslinked STG matrices were synthesized using hydroxyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane and boric acid. Rheological analysis demonstrates that a CNT loading of 0.25 wt% maximizes enhancement of the storage modulus, achieving values of 124.5 kPa at 0.1 Hz (exceeding the pure STG by 463%) and 284.2 kPa at 100 Hz, while preserving viscoelastic balance. The compressive modulus (100 mm/min) increased by approximately 180% via CNT-enabled load transfer (from 93 kPa to 259 kPa), while tensile stress surged 21.8-fold to 82.7 kPa at 100 mm/min. Impact tests show 0.25% CNT-STG reduces peak force by 80.1% (3,331 N versus 16,750 N) and extends dissipation duration by 206.5%. Helmet simulations under industrial impact standards confirm 27.7% peak force reduction (from 4,663 N to 3,373 N) with 26.2% longer impact duration, demonstrating synergistic energy redistribution via CNT networks. Optimal dispersion enables hierarchical dissipation through interfacial slippage, dislocation motion, and elastic storage, avoiding agglomeration at high loadings. This establishes a nanoscale design paradigm for high-performance STG composites with rapid thickening, structural stability, and superior impact protection.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"High-Performance Impact-Resistant Shear-Thickening Gel Composites Enabled by Optimally-Dispersed Carbon Nanotubes","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-09 14:03:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6906815/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-08-04T08:51:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-18T22:03:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"243321869858998188238482499065996405347","date":"2025-07-15T04:57:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"99586341254389178642571947603375554798","date":"2025-07-10T11:01:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-07T11:21:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-20T01:55:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-20T01:54:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Colloid and Polymer Science","date":"2025-06-16T14:59:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"colloid-and-polymer-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":" Learn more about [Colloid and Polymer Science](https://www.springer.com/journal/396) ","snPcode":"396","submissionUrl":"https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cps","title":"Colloid and Polymer Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8cd5c075-ee60-48a3-83b0-ccb441e36476","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-28T08:38:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-09 14:03:46","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6906815","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6906815","identity":"rs-6906815","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}