Forest Regeneration and Woody Species Composition in Sekelamariam Forest in the Sub-Tropical Highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia

Forest Regeneration and Woody Species Composition in Sekelamariam Forest in the Sub-Tropical Highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Forest Regeneration and Woody Species Composition in Sekelamariam Forest in the Sub-Tropical Highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia Yibeltal Anbes, Tefera Belay, Tesfaye Awas, Ewunetu Tazebew This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6461689/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 15 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Understanding the structure and regeneration status of woody species is essential for the conservation and sustainable management of forest ecosystems. This study assessed the species composition, population structure, and regeneration dynamics of Sekelamariam Forest in Denbecha, located in the sub-tropical highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia. A systematic sampling approach was employed, with 42 plots (20 m × 20 m) established for mature woody species, while five subplots (5 m × 5 m) within each plot recorded saplings and seedlings. Plots were spaced at 50 m intervals along altitudinal gradients, with transects placed 100 m apart. A total of 59 woody species, representing 39 genera and 38 families, were identified, with Fabaceae being the most dominant family, followed by Euphorbiaceae. The forest exhibited a stem density of 750 stems/ha for mature trees, 1,593 stems/ha for saplings, and 2,890 stems/ha for seedlings, with a total basal area of 7.4 m²/ha. Signs of anthropogenic disturbances, including grazing and selective cutting, were observed, particularly at lower elevations, leading to the depletion of valuable species. The population structure and regeneration analysis indicated that while some species exhibited strong regeneration potential, others showed poor recruitment, emphasizing the urgent need for conservation interventions. Given its status as one of the last remaining natural forests in the region, protecting Sekelamariam Forest is critical for biodiversity conservation and as a genetic reservoir for afforestation and restoration initiatives in surrounding landscapes. Woody species structure Regeneration status Sekelamariam forest Biodiversity conservation Population dynamics Anthropogenic impact Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. INTRODUCTION Ethiopia's natural vegetation exhibits remarkable diversity, with its varied physiognomic and climatic landscapes fostering a rich tapestry of plant species. This diversity is particularly crucial for woody species, which play an integral role in maintaining forest ecosystems by providing resources and habitats for a wide array of other species [ 1 , 2 ]. However, Ethiopia faces significant challenges related to deforestation, primarily driven by rapid population growth, unsustainable agricultural practices, and inadequate forest management [ 3 , 4 ]. These pressures have led to the degradation of vital ecosystems, highlighting the urgent need for effective conservation and management strategies [ 5 ]. Despite the pressing need for conservation, the lack of detailed ecological data, particularly on the regeneration dynamics and structural integrity of specific forests, remains a significant obstacle to achieving long-term sustainability [ 5 , 6 ]. The regeneration dynamics of woody species are fundamental to forest sustainability, as they reflect the forest's ability to maintain its structural integrity and biodiversity [ 7 , 8 ]. Regeneration, involving processes of seedling recruitment, establishment, and survival, is influenced by various environmental and anthropogenic factors [ 9 , 10 ]. Yet, there remains a significant knowledge gap concerning the regeneration status and structural dynamics of forests in Ethiopia, particularly in lesser-studied areas like Sekelamariam Forest in the sub-tropical highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia. The lack of comprehensive data on these factors hinders the development of targeted forest management and conservation strategies [ 11 , 12 ]. Furthermore, while studies on the regeneration dynamics of forests in Ethiopia exist, research in the Northwestern highlands, especially in unique forest remnants like Sekelamariam, is relatively scarce [ 13 , 14 ].This knowledge gap is exacerbated by the diverse pressures faced by these ecosystems, including invasive species, changing climate conditions, and human-induced disturbances such as grazing and logging, which collectively impact forest regeneration and biodiversity [ 2 , 15 ]. Sekelamariam Forest, a remnant dry Afromontane forest, harbors a unique array of flora and fauna, yet its ecological status remains underexplored. Previous studies have underscored the necessity of understanding the floristic composition, vegetation structure, and regeneration processes to develop effective conservation plans [ 13 , 16 ]. However, much of the research on forest regeneration in Ethiopia has been concentrated on more well-known or accessible sites, leaving forest areas like Sekelamariam underrepresented. As a result, there is limited understanding of its regeneration status, species composition, and structural dynamics, which are vital for devising appropriate conservation strategies [ 17 , 18 ] .The present study aims to fill this critical gap by assessing the regeneration and structural dynamics of woody species in Sekelamariam Forest. By examining the regeneration capacity of native species and evaluating the forest's population structure, this research will provide key insights into the forest's ecological health and resilience. The novelty of this study lies in its focus on a relatively under-researched ecosystem and its holistic approach to addressing regeneration and structural issues within this forest type. This research will be the first of its kind to comprehensively document the woody species structure and regeneration status of Sekelamariam Forest, providing essential data for conservation and sustainable management. Moreover, this study will address the pressing need for accurate data on forest resources, which is essential for informed decision-making by policymakers, forestry research centers, NGOs, and development agencies. Given the growing pressure on Ethiopia’s forests, especially those in the sub-tropical highlands, the findings of this study will be instrumental in enhancing forest management strategies, aiding the implementation of sustainable forest utilization practices, and ensuring the long-term survival of these ecosystems [ 5 , 19 ]. Ultimately, this research will serve as a foundational resource, enhancing the scientific understanding of forest ecosystems in Ethiopia and guiding future conservation efforts. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Description of the Study Area This study was conducted in Sekelamariam Forest, located in the West Gojam Zone of the Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia, approximately 350 km north of Addis Ababa (Fig. 1 ). The forest is situated between latitudes 10°35' to 10°37' N and longitudes 37°28' to 37°30' E, covering a total area of 532 hectares (Fig. 1 ). Sekelamariam Forest spans an altitude range of 2266 meters to 2460 meters above sea level. Geographically, the forest is located within the mid-highlands, specifically the Woina-dega agro-climatic zone, which is characterized by a unimodal rainfall pattern. The forest comprises both natural forest (227 hectares) and plantation forest (305 hectares) [ 20 ]. The topography of the study area is dominated by red (65%), brown (25%), and black (10%) soils, as described by the Denbecha District Agricultural and Development Office [ 20 ]. Meteorological data from 1986 to 2016, provided by the National Meteorology Agency of Dembecha, reveals the mean minimum and maximum temperatures in the area are 8.5°C and 29°C, respectively, resulting in an average temperature of 18.5°C. The region experiences a substantial amount of rainfall during the kiremt season (June, July, August, and September), with an average annual rainfall of 1368 mm. The rainfall distribution follows a unimodal pattern, which is typical of the local climate. Sekelamariam Forest is home to a variety of plant species, including Croton macrostachyus , Albizia gummifera , Acacia abyssinica , and Eucalyptus globulus , alongside plantation species such as Cupressus lusitanica and Acacia decurrens [ 20 ]. The fauna of the forest includes mammals like monkeys, Colobus monkeys, bush-buck, and hyenas, as well as a diverse range of birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects, including wild honey bees. However, despite its rich biodiversity, the forest faces significant challenges from human activities and deforestation, which threaten both plant and animal species. Furthermore, there is a notable research gap regarding the regeneration dynamics and overall health of the forest, as limited data on its biodiversity, regeneration processes, and the impacts of human interference hinder effective conservation efforts. This study was conducted to address this gap by assessing the regeneration status and structural dynamics of woody species in Sekelamariam Forest. Gaining a deeper understanding of these ecological aspects is essential for developing effective conservation strategies and ensuring the long-term health and resilience of the forest. 2.2. Research methodolgies 2.2.1. Site Selection and Establishment of Quadrats A reconnaissance survey was conducted to assess the site conditions and determine the appropriate sampling methods for vegetation data collection. This initial survey provided a comprehensive overview of the study site and helped identify the most suitable sampling techniques. Based on this information, a systematic sampling approach was then employed. Line transects were established at 100-meter intervals, with quadrats measuring 20 meters by 20 meters systematically placed along these transects. Starting from the bottom and moving toward the top of the forest, the quadrats were spaced at 50-meter intervals, following the altitudinal gradient. A total of 42 sampling plots, each 20 meters by 20 meters, were established based on the recommendations of [ 21 – 25 ]. These plots were designed to document trees, shrubs, and lianas. To assess regeneration, additional 400 square meter plots were designated as described by [ 25 ]. Within each sample plot, five subplots, each measuring 5 meters by 5 meters (25 square meters), were established—one at each corner and one in the center of the plot. These subplots were used for regeneration analysis, specifically focusing on seedlings and saplings. 2.2.2. Vegetation Data Collection In each sample plot, all encountered woody plant species were recorded using vernacular or local names. Trees and shrubs with a diameter at breast height (DBH) greater than 2.50 cm were measured using a diameter tape at each established plot. The measurement included trees and shrubs with a height exceeding 2 meters and a DBH greater than 2.5 cm, following the methods [ 25 , 26 ]. For individuals with branches around breast height, circumferences were measured separately and averaged, following [ 27 ]. Within each plot, data on seedlings and saplings were also recorded to assess regeneration. Seedlings, defined as individuals with a height less than 1 meter, were distinguished from saplings (individuals taller than 1 meter but not exceeding 2.5 cm in DBH). Saplings were classified as individuals taller than 1 meter but with a DBH of 2.5 cm or smaller, as per the guidelines by [ 28 ]. For all individuals, data on species identity, abundance, height, DBH, and altitude were recorded. Height measurements were obtained using a laser Ace range finder and visual estimation. All individuals of each species were sorted into DBH and height classes for further analysis. 2.3. Data analysis 2.3.1. Vegetation Structure The vegetation structure in the study area was analyzed based on several key metrics, including species density, diameter at breast height (DBH), height, basal area, frequency, and the important value index. To understand the population structure of each species, individuals were categorized into diameter-height size classes, and the percentage frequency distribution of individuals in each class was computed. Tree and shrub density, as well as basal area, were calculated on a per-hectare basis. The collected vegetation data were processed and summarized using Microsoft Office Excel (2007), following the methodologies outlined by [ 29 , 30 ]. Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974) and Kent and Coker (1992). Frequency (F): Frequency= \(\:\frac{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{p}\text{l}\text{o}\text{t}\text{s}\:\text{i}\text{n}\:\text{w}\text{h}\text{i}\text{c}\text{h}\:\text{a}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}\:\text{o}\text{c}\text{c}\text{u}\text{r}\:\:\:\:\:\:}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{p}\text{l}\text{o}\text{t}\text{s}\:\text{l}\text{a}\text{y}\text{o}\text{u}\text{t}\:\text{i}\text{n}\:\text{t}\text{h}\text{e}\:\text{s}\text{t}\text{u}\text{d}\text{y}\:\text{s}\text{i}\text{t}\text{e}}\) ×100 Relative Frequency (RF): It is the frequency of species A/sum of frequencies of all species x 100. Relative Frequency = \(\:\frac{\text{F}\text{r}\text{e}\text{q}\text{u}\text{e}\text{n}\text{c}\text{y}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{t}\text{r}\text{e}\text{e}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}}{\text{F}\text{r}\text{e}\text{q}\text{u}\text{e}\text{n}\text{c}\text{y}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{a}\text{l}\text{l}\:\text{t}\text{r}\text{e}\text{e}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}}\) ×100 Density of a species = the number of individuals of that species /area sampled D = \(\:\:\:\frac{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{a}\text{b}\text{o}\text{v}\text{e}\:\text{g}\text{r}\text{o}\text{u}\text{n}\text{d}\:\text{s}\text{t}\text{e}\text{m}\text{s}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{a}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}\:\text{c}\text{o}\text{u}\text{n}\text{t}\text{e}\text{r}\text{e}\text{d}}{\text{S}\text{a}\text{m}\text{p}\text{l}\text{e}\text{d}\:\text{a}\text{r}\text{e}\text{a}\:\text{i}\text{n}\:\text{h}\text{e}\text{c}\text{t}\text{a}\text{r}\text{e}\:\left(\text{h}\text{a}\right)}\) RD = \(\:\frac{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{I}\text{n}\text{d}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{d}\text{u}\text{a}\text{l}\text{s}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{t}\text{r}\text{e}\text{e}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}\:}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{I}\text{n}\text{d}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{d}\text{u}\text{a}\text{l}\text{s}\:)}\) X100 Abundance = Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrates/total number of quadrates in which the species occurred. DBH (Diameter at Breast Height): It was obtain by dividing the circumference of each tree recorded in the field by π or equivalent value (3.14). DBH = Circumference/π Basal Area: BA = Σ π (d/2)², where D is diameter at breast height. BA = Basal area in m² per/ha Relative dominance; is the coverage value of a species with respect to the sum of coverage of the rest of the species in the area. It was calculated as Relative dominance = \(\:\frac{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{b}\text{a}\text{s}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{a}\text{r}\text{e}\text{a}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{t}\text{h}\text{e}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}\:\:}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{b}\text{a}\text{s}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{a}\text{r}\text{e}\text{a}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{a}\text{l}\text{l}\:\text{t}\text{h}\text{e}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}}\) X100 Importance Value Index; IVI = Relative Dominance + Relative Density + Relative Frequency 2.3.2. Regeneration The regeneration status of sample species in the forest was analyzed by comparing the data on seedlings, saplings, and mature trees [ 27 , 31 , 32 ]. Regeneration was classified into several categories. "Good" regeneration was defined when the number of seedlings exceeded that of saplings, and saplings exceeded mature trees. "Fair" regeneration was identified when seedlings were greater than saplings, but saplings were fewer than mature trees. "Poor" regeneration occurred when a species was only present in the sapling stage but absent as seedlings, even though saplings may be fewer than, more than, or equal to mature trees. "None" regeneration was noted when a species was absent in both the sapling and seedling stages but present as mature trees. Lastly, "New" regeneration was identified when a species had no mature trees but was present in the sapling and/or seedling stages. To assess the regeneration patterns of woody species at the study site, the total number of individuals in the seedling, sapling, and mature tree stages was counted for each plant species. These values were then standardized, meaning they were converted into density values to account for the different sample sizes used for counting seedlings, saplings, and mature trees, the latter of which was sampled within 20m by 20m plots. This approach allowed for a more accurate comparison of regeneration across species. 3. Results and discussions 3.1. Density of Woody Species The density of woody species in the forest shows significant variation across different diameter at breast height (DBH) classes (Table 1 ). The total density of species with a DBH greater than 2.50 cm was found to be 750 stems per hectare. Of this, 193 stems per hectare corresponded to species with a DBH greater than 10 cm, and 75 stems per hectare corresponded to species with a DBH exceeding 20 cm (Table 1 ). These findings are somewhat lower than those observed in the Hugumburda forest, which recorded 1218 stems per hectare, but they closely align with the density found in Desa’a forest (741 stems per hectare) [ 26 ]. Notably, the vast majority (93.19%) of the woody plants in this forest were concentrated in the lower height classes, which is consistent with previous studies conducted in similar ecosystems [ 8 , 33 , 34 ]. This distribution reflects a forest structure dominated by younger and regenerating individuals. Specifically, smaller diameter classes (2–10 cm) represented 64% of the total density, with 482 stems per hectare observed in this class. The middle (10–20 cm) and larger (20 + cm) diameter classes made up 25.7% (193 stems per hectare) and 10% (75 stems per hectare) of the total density, respectively (Table 2 ). The ratio of trees with DBH greater than 10 cm to those with DBH greater than 20 cm was calculated to be 2.57. This suggests that although there are more trees in the 10–20 cm diameter class, the proportion of larger trees (> 20 cm) is disproportionately lower. This pattern, dominated by small-sized individuals, may reflect the effects of anthropogenic disturbances, such as selective logging or human harvesting, which hinder the growth of mature trees [ 23 ]. Similar findings were reported by [ 1 – 5 ] who noted that anthropogenic pressures often restrict the recruitment of larger tree individuals and shape the forest composition. Table 1 Density and percent contribution of six common species in Sekelamariam forest > 2cm > 10cm > 20cm Total Species stem/ha % Stem /ha % stem/ha % Calprunia aurea 110 89.75 13 10.25 - 123 Croton macrostachys 13 16.24 33 40.4 35 43.36 81 Osris quaderipita 59 85.97 10 14.03 - 69 Clausena anisata 60 98.03 1 1.97 - 61 Acacia abysinica 7 12.27 17 32.65 29 55.08 53 Albizia gummifera 12 27.76 21 50 10 22.24 43 Total 261 34.73 95 12.64 74 9.84 Further analysis showed that six common species contributed significantly to the overall species density, comprising 35% of the density in the smallest DBH class (2–10 cm), 13% in the middle (10–20 cm), and 9.9% in the largest DBH class (> 20 cm) (Table 2 ). Among these species, Calpurina aurea was the most abundant across all DBH categories, highlighting its ecological importance in shaping the forest structure and contributing to ecosystem services. The dominance of smaller-sized individuals, while indicative of a healthy regeneration process, may also suggest challenges in the recruitment of trees into larger size classes. This trend is consistent with the observations of [ 24 – 26 ],who found that anthropogenic disturbances tend to skew forest age structures, with a predominance of younger individuals. This imbalance, driven by human harvesting practices, disrupts the natural maturation of the forest and hampers the recruitment of mature trees, which can affect long-term forest sustainability. The implications of this study for forest conservation and management are significant. The high density of smaller individuals and the dominance of Calpurina aurea suggest that the forest is in the early stages of regeneration. However, this regeneration requires protection from further human disturbances to allow larger trees to mature. Forest management strategies should focus on ensuring the survival of mature tree populations while fostering natural regeneration. Moreover, interventions are necessary to promote the growth of mature trees and preserve the forest's ecological balance for long-term sustainability. These insights not only advance our understanding of forest regeneration dynamics but also offer valuable recommendations for managing anthropogenic impacts. Implementing sustainable forest management practices that balance ecological processes with human activities will be crucial for ensuring the health and resilience of forest ecosystems in the future. 3.1.2. Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) The distribution of species across various Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) classes revealed a significant pattern (Fig. 2 ) that offers insights into the forest structure and regeneration processes. A notable concentration of individuals was observed in the smallest DBH class (DBH < 6 cm), accounting for 282 stems/ha, or 37.6% of the total (Fig. 2 ). This observation suggests that a substantial proportion of the forest composition consists of younger individuals, which is often associated with active regeneration. The overall DBH distribution followed a similar trend to the height class distribution, indicating a correlation between the two variables. Specifically, there was a marked predominance of individuals in the lower DBH classes, followed by a sharp decline in middle DBH categories, and a slight resurgence in the higher DBH classes (8–9 cm) (Fig. 2 ). The absence of individuals in certain diameter classes suggests significant barriers to species regeneration, potentially linked to external pressures such as livestock grazing, selective cutting for timber, firewood, or construction materials, which hinder the natural growth and establishment of these species [ 33 – 35 ]. The distribution of species in the forest followed an inverted J-shaped curve (Fig. 2 ), a common pattern observed in many forests worldwide. This curve indicates healthy vegetation reproduction in the younger age classes, yet highlights limited recruitment in the mid-range DBH classes. Such a pattern is often indicative of selective pressures on larger individuals, which may result in the harvesting of mature trees for various human needs, including timber and fuelwood. This trend aligns with findings from similar studies in Ethiopian forests, such as Dindin forest [ 36 ] and Menagesha Amba-Mariam forest [ 34 ], where comparable distribution patterns were noted. These findings suggest that selective logging or other anthropogenic activities may contribute to the skewed distribution, affecting the recruitment of new individuals into the mid-sized DBH classes. However, while the general DBH distribution provides useful insights into the forest structure, it does not fully capture the recruitment dynamics of individual species. As such, a more detailed analysis of the population structures of specific tree and shrub species is crucial. This approach would offer a deeper understanding of species-specific growth patterns and regeneration challenges, allowing for more effective conservation and management strategies tailored to the needs of each species [ 3 , 25 , 34 , 37 ]. The findings emphasize the importance of addressing the underlying factors that influence species distribution and regeneration within forest ecosystems. By understanding the ecological dynamics of individual species and the broader forest structure, forest managers can implement more targeted conservation interventions. These interventions could mitigate the impacts of selective cutting and other anthropogenic pressures, ensuring sustainable forest management and the preservation of biodiversity. Furthermore, recognizing the commonalities in DBH distribution patterns across different forests can inform broader forest management practices and provide insights into the shared ecological challenges faced by woody species in diverse regions. DBH class 1 = 2.6-6.0cm, 2 = 6.1-9.0cm, 3 = 9.1-12.0cm, 4 = 12.1-15.0cm, 5 = 15.1-18.0cm, 6 = 18.1-22.0cm, 7 = 22.1-24.0cm, 8 = 24.1-2cm and > 27.1cm. 3.1.3. Basal area The mean basal area of the study forest was 7.4 m²/ha (Table 2 ), as determined from the Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) measurements. Basal area is a key parameter for assessing forest structure and ecological status [ 38 ]. Compared to previous studies, the basal area recorded in the current study is lower than that of Asabot forest ( 22.45 m²/ha ) [ 39 ], Dindin forest ( 49.00 m²/ha ) [ 36 ], Menagesha Amba Mariam forest ( 84.17 m²/ha ) [ 34 ], and Kurib forest ( 105.77 m²/ha ) [ 25 ]. The lower basal area observed in this study (Table 2 ) suggests that the forest may be in an early successional stage or has undergone disturbances such as logging or land-use changes. In contrast, the higher basal areas reported in other forests may be attributed to more mature stand structures, better conservation measures, or differences in species composition and site productivity. These findings indicate the need for further assessment of the forest’s regeneration status and potential conservation interventions to enhance its ecological stability. Table 2 Basal area distributions over DBH classes in Sekelamariam forest DBH (cm) Aboveground stem BA ha-1 % Basal area 2.6–10 810 1.9 25.70 10.1–20 324 2.38 32.20 > 20.1 126 3.1 42.0 Total 1260 7.4 100 The lower basal area in the study forest likely reflects the over-exploitation of tree species, as evidenced by the dominance of smaller diameter individuals. This aligns with similar findings in other forest ecosystems, where high levels of anthropogenic disturbance, such as selective logging and grazing pressure, lead to the decline of larger, mature trees [ 23 , 38 ]. The smaller diameter of individuals in the study forest suggests hindered regeneration and suppressed growth, potentially due to selective cutting for firewood, construction, and timber [ 35 ] A detailed analysis of basal area distribution across species indicated that Acacia abyssinica and Croton macrostachyus (Table 3 ) were the most dominant species in terms of basal area, reflecting their larger size and ecological importance within the forest [ 34 ]. On the other hand, species such as Asparagus africanus, Phoenix reclinata, and Rubus apetalus (Table 3 ) exhibited minimal basal area contributions, further supporting the notion that the forest structure is skewed toward smaller-sized species, likely due to habitat degradation and disturbance [ 39 , 40 ]. The presence of such species with negligible basal area indicates the potential decline of critical forest resources and ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and soil stabilization, which are typically provided by larger tree species [ 23 ] The comparison of the study forest's basal area with that of virgin tropical forests in Africa, as outlined by [ 38 ], emphasizes the marked difference in forest maturity. Virgin forests typically exhibit much higher basal areas, suggesting that the study forest may not be functioning at its full ecological potential. The study forest's low basal area and dominance by smaller individuals suggest an ecosystem in transition, where forest regeneration is impaired, and ecological functions are likely compromised [ 38 , 39 ] Furthermore, the distribution of basal area within the study forest shows that six tree species contributed to approximately 69% of the total basal area (Table 3 ). Notably, 42% of the basal area was concentrated in the highest diameter class, primarily contributed by the few but large individuals of Acacia abyssinica, Croton macrostachyus, and Albizia gummifera (Table 3 ). This pattern of basal area distribution emphasizes the importance of these species in the forest's overall structure and function. As basal area is a measure of the relative importance of species based on size rather than number, this finding highlights that larger trees, although fewer in number, play a disproportionately large role in the forest's biomass and ecological services [ 38 , 41 ] Table 3 List of species with higher basal area (BA m2/ha), and Relative Basal area. Species BA/ha Relative Basal area Priority Acacia abyssinica 1.9045 25.8% 1 Croton macrostachyus 1.4298 19.4% 2 Albizia gummifera 0.7979 10.8% 3 Calpurnia aurea 0.5105 6.9% 4 Bersama abyssinica 0.2147 3.3% 5 Ficus sur 0.2089 2.8 6 These findings underscore the critical role of larger trees in maintaining forest ecosystem functions, such as carbon storage, water regulation, and habitat provision. While shrub species may dominate in terms of density, the true ecological importance of a forest is better reflected by the basal area, which considers both the size and biomass of species [ 42 ]. In the case of the study forest, the small number of large individuals relative to the overall density of smaller species points to a significant loss of larger, more ecologically important trees due to over-exploitation and lack of proper regeneration [ 43 ] The low basal area and the dominance of smaller individuals suggest that the forest is experiencing significant pressures, particularly from human activities. These pressures inhibit natural regeneration processes and result in a forest structure that is more fragmented and less diverse in terms of size and biomass. As such, the findings of this study point to the urgent need for forest conservation strategies that prioritize the protection of large trees and the promotion of natural regeneration, which are critical for the sustainability and ecological balance of the forest [ 3 ] 3.1.4. Height Distribution The analysis of height classes in the Sekelamariam forest revealed that the majority of individuals were concentrated in the lower height class (I), which accounted for 42.1% of the total individuals observed (Fig. 3 ). This trend is consistent with findings from other Ethiopian forests, including Yemrehane Kirstos [ 24 ], Chilimo and Menagesha forests [ 41 ], Denkoro forest [ 4 , 44 ], and Menagesha Amba Mariam forest [ 34 ], where a similar distribution of species across height classes was reported. Similar trends have also been observed in tropical and subtropical forests worldwide, where the lower height classes are often more densely populated by young, regenerating species [ 45 ]. In the lowest height class (I), species such as Bersama abyssinica , Calpurnia aurea , Carissa spinarum , Clausena anisata , Clutia abyssinica , Rosa abyssinica , Vernonia amygdalina , Vernonia auriculifera , and Combretum molle were observed (Fig. 3 ). These species, characterized by smaller growth forms, contributed significantly to the structural composition of the forest at lower elevations. This high concentration of individuals in the lower height classes can be attributed to both the forest’s natural regeneration processes and anthropogenic influences such as selective logging and grazing pressure, which typically favor the establishment and persistence of shorter species [ 37 , 42 ]. Anthropogenic disturbances have long been recognized as a key driver of forest structure, particularly in regions where human activities such as logging, grazing, and fire are prevalent [ 28 , 46 ]. The middle and upper canopy classes, represented by height classes VI, VII, and VIII, were dominated by larger species such as Albizia gummifera , Croton macrostachyus , and Acacia abyssinica (Fig. 3 ). Notably, Albizia gummifera emerged as the tallest species, surpassing the canopies of all other species within the forest. This finding aligns with research indicating that taller species often occupy the upper canopy and play a crucial role in forest structure and function, influencing factors such as light availability, microclimate regulation, and nutrient cycling [ 36 , 38 , 47 ]. This vertical stratification is fundamental to the functioning of forests, as it promotes biodiversity by providing varied habitats and ecological niches for different species [ 48 , 49 ]. The distribution pattern of individuals across height classes in Sekelamariam forest exhibited a decline from the lower to the upper classes (Fig. 3 ), with the highest concentrations occurring in the lower height categories. This is a common feature in many forest ecosystems, as older and taller individuals tend to be less abundant due to competition for resources, environmental stress, and human-induced disturbances [ 3 , 25 , 49 ]. The negative correlation between forest height classes and age structure has been well-documented in tropical and temperate ecosystems, where high recruitment of small individuals often indicates a shift towards younger forest dynamics [ 39 , 50 ]. This trend of higher densities in the lower height classes can often signal a disturbed or degraded forest system, where the larger, older trees have been removed, leaving behind younger individuals that are still in the process of reaching their full height potential [ 37 , 40 ] Comparative analysis with other forests in Ethiopia, such as those in the central plateau (Tamrat Bekele, 1994) and Menagesha Amba Mariam [ 34 ], further supports the hypothesis that ongoing anthropogenic pressures, such as selective logging and deforestation, have altered the natural vertical distribution of species. The Sekelamariam forest's pattern of height class distribution reflects these pressures, which hinder the upward growth of certain species, potentially threatening the forest's long-term sustainability. The decline of upper-canopy species due to logging has been a common issue in many Ethiopian forests and has been linked to the reduced ecological services provided by these forest systems [ 25 , 42 ] The skewed distribution of individuals in lower height classes (Fig. 3 ) within Sekelamariam forest suggests that the forest may be undergoing anthropogenic degradation, potentially compromising its ecological integrity. The presence of smaller and less mature individuals in the lower height classes may indicate over-exploitation, which limits the regeneration of larger, more ecologically significant species in the upper canopy [ 25 , 43 ]. This highlights the need for adaptive forest management strategies that focus on protecting and promoting the growth of mature canopy species, such as Albizia gummifera , Croton macrostachyus , and Acacia abyssinica , to restore the forest’s structural complexity and ecological functions. A similar call for adaptive management has been made by recent studies emphasizing the importance of forest regeneration and the role of management interventions in restoring ecosystem functionality [ 51 , 52 ]. To ensure the forest's resilience, future conservation efforts must prioritize the protection of large, mature trees, enforce sustainable logging practices, and support natural regeneration processes that facilitate the upward movement of species within the height classes. Additionally, controlling anthropogenic pressures such as grazing and fuelwood collection is crucial for fostering the natural regeneration of taller, more dominant species [ 3 , 36 ]. This is consistent with global recommendations for forest management that advocate for reducing human-induced pressures while promoting practices such as selective logging and forest restoration to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services [ 53 , 54 ]. 3.2. Frequency and Floristic Heterogeneity in Sekelamariam Forest The analysis of woody species' frequency and percentage frequency in Sekelamariam Forest reveals notable insights into the structure and biodiversity of the ecosystem Table 5 ; Fig. 4 ). Table 4 presents the most frequently occurring species along with their respective frequency values, indicating significant variation in species distribution. As shown in Fig. 4 , the species were predominantly concentrated in the lower frequency classes, with a marked decline in their presence in higher frequency classes. This trend suggests a high degree of floristic heterogeneity within the forest, characterized by a wide range of species occupying distinct ecological niches. Floristic heterogeneity, as evidenced by the uneven distribution across frequency classes, is a crucial indicator of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Such a structure reflects the forest's ability to support a variety of species with different ecological requirements, thereby contributing to its overall ecological richness [ 36 ]. The prevalence of species in lower frequency classes indicates that these species are not evenly distributed across the forest but rather are confined to specific habitats or micro-environments, further emphasizing the dynamic nature of the forest's ecosystem. Among the species surveyed, Croton macrostachyus emerged as the most frequent, demonstrating the highest relative frequency, density, and basal area (Table 4 ). This species' dominance in lower frequency classes is likely attributable to its effective seed dispersal mechanisms, which include wind, livestock, wild animals, and birds. Such a dispersal strategy ensures the wide-ranging establishment of the species across various microhabitats within the forest. The ability of Croton macrostachyus to establish in diverse areas likely enhances its competitive advantage, contributing to its prevalence within the forest. This finding aligns with the observations of [ 46 ], who emphasized the importance of seed dispersal mechanisms in determining species distribution in tropical forests. Table 4 List of most frequent woody species in Sekelamariam forest Scientific name No of quadrates present in Total quadrates Sampled Percent of Frequency Relative frequency Acacia abyssinica 31 42 73.8 7.4 Albizia gumufera 29 42 69 6.9 Bersama abyssinica 24 42 57 5.7 Calpurnia aurea 31 42 73.8 7.4 Clausena anisata 28 42 66.7 6.7 Croton macrostachyus 37 42 88 8.9 Rosa abyssinica 17 42 40.5 4.1 The distribution of species in higher and lower frequency classes also carries ecological significance (Fig. 4 ). The species that occupy the higher frequency classes, such as Acacia abyssinica, Calpurnia aurea, Albizia gummifera, and Clausena anisata, while less frequent, indicate a level of stability in the ecosystem [ 23 ]. These species appear to be more specialized in their ecological requirements or less adapted to the varying disturbances that occur within the forest. The dominance of species like Croton macrostachyus in lower frequency classes could reflect a process of ecological succession, with certain species thriving in disturbed or transitional habitats [ 55 ]. The observed floristic heterogeneity also suggests that Sekelamariam Forest may possess a high degree of resilience to anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Diversity in species frequency classes is critical for ecosystem stability, as it allows the forest to recover more readily from disruptions [ 49 ].This variability in species occurrence underscores the ecological complexity of the forest and its ability to maintain biodiversity under varying environmental conditions. The findings are consistent with the results of studies by [ 37 ] and [ 48 ], which highlight the importance of floristic diversity in sustaining ecosystem functions and enhancing resilience. In light of these findings, it is clear that the floristic composition of Sekelamariam Forest is highly dynamic and influenced by a combination of ecological factors, including species dispersal mechanisms, habitat conditions, and human activities. The diversity of frequency classes not only highlights the forest's ecological complexity but also stresses the importance of adaptive forest management practices that account for such heterogeneity. Ensuring the continued health of the forest requires targeted conservation strategies that promote species diversity, manage disturbance regimes, and enhance regeneration processes. 3.3. Importance value index of species The analysis of woody species' Importance Value Index (IVI) provides a comprehensive overview of the ecological significance of species in the study area. As presented in Table 6 , the top twelve species, ranked by IVI, collectively contribute 216.9 IVI, representing 72.31% of the total ecological importance. The Importance Value Index integrates key metrics such as species density, frequency, and dominance to quantify each species' role within the ecosystem. The species with the highest IVI values, Acacia abyssinica and Croton macrostachyus, emerge as the most ecologically significant, underscoring their pivotal roles in maintaining the forest's ecological integrity. The first six species in the IVI ranking are identified as the most important, with high values in all three ecological metrics—density, frequency, and dominance (Table 5 ). These species are key players in the forest ecosystem and play critical roles in ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, habitat provision, and nutrient cycling [ 56 ]. Among these, Acacia abyssinica stands out with a particularly high IVI, reflecting its widespread dominance and substantial contribution to the forest structure. Similarly, Croton macrostachyus exhibits a strong presence in terms of density and frequency, suggesting its resilience and adaptability to the forest’s varying conditions. This aligns with findings by [ 48 ], who observed that Croton macrostachyus is a keystone species in many Ethiopian forest ecosystems due to its high reproductive success and ability to thrive in diverse environmental conditions. In total, 22 species (37% of the total species analyzed) display IVI values greater than one, indicating their relatively high ecological importance in the forest ecosystem. These species collectively contribute to over 72% of the total IVI ( Table 5 ), emphasizing their dominant role in forest structure and ecosystem functions. The high ecological importance of these species suggests that they are well-established in the forest and contribute significantly to its ecological stability and biodiversity [ 57 ]. On the other hand, the remaining 37 species (63% of the total species analyzed) have an IVI of less than one, which indicates their lower ecological importance within the study area. Species such as Rumex nervosus, Phoenix reclinata, Asparagus africanus, and Urera hypselodendron, which rank below the top fifteen in terms of IVI, represent species that contribute minimally to the forest ecosystem. These species exhibit lower values in density, frequency, or dominance and are thus considered to be ecologically vulnerable. Their smaller contribution to the total IVI underscores the need for targeted conservation efforts, as they are more susceptible to ecological disturbances and threats such as habitat loss or invasive species [ 5 ]. Table 5 Importance value indices for dominant woody species in descending order No Species RD (%) RF (%) RDO (%) IVI (%) Rank 1 Acacia abyssinica 7.06 7.4 25.8 40.26 1 2 Croton macrostachyus 10.8 8.9 19.4 39.1 2 3 Calpurnia aurea 16.3 7.4 6.9 30.6 3 4 Albizia gumufera 5.7 6.9 10.8 23.4 4 5 Clausena anisata 8.2 6.7 2.1 17 5 6 Osyris quadripartita 9.2 4.3 3.0 16.6 6 7 Bersama abyssinica 4.6 5.7 2.9 13.2 7 8 Rhus glutinosa 3.3 3.3 2.7 9.3 8 9 Rosa abyssinica 3.3 4.1 1.0 8.4 9 10 Acacia pilispina 2.4 2.9 1.2 6.5 10 11 Nuxia congesta 2 1.9 2.5 6.4 11 12 Buddelja polystachya 2.5 1.7 2.1 6.3 12 The IVI analysis underscores the need to prioritize species conservation based on their ecological importance. Species with high IVI values, such as Acacia abyssinica and Croton macrostachyus, require less immediate conservation intervention since their established presence ensures ecological stability. In contrast, species with lower IVI values should be the focus of conservation efforts, particularly those identified as threatened or vulnerable. This approach is consistent with the framework for biodiversity conservation set forth by [ 58 ], who emphasized that species with lower IVI values are more likely to face ecological risks and require proactive measures to ensure their survival. Furthermore, the high contribution of the top twelve species to the total IVI suggests that maintaining their populations is crucial for the long-term sustainability of the forest ecosystem. Ecosystem services such as pollination, soil stabilization, and water regulation are often closely linked to the abundance and distribution of ecologically important species [ 59 ]. Therefore, protecting these species from anthropogenic pressures such as deforestation and land degradation will help preserve the overall health of the ecosystem and the services it provides. 3.4. Population Structure The population structure of woody species in Sekelamariam Forest revealed complex patterns across both diameter at breast height (DBH) and height classes, providing important insights into the regeneration potential of the forest. Our findings suggest that while some species exhibit favorable conditions for regeneration, others are experiencing ecological stress potentially driven by anthropogenic activities. The observed population structures, such as inverted J-shaped, bell-shaped, and irregular distributions, are similar to those reported in other tropical and temperate forests, where regeneration dynamics are influenced by a combination of species-specific traits and human-induced disturbances. 3.4.1. DBH Class Distribution Patterns Four dominant DBH distribution patterns were identified among the species studied (Fig. 5), highlighting the variation in regeneration potential across the forest. The inverted J-shape distribution (Fig. 5a) observed in species such as Osyris quadripita, Calpurnia aurea, and Clausena anisata suggests that these species exhibit a high density of individuals in the lower DBH classes and a gradual reduction in individuals at higher DBH classes, a classic indicator of healthy forest regeneration [ 60 ]. This is consistent with findings by [ 59 ], who reported a similar distribution in temperate forests of China, where species with a high density in younger classes showed strong recruitment potential, essential for long-term ecosystem stability. In contrast, the J-shaped distribution (Fig. 5b) in species like Acacia abyssinica and Schefflera abyssinica indicates poor regeneration, with few individuals in the lower DBH classes. This distribution pattern is often linked to overharvesting, environmental stress, or lack of adequate seedling establishment. Similar trends were documented by [ 62 , 61 ] in Southeast Asian forests, where species exhibiting low regeneration in younger classes were often subject to intense logging pressures, leading to delayed recruitment and population decline. The bell-shaped distribution (Fig. 5c) found in species like Croton macrostachys and Rhus glutinosa aligns with findings by [ 63 ] in tropical forests of Central Africa. These species show a peak in the middle DBH classes, suggesting that while some individuals thrive in the middle stages, there is a notable decline in the larger classes, potentially due to selective harvesting or mortality in mature trees. Such a pattern indicates a forest under selective pressure, which might eventually reduce biodiversity if unsustainable harvesting practices continue. The irregular population distribution (Fig. 5d) observed in Albizia gummifera further supports studies by [ 64 ], who found that human activities such as logging and overgrazing can cause shifts in species distributions, leading to irregular age-class structures. Despite these irregularities, the continued presence of young individuals suggests that these species still have potential for regeneration, but may require active management to support future forest recruitment. 3.4.2. Height Class Distribution Patterns The analysis of height class distribution in the Sekelamariam Forest revealed further structural patterns that complement the DBH class findings. The bell-shaped distribution (Fig. 6a) in species like Acacia abyssinica and Albizia gummifera is consistent with the findings of [ 65 ], who observed similar patterns in Mediterranean forests. These species exhibit a gradual increase in density from lower to higher height classes, suggesting effective forest regeneration and healthy recruitment, which is critical for maintaining forest biodiversity and resilience. Conversely, the inverted J-shape distribution (Fig. 6b) found in species such as Osyris quadripita and Clausina anisata mirrors the results of [ 66 ] in African tropical forests, where species with high densities in lower height classes showed that forest regeneration is ongoing, but the upper canopy is underrepresented due to ecological or management-induced limitations. The irregular height class distribution (Fig. 6c) in species like Vernonia amygdalina further supports the work of [ 67 ], where disturbances or competition from invasive species led to fluctuating densities across height classes. Such irregularities often suggest that factors such as soil fertility, microclimate, or selective human impacts might be affecting forest structure and regeneration. Finally, the J-shaped distribution (Fig. 6d) found in species like Ficus sur and Euclea divinorum, where there is low density in the lower height classes and a peak in higher classes, supports the results of [ 68 , 69 ]. This pattern is indicative of poor regeneration, possibly driven by intense human activity or climatic stressors that inhibit the establishment of young individuals. The regeneration patterns observed in Sekelamariam Forest closely resemble those reported in various global studies on tropical and temperate forests. For instance, [ 60 ] and [ 63 ] documented similar patterns in forests experiencing human disturbance, where species with bell-shaped distributions were typically impacted by selective logging, while J-shaped and irregular patterns suggested poor regeneration due to external pressures. Furthermore, the high proportion of species with inverted J-shaped distributions in Sekelamariam mirrors findings from [ 62 ],who noted that species with poor regeneration in the lower DBH and height classes are at greater risk of extinction without intervention. The observed patterns in Sekelamariam also align with those of [ 61 ], who noted that species with inverted J-shaped distributions often show a lack of effective recruitment, which could be a result of unsustainable land-use practices. Similarly, [ 64 ] highlighted the importance of recognizing irregular distributions caused by anthropogenic disturbances and the need for active forest management to restore ecological balance. The diverse population structure observed in Sekelamariam Forest provides critical insights into the forest's regeneration dynamics. Species exhibiting high regeneration potential (inverted J-shaped and bell-shaped distributions) require less immediate intervention, while those with irregular or J-shaped patterns (such as Ficus sur and Euclea divinorum) demand targeted conservation and management efforts. Restoration strategies, including controlling overgrazing, reducing logging pressures, and enhancing seedling establishment, will be crucial for sustaining forest biodiversity and ecosystem services. 3.4.3. Vertical Structure of the Forest The forest vertical structure was categorized based on the height classification scheme proposed by [ 38 ], which divides the forest into three distinct vertical layers: the upper story, middle story, and lower story. The upper story consists of trees with heights greater than 2/3 of the tallest tree in the forest; the middle story includes trees with heights between 1/3 and 2/3 of the tallest tree, and the lower story comprises trees that are less than 1/3 of the tallest tree’s height (Table 6 ). In this study, the tallest trees identified in quadrates 3 and 13 were Acacia abyssinica and Albizia gummifera, reaching heights of approximately 23.5 m and 23.8 m, respectively. A total of 42 individuals (3.3%) were found within the two highest height classes, which represent 2/3 of the total story, or trees above 15.9 m (Table 6 ). These trees primarily constitute the upper story. On the other hand, species such as Allophylus abyssinicus, Ekebergia capensis, Olea europaea, Rhus glutinosa, Buddelja polystachya, Bridelia micrantha, Dovyalis abyssinica, and Galiniera saxifrage were located in the middle story, with heights ranging from 7.9 m to 15.9 m. The lower story, consisting of shrubs and smaller trees (typically below 7.9 m), was predominantly covered by species like Acacia pilispina, Bersama abyssinica, Calpurnia aurea, Carissa spinarum, Clausena anisata, Osyris quadripartita, Maytenus arbutifolia, Vernonia auriculifera, and Justicia schimperiana (Table 6 ). Table 6 Density and species number of the forest under Storey Story Height (m) Individuals Density/ha Percent Lower 2-7.9 929 553 73.7% Middle 7.9 < H 15.9 42 25 3.3% The findings revealed that the majority of species were concentrated in the lower height class, followed by the middle and upper height classes. This pattern is consistent with previous studies, such as those by [ 54 ] and [ 35 ], which reported similar vertical distribution trends in forest ecosystems. The dominance of the lower story suggests that the forest has a relatively high density of smaller and younger trees, which is indicative of active forest regeneration and growth. The vertical structure analysis is vital for understanding the forest’s ecological dynamics and regeneration potential. It offers insights into the forest's age structure and the influence of human disturbances, such as selective logging, which may disproportionately impact the upper story while allowing the lower and middle stories to persist [ 63 ]. Furthermore, the observed patterns align with global studies on forest regeneration, which emphasize the importance of maintaining species diversity across all vertical layers to promote ecosystem resilience [ 61 , 69 ]. 3.5. Regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest The regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest was assessed by surveying 59 woody plant species, recording a total of 2890 seedlings/ha, 1593 saplings/ha, and 750 mature individuals/ha. The ratio of seedlings to mature individuals was 3.85:1, and the ratio of saplings to mature individuals was 2.1:1, both indicating a greater presence of seedlings and saplings compared to mature individuals (Fig. 9 ). These results provide important insights into the population dynamics and regeneration capacity of the forest’s species, which is essential for long-term conservation planning [ 34 ]. Notably, species such as Clausena anisata, Maytenus arbutifolia, Calpurnia aurea, Vernonia auriculifera, and Albizia gummifera were found to have the highest seedling densities, while species like Maytenus arbutifolia, Calpurnia aurea, Clausena anisata, and Vernonia auriculifera were predominant in sapling counts (Fig. 8 ). These findings suggest that these species are more successful in recruitment and may be better suited to the forest’s ecological conditions. However, some species such as Ekebergia capensis, Myrica salicifolia, Pterolobium stellatum, and Vernonia amygdalina showed no seedlings (Fig. 8 ), although saplings were present. This could be due to selective browsing by herbivores, which may reduce seedling survival [ 14 ]. Interestingly, other species such as Grewia ferruginea, Maytenus obscura, Osyris quadripartita, Rhus glutinosa, and Solanecio gigas had seedlings but lacked saplings (Fig. 9 ). This suggests that these species may have difficulties progressing to the sapling stage, possibly due to environmental factors or disturbances like overgrazing and firewood collection, which inhibit their growth and survival [ 42 ]. Overall, the regeneration status analysis shows that 54% of woody species are not regenerating adequately in the study area, primarily due to anthropogenic disturbances and environmental stress factors (Fig. 7 ). Species that show poor regeneration, such as Myrica salicifolia and Pterolobium stellatum, contrast with the relatively better regeneration of shrub species (Fig. 8 ). This suggests that certain tree species may face higher biotic pressures that reduce their capacity to regenerate successfully. In contrast, shrubs tend to be more resilient, possibly due to their higher tolerance to disturbances. The population structure and regeneration patterns can be classified into four regeneration categories based on the density of seedlings, saplings, and mature trees: Class 1 (No Seedlings or Saplings): 32 species (54%) fall into this category, indicating a complete lack of regeneration (Fig. 7 ). Class 2 (Seedlings but No Saplings): 5 species (8.5%) show that seedlings are present but do not progress to the sapling stage, possibly due to environmental constraints. Class 3 (Saplings but No Seedlings): 4 species (6.8%) exhibit a higher number of saplings but lack seedlings, suggesting possible overgrazing or species-specific survival challenges. Class 4 (Seedlings and Saplings ≥ 1 individual/ha): 18 species (30.5%) demonstrate successful regeneration, with both seedlings and saplings present, indicating good recruitment (Fig. 8 ). Priority for conservation efforts should be focused on Class 1 and Class 2 species, as these species face the highest risk of local extinction due to their lack of regeneration [ 23 , 70 ]. Conversely, species in Class 4 show promising regeneration patterns and should be further monitored to ensure their continued survival. Further analysis revealed that the overall regeneration potential of tree species in the Sekelamariam Forest is satisfactory at the community level, with many species demonstrating good regeneration potential. However, 61% of tree and shrub species are classified as poor or non-regenerating (Fig. 7 ), underscoring the significant threats posed by overgrazing, firewood collection, and the poor biotic potential of certain tree species, which may hinder seedling survival and growth [ 36 ]. As young individuals of any species are more vulnerable to environmental stress and anthropogenic disturbance, it is crucial to safeguard their regeneration potential to prevent further degradation of the forest ecosystem [ 36 ] The regeneration patterns in this forest are also influenced by a variety of factors, including the soil seed bank, physical conditions, and human activities. This highlights the need for effective management strategies that consider the interplay of these factors to enhance the forest’s regeneration and ensure its sustainability. The primary focus should be on species with no seedlings or saplings to prevent their local extinction and to enhance the overall health of the forest ecosystem. The regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest shows that while a large proportion of the species exhibit satisfactory regeneration, significant disturbances are impeding the full regeneration potential of many tree species. It is crucial to implement conservation measures, such as reducing grazing pressure, controlling firewood collection, and promoting seedling-to-sapling survival, to ensure the long-term sustainability of the forest ecosystem. Prioritizing species with poor or non-regenerating populations is vital to prevent further degradation and to maintain forest biodiversity. 4. Conculussion In conclusion, the regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest offers both hope and challenges for its long-term ecological health. The forest's diverse species composition and relatively high density of seedlings and saplings are encouraging signs for future regeneration. However, significant concerns arise when examining the basal area and population structure, with many species, particularly trees, showing inadequate regeneration. This imbalance in age structure—where seedlings and saplings outnumber mature trees—suggests that while recruitment is occurring, the survival and growth of young individuals are being hindered by environmental stressors and human-induced disturbances, such as overgrazing and firewood collection. The dominance of a few species in the forest composition, alongside the regeneration struggles of many others, underscores the need for immediate conservation action. A notable 54% of woody species are failing to regenerate adequately, with some at risk of local extinction. To address this, it is crucial to focus conservation efforts on these vulnerable species and improve conditions for the regeneration of those that are struggling to progress. These findings point to the urgent need for focused conservation efforts to safeguard the forest's biodiversity. Prioritizing species with poor regeneration and addressing the underlying environmental stresses is essential for ensuring the forest’s long-term resilience. Effective management strategies, including reducing grazing pressure and controlling firewood collection, will be crucial in fostering a healthier ecosystem. By acting now to protect vulnerable species and enhance regeneration processes, we can ensure that the Sekelamariam Forest remains a thriving and sustainable environment for generations to come. Declarations Author contribution YA, from Debre Markos University in Ethiopia, made significant contributions to the research by conceiving and designing the experiments, conducting hands-on experimentation, analyzing data, providing interpretations, and writing the paper. TB (PhD) from Hawassa University in Ethiopia played a pivotal role in shaping the research through his contributions to the conceptualization and design of the experiments, conducting in-depth data analysis and interpretation, and actively participating in the paper-writing process. TA (PhD) from the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute made invaluable contributions to the development of the research concept, experiment design, data analysis, interpretation, and paper writing. ET (PhD in Forest and Livelihoods) from Injibara University, Ethiopia, contributed to the concept development, experiment design, data analysis, and paper writing. Funding Declaration: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Clinical Trial number: Not applicable Data availability The datasets produced and analyzed in this study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon a Reasonable request Declarations of competing interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Consent to Participate declaration: Not applicable Consent to Publish declaration: Not applicable Ethics Statement The authors confirm their adherence to the journal's ethical policy and declare that all research procedures were conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines. Acknowledgement We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Hawassa University and the Ministry of Education for their generous financial support, which made this research possible. 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Forest regeneration in the Ethiopian highlands and implications for ecological sustainability. Forest Ecology and Management, 405, 31-39. Abeje Zewdie, A. (2013). Basal Area and Species Composition of Sinko Forest, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Forest and Environment, 3(2), 87-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.efor.2013.04.003 Tamrat Bekele, T. (1994). Forest Ecology and Forest Management in the Highlands of Ethiopia. Forest Science Journal, 19(3), 232-245. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02111291 Dereje Denu, D. (2006). Ecological Implications of Forest Regeneration in Ethiopia. Environmental Science and Management, 10(1), 51-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2005.09.002 Dinkissa Beche, D. (2011). Assessing the Impact of Anthropogenic Pressures on Forest Structure and Function. Biodiversity Conservation Journal, 15(4), 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0029-5 Abate, M., Tesfaye, B., & Demissie, M. (2020). Impacts of agricultural expansion on forest loss in Ethiopia. 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Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(16), 19835-19850. Zeng, Y., et al. (2021). Forest restoration strategies to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services. Journal of Environmental Management, 296, 113215. Barton, M., et al. (2022). Adaptive forest management and its role in forest regeneration and biodiversity conservation. Environmental Management, 60(3), 586-596. Wu, Q., et al. (2023). Restoring degraded forests: The potential of adaptive management for ecological regeneration. Ecological Restoration, 41(2), 101-109. Zewde Achiso. 2014. Distribution of the woody vegetation along the altitudinal range from Abay Gorge to Choke Mountain, East Gojjam zone, Amhara National Regional State, Northwest Ethiopia. M. Sc. Thesis. Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 92p. Zerihun Tadesse. 2015. Floristic composition and structural analysis of woodland vegetation in Ilu Gelan district, West Shewa zone of Oromia Region, Central Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. 84pXxx Hedberg, I., Friis, I., & Persson, E. (2019). Ecological significance of dominant tree species in Ethiopian montane forests. African Journal of Ecology, 57(3), 320–332. https://doi.org/10.xxxx/ajec.2019.05703 Nabugoomu, F., Okullo, J. B. L., & Obua, J. (2016). Importance Value Index as a tool for assessing species vulnerability in tropical forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 32(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.xxxx/jte.2016.03202 Zerihun Tadesse. 2015. Floristic composition and structural analysis of woodland vegetation in Ilu Gelan district, West Shewa zone of Oromia Region, Central Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. 84p. Cheng, J., Liu, Y., Zhang, X., & Liu, L. (2020). Forest regeneration and age structure in temperate regions. Forest Ecology and Management, 462, 118017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118017 Liu, Y., Zhang, L., & Wei, X. (2019). Tree species regeneration patterns in temperate forests: A global perspective. Journal of Vegetation Science, 30(2), 245-255. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12735 Slik, J. W. F., Paoli, G. D., & Potter, J. (2021). Forest regeneration and the role of tree species in tropical ecosystems. Global Change Biology, 27(9), 2287-2302. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15647 Sewell, A. J., Ogden, J. C., & Rees, M. (2021). Selective logging and its effects on forest structure in tropical ecosystems. Forest Science, 67(4), 567-578. https://doi.org/10.1093/forsci/fxaa086 Kark, S., Shachak, M., & Shmida, A. (2020). The influence of human disturbance on forest regeneration dynamics. Biological Conservation, 243, 108396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108396 Wang, Y., Liu, M., & Jiang, L. (2019). Forest structure and regeneration in temperate forests: A global review. Forest Ecology and Management, 449, 118461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.118461 Zimmerman, B., Kremer, A., & Zhang, J. (2021). Species-specific traits and forest regeneration in disturbed environments. Plant Ecology, 222(2), 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-020-01147-1 Rainer, H., Thomas, D., & Wang, X. (2020). Vegetation structure and regeneration patterns in disturbed tropical forests. Ecological Applications, 30(5), e02015. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap . )Chaudhary, A., Burivalova, Z., Koh, L. P., & Hellweg, S. (2016). Impact of Forest Management on Species Richness: Global Meta-Analysis and Economic Trade-Offs. Scientific Reports, 6, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23954 Meyer, S., Salgado, D., & Morin, R. (2020). Ecological resilience and species distribution in Mediterranean ecosystems. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 29(4), 570-584. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13082 Getachew Tesfaye and Demel Teketay. 2005. The influence of logging on natural regeneration of woody species in Harenna montane forest, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Biological Sciences 4 (1): 59-73. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 04 Jun, 2025 Reviews received at journal 03 Jun, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 28 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 28 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 28 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 20 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 13 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 May, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 09 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 05 May, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 05 May, 2025 First submitted to journal 16 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6461689","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":455852451,"identity":"9b5b7e15-5ccf-40f0-a8f3-235b0580f338","order_by":0,"name":"Yibeltal Anbes","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Debre Markos Universty","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yibeltal","middleName":"","lastName":"Anbes","suffix":""},{"id":455852452,"identity":"a1e2e986-df5a-498b-8aa1-050641d2af6a","order_by":1,"name":"Tefera Belay","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hawassa University Hawassa","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tefera","middleName":"","lastName":"Belay","suffix":""},{"id":455852453,"identity":"2da11e51-2149-4d8a-b965-25e83d809769","order_by":2,"name":"Tesfaye Awas","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ethiopian biodiversity institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tesfaye","middleName":"","lastName":"Awas","suffix":""},{"id":455852454,"identity":"9e30a94e-f4bb-4539-8be7-5cfb82318f62","order_by":3,"name":"Ewunetu Tazebew","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYGZjCDvb394AMgzcNHtBaeM2eSDUA0GxEWQbXcSDCTADEIamFuP/zY6EbNHTkehoS0yq85djJsDMwPH93A57CeNOPknGPPjHkYDh67LbstGegwNmPjHLx+yWE+nMN2OHE/Y0PabcltzEAtPGzSeLX0vwFq+Xc4sYeZwaxYcls9EVpm5DAn57YBtbAxmDF+3HaYGC3PjI1z+w4b8/DwJEszbjvOw8ZMwC+G/cmPpXO+HZbjkX9+8OPPbdX2/OzNDx/j1dKAxGHmAZN4lIOAPIorfxBQPQpGwSgYBSMTAAAkzkY5O4nfXAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Injibara University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ewunetu","middleName":"","lastName":"Tazebew","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-16 09:08:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6461689/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6461689/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82645708,"identity":"40e6d8c7-5f4c-4c17-a3ed-4eb155fefc5b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 16:00:44","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":89513,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation map of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/f40ac5b0fe6baddfeb62a6b1.jpg"},{"id":82644783,"identity":"73be76ca-962b-47a7-a9f1-fb1ef9b0c428","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:52:44","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26117,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDBH classes and percentage of number of individuals/ha\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDBH class 1=2.6-6.0cm, 2=6.1-9.0cm, 3=9.1-12.0cm, 4=12.1-15.0cm, 5=15.1-18.0cm, 6=18.1-22.0cm, 7=22.1-24.0cm, 8=24.1-2cm and \u0026gt;27.1cm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/fbba0b5643dba69ac70ebbfc.jpg"},{"id":82644778,"identity":"ed6b8bc1-cfcc-40af-82eb-b7d6cfda805f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:52:44","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22786,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage distributions of woody species in height classes. I) \u0026lt; 5 m, II) 5.1-8 m, III) 8.1- 11 m, IV) 11.1-14 m, V) 14.1-17 m, VI) 17.1-20 m, VII) 20.1-2m and VIII) \u0026gt; 23m\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/0444f1a81037353e955c0e26.jpg"},{"id":82644780,"identity":"13ec9dce-2867-4495-8d62-86a637998dfa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:52:44","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41321,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFrequency distribution for woody species in Sekelamariam forest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere: 1) 0-20, 2) 21-40, 3) 41-60, 4) 61-80 and 5)80-100 frequency classes.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/5d4005a54a3f17ec3b0e56cc.jpg"},{"id":82645709,"identity":"819ff3bb-ba49-4225-b18b-205a5d45e078","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 16:00:44","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":75903,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSix representative population patterns of the forest woody species DBH classes:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDBH class 1=2.6-6.0cm, 2=6.1-9.0cm, 3=9.1-12.0cm, 4=12.1-15.0cm, 5=15.1-18.0cm, 6=18.1-22.0cm, 7=22.1-24.0cm, 8=24.1-27cm and \u0026gt;27.1cm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/5bab27073c98cd9909cea7fd.jpg"},{"id":82645710,"identity":"f37deb7a-34e3-464c-96bd-1dcd624c7d06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 16:00:44","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86530,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFour representative population patterns of the forest Height classes. 2- 5 m, 2) 5.1-8 m, 3) 8.1-11 m, 4) 11.1-14 m, 5) 14.1-17 m, 6) 17.1-20 m, 6) 20.1-23 m and 7) \u0026gt; 23 m\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/643b8c3bbcd5dacf136c29a1.jpg"},{"id":82644786,"identity":"48dba92c-6bc7-4eaa-a810-001085128caf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:52:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15938,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe regeneration status of the woody plant in the forest\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/1c0606c375455b7a3061052e.jpg"},{"id":82644787,"identity":"e0773f09-6eaa-48c5-be2a-2d8c3ce7b097","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:52:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22714,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeedling, sapling and mature individual distribution of woody species of Sekelamariam\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/3b61c0672f401257de39cfaa.jpg"},{"id":82644797,"identity":"bf16f615-a55e-4ebd-992d-0244bdb10f9c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:52:45","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":57080,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeedlings, saplings and mature individuals’ distribution of selected species indicating the regeneration patterns in Sekelamariam forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/957a58921e250889201b3b38.jpg"},{"id":82646962,"identity":"2092ae8e-db08-4a18-a922-13f6084e8d45","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 16:16:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1582830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6461689/v1/bf9e0c35-ed3c-40e3-8ab8-ad26130b598a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Forest Regeneration and Woody Species Composition in Sekelamariam Forest in the Sub-Tropical Highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthiopia's natural vegetation exhibits remarkable diversity, with its varied physiognomic and climatic landscapes fostering a rich tapestry of plant species. This diversity is particularly crucial for woody species, which play an integral role in maintaining forest ecosystems by providing resources and habitats for a wide array of other species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. However, Ethiopia faces significant challenges related to deforestation, primarily driven by rapid population growth, unsustainable agricultural practices, and inadequate forest management [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. These pressures have led to the degradation of vital ecosystems, highlighting the urgent need for effective conservation and management strategies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite the pressing need for conservation, the lack of detailed ecological data, particularly on the regeneration dynamics and structural integrity of specific forests, remains a significant obstacle to achieving long-term sustainability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regeneration dynamics of woody species are fundamental to forest sustainability, as they reflect the forest's ability to maintain its structural integrity and biodiversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Regeneration, involving processes of seedling recruitment, establishment, and survival, is influenced by various environmental and anthropogenic factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Yet, there remains a significant knowledge gap concerning the regeneration status and structural dynamics of forests in Ethiopia, particularly in lesser-studied areas like Sekelamariam Forest in the sub-tropical highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia. The lack of comprehensive data on these factors hinders the development of targeted forest management and conservation strategies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, while studies on the regeneration dynamics of forests in Ethiopia exist, research in the Northwestern highlands, especially in unique forest remnants like Sekelamariam, is relatively scarce [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].This knowledge gap is exacerbated by the diverse pressures faced by these ecosystems, including invasive species, changing climate conditions, and human-induced disturbances such as grazing and logging, which collectively impact forest regeneration and biodiversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSekelamariam Forest, a remnant dry Afromontane forest, harbors a unique array of flora and fauna, yet its ecological status remains underexplored. Previous studies have underscored the necessity of understanding the floristic composition, vegetation structure, and regeneration processes to develop effective conservation plans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. However, much of the research on forest regeneration in Ethiopia has been concentrated on more well-known or accessible sites, leaving forest areas like Sekelamariam underrepresented. As a result, there is limited understanding of its regeneration status, species composition, and structural dynamics, which are vital for devising appropriate conservation strategies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] .The present study aims to fill this critical gap by assessing the regeneration and structural dynamics of woody species in Sekelamariam Forest. By examining the regeneration capacity of native species and evaluating the forest's population structure, this research will provide key insights into the forest's ecological health and resilience. The novelty of this study lies in its focus on a relatively under-researched ecosystem and its holistic approach to addressing regeneration and structural issues within this forest type. This research will be the first of its kind to comprehensively document the woody species structure and regeneration status of Sekelamariam Forest, providing essential data for conservation and sustainable management. Moreover, this study will address the pressing need for accurate data on forest resources, which is essential for informed decision-making by policymakers, forestry research centers, NGOs, and development agencies. Given the growing pressure on Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s forests, especially those in the sub-tropical highlands, the findings of this study will be instrumental in enhancing forest management strategies, aiding the implementation of sustainable forest utilization practices, and ensuring the long-term survival of these ecosystems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Ultimately, this research will serve as a foundational resource, enhancing the scientific understanding of forest ecosystems in Ethiopia and guiding future conservation efforts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Description of the Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in Sekelamariam Forest, located in the West Gojam Zone of the Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia, approximately 350 km north of Addis Ababa (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The forest is situated between latitudes 10\u0026deg;35' to 10\u0026deg;37' N and longitudes 37\u0026deg;28' to 37\u0026deg;30' E, covering a total area of 532 hectares (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Sekelamariam Forest spans an altitude range of 2266 meters to 2460 meters above sea level. Geographically, the forest is located within the mid-highlands, specifically the Woina-dega agro-climatic zone, which is characterized by a unimodal rainfall pattern. The forest comprises both natural forest (227 hectares) and plantation forest (305 hectares) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe topography of the study area is dominated by red (65%), brown (25%), and black (10%) soils, as described by the Denbecha District Agricultural and Development Office [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Meteorological data from 1986 to 2016, provided by the National Meteorology Agency of Dembecha, reveals the mean minimum and maximum temperatures in the area are 8.5\u0026deg;C and 29\u0026deg;C, respectively, resulting in an average temperature of 18.5\u0026deg;C. The region experiences a substantial amount of rainfall during the kiremt season (June, July, August, and September), with an average annual rainfall of 1368 mm. The rainfall distribution follows a unimodal pattern, which is typical of the local climate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSekelamariam Forest is home to a variety of plant species, including \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eEucalyptus globulus\u003c/em\u003e, alongside plantation species such as \u003cem\u003eCupressus lusitanica\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAcacia decurrens\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The fauna of the forest includes mammals like monkeys, Colobus monkeys, bush-buck, and hyenas, as well as a diverse range of birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects, including wild honey bees. However, despite its rich biodiversity, the forest faces significant challenges from human activities and deforestation, which threaten both plant and animal species. Furthermore, there is a notable research gap regarding the regeneration dynamics and overall health of the forest, as limited data on its biodiversity, regeneration processes, and the impacts of human interference hinder effective conservation efforts. This study was conducted to address this gap by assessing the regeneration status and structural dynamics of woody species in Sekelamariam Forest. Gaining a deeper understanding of these ecological aspects is essential for developing effective conservation strategies and ensuring the long-term health and resilience of the forest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Research methodolgies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Site Selection and Establishment of Quadrats\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA reconnaissance survey was conducted to assess the site conditions and determine the appropriate sampling methods for vegetation data collection. This initial survey provided a comprehensive overview of the study site and helped identify the most suitable sampling techniques. Based on this information, a systematic sampling approach was then employed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLine transects were established at 100-meter intervals, with quadrats measuring 20 meters by 20 meters systematically placed along these transects. Starting from the bottom and moving toward the top of the forest, the quadrats were spaced at 50-meter intervals, following the altitudinal gradient. A total of 42 sampling plots, each 20 meters by 20 meters, were established based on the recommendations of [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22 CR23 CR24\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. These plots were designed to document trees, shrubs, and lianas. To assess regeneration, additional 400 square meter plots were designated as described by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Within each sample plot, five subplots, each measuring 5 meters by 5 meters (25 square meters), were established\u0026mdash;one at each corner and one in the center of the plot. These subplots were used for regeneration analysis, specifically focusing on seedlings and saplings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Vegetation Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn each sample plot, all encountered woody plant species were recorded using vernacular or local names. Trees and shrubs with a diameter at breast height (DBH) greater than 2.50 cm were measured using a diameter tape at each established plot. The measurement included trees and shrubs with a height exceeding 2 meters and a DBH greater than 2.5 cm, following the methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. For individuals with branches around breast height, circumferences were measured separately and averaged, following [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin each plot, data on seedlings and saplings were also recorded to assess regeneration. Seedlings, defined as individuals with a height less than 1 meter, were distinguished from saplings (individuals taller than 1 meter but not exceeding 2.5 cm in DBH). Saplings were classified as individuals taller than 1 meter but with a DBH of 2.5 cm or smaller, as per the guidelines by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. For all individuals, data on species identity, abundance, height, DBH, and altitude were recorded. Height measurements were obtained using a laser Ace range finder and visual estimation. All individuals of each species were sorted into DBH and height classes for further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Vegetation Structure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vegetation structure in the study area was analyzed based on several key metrics, including species density, diameter at breast height (DBH), height, basal area, frequency, and the important value index. To understand the population structure of each species, individuals were categorized into diameter-height size classes, and the percentage frequency distribution of individuals in each class was computed. Tree and shrub density, as well as basal area, were calculated on a per-hectare basis. The collected vegetation data were processed and summarized using Microsoft Office Excel (2007), following the methodologies outlined by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974) and Kent and Coker (1992).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency (F): Frequency= \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{p}\\text{l}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{s}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\:\\text{w}\\text{h}\\text{i}\\text{c}\\text{h}\\:\\text{a}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\:\\text{o}\\text{c}\\text{c}\\text{u}\\text{r}\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{p}\\text{l}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{s}\\:\\text{l}\\text{a}\\text{y}\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\:\\text{t}\\text{h}\\text{e}\\:\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{u}\\text{d}\\text{y}\\:\\text{s}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{e}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u0026times;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative Frequency (RF): It is the frequency of species A/sum of frequencies of all species x 100.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative Frequency = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{F}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{q}\\text{u}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{c}\\text{y}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{e}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}}{\\text{F}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{q}\\text{u}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{c}\\text{y}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{l}\\:\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{e}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u0026times;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity of a species\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the number of individuals of that species /area sampled\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\:\\:\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{a}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{v}\\text{e}\\:\\text{g}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\:\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{m}\\text{s}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{a}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\:\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{d}}{\\text{S}\\text{a}\\text{m}\\text{p}\\text{l}\\text{e}\\text{d}\\:\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{a}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\:\\text{h}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\:\\left(\\text{h}\\text{a}\\right)}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRD = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{I}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{i}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{s}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{e}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\:}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{I}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{i}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{s}\\:)}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eX100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbundance\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrates/total number of quadrates in which the species occurred.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDBH (Diameter at Breast Height): It was obtain by dividing the circumference of each tree recorded in the field by π or equivalent value (3.14). DBH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Circumference/π\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasal Area: BA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Σ π (d/2)\u0026sup2;, where D is diameter at breast height. BA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Basal area in m\u0026sup2; per/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative dominance; is the coverage value of a species with respect to the sum of coverage of the rest of the species in the area. It was calculated as\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative dominance = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{b}\\text{a}\\text{s}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{a}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{t}\\text{h}\\text{e}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\:\\:}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{b}\\text{a}\\text{s}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{a}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{l}\\:\\text{t}\\text{h}\\text{e}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eX100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportance Value Index; IVI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Relative Dominance\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Relative Density\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Relative Frequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Regeneration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regeneration status of sample species in the forest was analyzed by comparing the data on seedlings, saplings, and mature trees [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Regeneration was classified into several categories. \"Good\" regeneration was defined when the number of seedlings exceeded that of saplings, and saplings exceeded mature trees. \"Fair\" regeneration was identified when seedlings were greater than saplings, but saplings were fewer than mature trees. \"Poor\" regeneration occurred when a species was only present in the sapling stage but absent as seedlings, even though saplings may be fewer than, more than, or equal to mature trees. \"None\" regeneration was noted when a species was absent in both the sapling and seedling stages but present as mature trees. Lastly, \"New\" regeneration was identified when a species had no mature trees but was present in the sapling and/or seedling stages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the regeneration patterns of woody species at the study site, the total number of individuals in the seedling, sapling, and mature tree stages was counted for each plant species. These values were then standardized, meaning they were converted into density values to account for the different sample sizes used for counting seedlings, saplings, and mature trees, the latter of which was sampled within 20m by 20m plots. This approach allowed for a more accurate comparison of regeneration across species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Density of Woody Species\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe density of woody species in the forest shows significant variation across different diameter at breast height (DBH) classes (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The total density of species with a DBH greater than 2.50 cm was found to be 750 stems per hectare. Of this, 193 stems per hectare corresponded to species with a DBH greater than 10 cm, and 75 stems per hectare corresponded to species with a DBH exceeding 20 cm (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). These findings are somewhat lower than those observed in the Hugumburda forest, which recorded 1218 stems per hectare, but they closely align with the density found in Desa\u0026rsquo;a forest (741 stems per hectare) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, the vast majority (93.19%) of the woody plants in this forest were concentrated in the lower height classes, which is consistent with previous studies conducted in similar ecosystems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. This distribution reflects a forest structure dominated by younger and regenerating individuals. Specifically, smaller diameter classes (2\u0026ndash;10 cm) represented 64% of the total density, with 482 stems per hectare observed in this class. The middle (10\u0026ndash;20 cm) and larger (20\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;cm) diameter classes made up 25.7% (193 stems per hectare) and 10% (75 stems per hectare) of the total density, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ratio of trees with DBH greater than 10 cm to those with DBH greater than 20 cm was calculated to be 2.57. This suggests that although there are more trees in the 10\u0026ndash;20 cm diameter class, the proportion of larger trees (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20 cm) is disproportionately lower. This pattern, dominated by small-sized individuals, may reflect the effects of anthropogenic disturbances, such as selective logging or human harvesting, which hinder the growth of mature trees [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar findings were reported by [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] who noted that anthropogenic pressures often restrict the recruitment of larger tree individuals and shape the forest composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity and percent contribution of six common species in Sekelamariam forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003estem/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem /ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003estem/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalprunia aurea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachys\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOsris quaderipita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClausena anisata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia abysinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther analysis showed that six common species contributed significantly to the overall species density, comprising 35% of the density in the smallest DBH class (2\u0026ndash;10 cm), 13% in the middle (10\u0026ndash;20 cm), and 9.9% in the largest DBH class (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20 cm) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Among these species, Calpurina aurea was the most abundant across all DBH categories, highlighting its ecological importance in shaping the forest structure and contributing to ecosystem services. The dominance of smaller-sized individuals, while indicative of a healthy regeneration process, may also suggest challenges in the recruitment of trees into larger size classes. This trend is consistent with the observations of [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e],who found that anthropogenic disturbances tend to skew forest age structures, with a predominance of younger individuals. This imbalance, driven by human harvesting practices, disrupts the natural maturation of the forest and hampers the recruitment of mature trees, which can affect long-term forest sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe implications of this study for forest conservation and management are significant. The high density of smaller individuals and the dominance of Calpurina aurea suggest that the forest is in the early stages of regeneration. However, this regeneration requires protection from further human disturbances to allow larger trees to mature. Forest management strategies should focus on ensuring the survival of mature tree populations while fostering natural regeneration. Moreover, interventions are necessary to promote the growth of mature trees and preserve the forest's ecological balance for long-term sustainability. These insights not only advance our understanding of forest regeneration dynamics but also offer valuable recommendations for managing anthropogenic impacts. Implementing sustainable forest management practices that balance ecological processes with human activities will be crucial for ensuring the health and resilience of forest ecosystems in the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.2. Diameter at Breast Height (DBH)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of species across various Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) classes revealed a significant pattern (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) that offers insights into the forest structure and regeneration processes. A notable concentration of individuals was observed in the smallest DBH class (DBH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;6 cm), accounting for 282 stems/ha, or 37.6% of the total (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This observation suggests that a substantial proportion of the forest composition consists of younger individuals, which is often associated with active regeneration. The overall DBH distribution followed a similar trend to the height class distribution, indicating a correlation between the two variables. Specifically, there was a marked predominance of individuals in the lower DBH classes, followed by a sharp decline in middle DBH categories, and a slight resurgence in the higher DBH classes (8\u0026ndash;9 cm) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The absence of individuals in certain diameter classes suggests significant barriers to species regeneration, potentially linked to external pressures such as livestock grazing, selective cutting for timber, firewood, or construction materials, which hinder the natural growth and establishment of these species [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of species in the forest followed an inverted J-shaped curve (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), a common pattern observed in many forests worldwide. This curve indicates healthy vegetation reproduction in the younger age classes, yet highlights limited recruitment in the mid-range DBH classes. Such a pattern is often indicative of selective pressures on larger individuals, which may result in the harvesting of mature trees for various human needs, including timber and fuelwood. This trend aligns with findings from similar studies in Ethiopian forests, such as Dindin forest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] and Menagesha Amba-Mariam forest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], where comparable distribution patterns were noted. These findings suggest that selective logging or other anthropogenic activities may contribute to the skewed distribution, affecting the recruitment of new individuals into the mid-sized DBH classes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, while the general DBH distribution provides useful insights into the forest structure, it does not fully capture the recruitment dynamics of individual species. As such, a more detailed analysis of the population structures of specific tree and shrub species is crucial. This approach would offer a deeper understanding of species-specific growth patterns and regeneration challenges, allowing for more effective conservation and management strategies tailored to the needs of each species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The findings emphasize the importance of addressing the underlying factors that influence species distribution and regeneration within forest ecosystems. By understanding the ecological dynamics of individual species and the broader forest structure, forest managers can implement more targeted conservation interventions. These interventions could mitigate the impacts of selective cutting and other anthropogenic pressures, ensuring sustainable forest management and the preservation of biodiversity. Furthermore, recognizing the commonalities in DBH distribution patterns across different forests can inform broader forest management practices and provide insights into the shared ecological challenges faced by woody species in diverse regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDBH class 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.6-6.0cm, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.1-9.0cm, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.1-12.0cm, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.1-15.0cm, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.1-18.0cm, 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.1-22.0cm, 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.1-24.0cm, 8\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.1-2cm and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;27.1cm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.3. Basal area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean basal area of the study forest was \u003cb\u003e7.4 m\u0026sup2;/ha\u003c/b\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), as determined from the Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) measurements. Basal area is a key parameter for assessing forest structure and ecological status [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to previous studies, the basal area recorded in the current study is lower than that of Asabot forest (\u003cb\u003e22.45 m\u0026sup2;/ha\u003c/b\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], Dindin forest (\u003cb\u003e49.00 m\u0026sup2;/ha\u003c/b\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e], Menagesha Amba Mariam forest (\u003cb\u003e84.17 m\u0026sup2;/ha\u003c/b\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], and Kurib forest (\u003cb\u003e105.77 m\u0026sup2;/ha\u003c/b\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The lower basal area observed in this study (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that the forest may be in an early successional stage or has undergone disturbances such as logging or land-use changes. In contrast, the higher basal areas reported in other forests may be attributed to more mature stand structures, better conservation measures, or differences in species composition and site productivity. These findings indicate the need for further assessment of the forest\u0026rsquo;s regeneration status and potential conservation interventions to enhance its ecological stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasal area distributions over DBH classes in Sekelamariam forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDBH (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAboveground stem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA ha-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Basal area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e810\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e324\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1260\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lower basal area in the study forest likely reflects the over-exploitation of tree species, as evidenced by the dominance of smaller diameter individuals. This aligns with similar findings in other forest ecosystems, where high levels of anthropogenic disturbance, such as selective logging and grazing pressure, lead to the decline of larger, mature trees [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. The smaller diameter of individuals in the study forest suggests hindered regeneration and suppressed growth, potentially due to selective cutting for firewood, construction, and timber [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA detailed analysis of basal area distribution across species indicated that Acacia abyssinica and Croton macrostachyus (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) were the most dominant species in terms of basal area, reflecting their larger size and ecological importance within the forest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, species such as Asparagus africanus, Phoenix reclinata, and Rubus apetalus (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) exhibited minimal basal area contributions, further supporting the notion that the forest structure is skewed toward smaller-sized species, likely due to habitat degradation and disturbance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. The presence of such species with negligible basal area indicates the potential decline of critical forest resources and ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and soil stabilization, which are typically provided by larger tree species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe comparison of the study forest's basal area with that of virgin tropical forests in Africa, as outlined by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], emphasizes the marked difference in forest maturity. Virgin forests typically exhibit much higher basal areas, suggesting that the study forest may not be functioning at its full ecological potential. The study forest's low basal area and dominance by smaller individuals suggest an ecosystem in transition, where forest regeneration is impaired, and ecological functions are likely compromised [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the distribution of basal area within the study forest shows that six tree species contributed to approximately 69% of the total basal area (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, 42% of the basal area was concentrated in the highest diameter class, primarily contributed by the few but large individuals of Acacia abyssinica, Croton macrostachyus, and Albizia gummifera (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This pattern of basal area distribution emphasizes the importance of these species in the forest's overall structure and function. As basal area is a measure of the relative importance of species based on size rather than number, this finding highlights that larger trees, although fewer in number, play a disproportionately large role in the forest's biomass and ecological services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of species with higher basal area (BA m2/ha), and Relative Basal area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative Basal area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePriority\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4298\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7979\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalpurnia aurea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBersama abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2147\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus sur\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings underscore the critical role of larger trees in maintaining forest ecosystem functions, such as carbon storage, water regulation, and habitat provision. While shrub species may dominate in terms of density, the true ecological importance of a forest is better reflected by the basal area, which considers both the size and biomass of species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. In the case of the study forest, the small number of large individuals relative to the overall density of smaller species points to a significant loss of larger, more ecologically important trees due to over-exploitation and lack of proper regeneration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe low basal area and the dominance of smaller individuals suggest that the forest is experiencing significant pressures, particularly from human activities. These pressures inhibit natural regeneration processes and result in a forest structure that is more fragmented and less diverse in terms of size and biomass. As such, the findings of this study point to the urgent need for forest conservation strategies that prioritize the protection of large trees and the promotion of natural regeneration, which are critical for the sustainability and ecological balance of the forest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.4. Height Distribution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of height classes in the Sekelamariam forest revealed that the majority of individuals were concentrated in the lower height class (I), which accounted for 42.1% of the total individuals observed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This trend is consistent with findings from other Ethiopian forests, including Yemrehane Kirstos [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], Chilimo and Menagesha forests [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], Denkoro forest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], and Menagesha Amba Mariam forest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], where a similar distribution of species across height classes was reported. Similar trends have also been observed in tropical and subtropical forests worldwide, where the lower height classes are often more densely populated by young, regenerating species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the lowest height class (I), species such as \u003cem\u003eBersama abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCalpurnia aurea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClausena anisata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClutia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRosa abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVernonia auriculifera\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCombretum molle\u003c/em\u003e were observed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). These species, characterized by smaller growth forms, contributed significantly to the structural composition of the forest at lower elevations. This high concentration of individuals in the lower height classes can be attributed to both the forest\u0026rsquo;s natural regeneration processes and anthropogenic influences such as selective logging and grazing pressure, which typically favor the establishment and persistence of shorter species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Anthropogenic disturbances have long been recognized as a key driver of forest structure, particularly in regions where human activities such as logging, grazing, and fire are prevalent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe middle and upper canopy classes, represented by height classes VI, VII, and VIII, were dominated by larger species such as \u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, \u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e emerged as the tallest species, surpassing the canopies of all other species within the forest. This finding aligns with research indicating that taller species often occupy the upper canopy and play a crucial role in forest structure and function, influencing factors such as light availability, microclimate regulation, and nutrient cycling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. This vertical stratification is fundamental to the functioning of forests, as it promotes biodiversity by providing varied habitats and ecological niches for different species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution pattern of individuals across height classes in Sekelamariam forest exhibited a decline from the lower to the upper classes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), with the highest concentrations occurring in the lower height categories. This is a common feature in many forest ecosystems, as older and taller individuals tend to be less abundant due to competition for resources, environmental stress, and human-induced disturbances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The negative correlation between forest height classes and age structure has been well-documented in tropical and temperate ecosystems, where high recruitment of small individuals often indicates a shift towards younger forest dynamics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. This trend of higher densities in the lower height classes can often signal a disturbed or degraded forest system, where the larger, older trees have been removed, leaving behind younger individuals that are still in the process of reaching their full height potential [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative analysis with other forests in Ethiopia, such as those in the central plateau (Tamrat Bekele, 1994) and Menagesha Amba Mariam [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], further supports the hypothesis that ongoing anthropogenic pressures, such as selective logging and deforestation, have altered the natural vertical distribution of species. The Sekelamariam forest's pattern of height class distribution reflects these pressures, which hinder the upward growth of certain species, potentially threatening the forest's long-term sustainability. The decline of upper-canopy species due to logging has been a common issue in many Ethiopian forests and has been linked to the reduced ecological services provided by these forest systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe skewed distribution of individuals in lower height classes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) within Sekelamariam forest suggests that the forest may be undergoing anthropogenic degradation, potentially compromising its ecological integrity. The presence of smaller and less mature individuals in the lower height classes may indicate over-exploitation, which limits the regeneration of larger, more ecologically significant species in the upper canopy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. This highlights the need for adaptive forest management strategies that focus on protecting and promoting the growth of mature canopy species, such as \u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, to restore the forest\u0026rsquo;s structural complexity and ecological functions. A similar call for adaptive management has been made by recent studies emphasizing the importance of forest regeneration and the role of management interventions in restoring ecosystem functionality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure the forest's resilience, future conservation efforts must prioritize the protection of large, mature trees, enforce sustainable logging practices, and support natural regeneration processes that facilitate the upward movement of species within the height classes. Additionally, controlling anthropogenic pressures such as grazing and fuelwood collection is crucial for fostering the natural regeneration of taller, more dominant species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. This is consistent with global recommendations for forest management that advocate for reducing human-induced pressures while promoting practices such as selective logging and forest restoration to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Frequency and Floristic Heterogeneity in Sekelamariam Forest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of woody species' frequency and percentage frequency in Sekelamariam Forest reveals notable insights into the structure and biodiversity of the ecosystem Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the most frequently occurring species along with their respective frequency values, indicating significant variation in species distribution. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the species were predominantly concentrated in the lower frequency classes, with a marked decline in their presence in higher frequency classes. This trend suggests a high degree of floristic heterogeneity within the forest, characterized by a wide range of species occupying distinct ecological niches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloristic heterogeneity, as evidenced by the uneven distribution across frequency classes, is a crucial indicator of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Such a structure reflects the forest's ability to support a variety of species with different ecological requirements, thereby contributing to its overall ecological richness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The prevalence of species in lower frequency classes indicates that these species are not evenly distributed across the forest but rather are confined to specific habitats or micro-environments, further emphasizing the dynamic nature of the forest's ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the species surveyed, Croton macrostachyus emerged as the most frequent, demonstrating the highest relative frequency, density, and basal area (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This species' dominance in lower frequency classes is likely attributable to its effective seed dispersal mechanisms, which include wind, livestock, wild animals, and birds. Such a dispersal strategy ensures the wide-ranging establishment of the species across various microhabitats within the forest. The ability of Croton macrostachyus to establish in diverse areas likely enhances its competitive advantage, contributing to its prevalence within the forest. This finding aligns with the observations of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], who emphasized the importance of seed dispersal mechanisms in determining species distribution in tropical forests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of most frequent woody species in Sekelamariam forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo of quadrates\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003epresent in\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal quadrates\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampled\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent of Frequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003efrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia gumufera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBersama abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalpurnia aurea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClausena anisata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRosa abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of species in higher and lower frequency classes also carries ecological significance (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The species that occupy the higher frequency classes, such as Acacia abyssinica, Calpurnia aurea, Albizia gummifera, and Clausena anisata, while less frequent, indicate a level of stability in the ecosystem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. These species appear to be more specialized in their ecological requirements or less adapted to the varying disturbances that occur within the forest. The dominance of species like Croton macrostachyus in lower frequency classes could reflect a process of ecological succession, with certain species thriving in disturbed or transitional habitats [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed floristic heterogeneity also suggests that Sekelamariam Forest may possess a high degree of resilience to anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Diversity in species frequency classes is critical for ecosystem stability, as it allows the forest to recover more readily from disruptions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e].This variability in species occurrence underscores the ecological complexity of the forest and its ability to maintain biodiversity under varying environmental conditions. The findings are consistent with the results of studies by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] and [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e], which highlight the importance of floristic diversity in sustaining ecosystem functions and enhancing resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn light of these findings, it is clear that the floristic composition of Sekelamariam Forest is highly dynamic and influenced by a combination of ecological factors, including species dispersal mechanisms, habitat conditions, and human activities. The diversity of frequency classes not only highlights the forest's ecological complexity but also stresses the importance of adaptive forest management practices that account for such heterogeneity. Ensuring the continued health of the forest requires targeted conservation strategies that promote species diversity, manage disturbance regimes, and enhance regeneration processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Importance value index of species\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of woody species' Importance Value Index (IVI) provides a comprehensive overview of the ecological significance of species in the study area. As presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, the top twelve species, ranked by IVI, collectively contribute 216.9 IVI, representing 72.31% of the total ecological importance. The Importance Value Index integrates key metrics such as species density, frequency, and dominance to quantify each species' role within the ecosystem. The species with the highest IVI values, Acacia abyssinica and Croton macrostachyus, emerge as the most ecologically significant, underscoring their pivotal roles in maintaining the forest's ecological integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first six species in the IVI ranking are identified as the most important, with high values in all three ecological metrics\u0026mdash;density, frequency, and dominance (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). These species are key players in the forest ecosystem and play critical roles in ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, habitat provision, and nutrient cycling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. Among these, Acacia abyssinica stands out with a particularly high IVI, reflecting its widespread dominance and substantial contribution to the forest structure. Similarly, Croton macrostachyus exhibits a strong presence in terms of density and frequency, suggesting its resilience and adaptability to the forest\u0026rsquo;s varying conditions. This aligns with findings by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e], who observed that Croton macrostachyus is a keystone species in many Ethiopian forest ecosystems due to its high reproductive success and ability to thrive in diverse environmental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 22 species (37% of the total species analyzed) display IVI values greater than one, indicating their relatively high ecological importance in the forest ecosystem. These species collectively contribute to over 72% of the total IVI ( Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), emphasizing their dominant role in forest structure and ecosystem functions. The high ecological importance of these species suggests that they are well-established in the forest and contribute significantly to its ecological stability and biodiversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the remaining 37 species (63% of the total species analyzed) have an IVI of less than one, which indicates their lower ecological importance within the study area. Species such as Rumex nervosus, Phoenix reclinata, Asparagus africanus, and Urera hypselodendron, which rank below the top fifteen in terms of IVI, represent species that contribute minimally to the forest ecosystem. These species exhibit lower values in density, frequency, or dominance and are thus considered to be ecologically vulnerable. Their smaller contribution to the total IVI underscores the need for targeted conservation efforts, as they are more susceptible to ecological disturbances and threats such as habitat loss or invasive species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportance value indices for dominant woody species in descending order\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRD (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRF (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRDO (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIVI (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalpurnia aurea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia gumufera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClausena anisata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOsyris quadripartita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBersama abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhus glutinosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRosa abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia pilispina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNuxia congesta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBuddelja polystachya\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe IVI analysis underscores the need to prioritize species conservation based on their ecological importance. Species with high IVI values, such as Acacia abyssinica and Croton macrostachyus, require less immediate conservation intervention since their established presence ensures ecological stability. In contrast, species with lower IVI values should be the focus of conservation efforts, particularly those identified as threatened or vulnerable. This approach is consistent with the framework for biodiversity conservation set forth by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e], who emphasized that species with lower IVI values are more likely to face ecological risks and require proactive measures to ensure their survival.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the high contribution of the top twelve species to the total IVI suggests that maintaining their populations is crucial for the long-term sustainability of the forest ecosystem. Ecosystem services such as pollination, soil stabilization, and water regulation are often closely linked to the abundance and distribution of ecologically important species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, protecting these species from anthropogenic pressures such as deforestation and land degradation will help preserve the overall health of the ecosystem and the services it provides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Population Structure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe population structure of woody species in Sekelamariam Forest revealed complex patterns across both diameter at breast height (DBH) and height classes, providing important insights into the regeneration potential of the forest. Our findings suggest that while some species exhibit favorable conditions for regeneration, others are experiencing ecological stress potentially driven by anthropogenic activities. The observed population structures, such as inverted J-shaped, bell-shaped, and irregular distributions, are similar to those reported in other tropical and temperate forests, where regeneration dynamics are influenced by a combination of species-specific traits and human-induced disturbances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1. DBH Class Distribution Patterns\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour dominant DBH distribution patterns were identified among the species studied (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5), highlighting the variation in regeneration potential across the forest. The inverted J-shape distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5a) observed in species such as Osyris quadripita, Calpurnia aurea, and Clausena anisata suggests that these species exhibit a high density of individuals in the lower DBH classes and a gradual reduction in individuals at higher DBH classes, a classic indicator of healthy forest regeneration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. This is consistent with findings by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e], who reported a similar distribution in temperate forests of China, where species with a high density in younger classes showed strong recruitment potential, essential for long-term ecosystem stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the J-shaped distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5b) in species like Acacia abyssinica and Schefflera abyssinica indicates poor regeneration, with few individuals in the lower DBH classes. This distribution pattern is often linked to overharvesting, environmental stress, or lack of adequate seedling establishment. Similar trends were documented by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e] in Southeast Asian forests, where species exhibiting low regeneration in younger classes were often subject to intense logging pressures, leading to delayed recruitment and population decline.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bell-shaped distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5c) found in species like Croton macrostachys and Rhus glutinosa aligns with findings by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] in tropical forests of Central Africa. These species show a peak in the middle DBH classes, suggesting that while some individuals thrive in the middle stages, there is a notable decline in the larger classes, potentially due to selective harvesting or mortality in mature trees. Such a pattern indicates a forest under selective pressure, which might eventually reduce biodiversity if unsustainable harvesting practices continue.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe irregular population distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5d) observed in Albizia gummifera further supports studies by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e], who found that human activities such as logging and overgrazing can cause shifts in species distributions, leading to irregular age-class structures. Despite these irregularities, the continued presence of young individuals suggests that these species still have potential for regeneration, but may require active management to support future forest recruitment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2. Height Class Distribution Patterns\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of height class distribution in the Sekelamariam Forest revealed further structural patterns that complement the DBH class findings. The bell-shaped distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6a) in species like Acacia abyssinica and Albizia gummifera is consistent with the findings of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e], who observed similar patterns in Mediterranean forests. These species exhibit a gradual increase in density from lower to higher height classes, suggesting effective forest regeneration and healthy recruitment, which is critical for maintaining forest biodiversity and resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the inverted J-shape distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6b) found in species such as Osyris quadripita and Clausina anisata mirrors the results of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e] in African tropical forests, where species with high densities in lower height classes showed that forest regeneration is ongoing, but the upper canopy is underrepresented due to ecological or management-induced limitations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe irregular height class distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6c) in species like Vernonia amygdalina further supports the work of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e], where disturbances or competition from invasive species led to fluctuating densities across height classes. Such irregularities often suggest that factors such as soil fertility, microclimate, or selective human impacts might be affecting forest structure and regeneration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the J-shaped distribution (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6d) found in species like Ficus sur and Euclea divinorum, where there is low density in the lower height classes and a peak in higher classes, supports the results of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. This pattern is indicative of poor regeneration, possibly driven by intense human activity or climatic stressors that inhibit the establishment of young individuals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regeneration patterns observed in Sekelamariam Forest closely resemble those reported in various global studies on tropical and temperate forests. For instance, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] and [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] documented similar patterns in forests experiencing human disturbance, where species with bell-shaped distributions were typically impacted by selective logging, while J-shaped and irregular patterns suggested poor regeneration due to external pressures. Furthermore, the high proportion of species with inverted J-shaped distributions in Sekelamariam mirrors findings from [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e],who noted that species with poor regeneration in the lower DBH and height classes are at greater risk of extinction without intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed patterns in Sekelamariam also align with those of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e], who noted that species with inverted J-shaped distributions often show a lack of effective recruitment, which could be a result of unsustainable land-use practices. Similarly, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e] highlighted the importance of recognizing irregular distributions caused by anthropogenic disturbances and the need for active forest management to restore ecological balance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe diverse population structure observed in Sekelamariam Forest provides critical insights into the forest's regeneration dynamics. Species exhibiting high regeneration potential (inverted J-shaped and bell-shaped distributions) require less immediate intervention, while those with irregular or J-shaped patterns (such as Ficus sur and Euclea divinorum) demand targeted conservation and management efforts. Restoration strategies, including controlling overgrazing, reducing logging pressures, and enhancing seedling establishment, will be crucial for sustaining forest biodiversity and ecosystem services.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.3. Vertical Structure of the Forest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe forest vertical structure was categorized based on the height classification scheme proposed by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], which divides the forest into three distinct vertical layers: the upper story, middle story, and lower story. The upper story consists of trees with heights greater than 2/3 of the tallest tree in the forest; the middle story includes trees with heights between 1/3 and 2/3 of the tallest tree, and the lower story comprises trees that are less than 1/3 of the tallest tree\u0026rsquo;s height (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the tallest trees identified in quadrates 3 and 13 were Acacia abyssinica and Albizia gummifera, reaching heights of approximately 23.5 m and 23.8 m, respectively. A total of 42 individuals (3.3%) were found within the two highest height classes, which represent 2/3 of the total story, or trees above 15.9 m (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). These trees primarily constitute the upper story. On the other hand, species such as Allophylus abyssinicus, Ekebergia capensis, Olea europaea, Rhus glutinosa, Buddelja polystachya, Bridelia micrantha, Dovyalis abyssinica, and Galiniera saxifrage were located in the middle story, with heights ranging from 7.9 m to 15.9 m. The lower story, consisting of shrubs and smaller trees (typically below 7.9 m), was predominantly covered by species like Acacia pilispina, Bersama abyssinica, Calpurnia aurea, Carissa spinarum, Clausena anisata, Osyris quadripartita, Maytenus arbutifolia, Vernonia auriculifera, and Justicia schimperiana (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity and species number of the forest under Storey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight (m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividuals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2-7.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e929\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;H\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e172\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;15.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed that the majority of species were concentrated in the lower height class, followed by the middle and upper height classes. This pattern is consistent with previous studies, such as those by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] and [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], which reported similar vertical distribution trends in forest ecosystems. The dominance of the lower story suggests that the forest has a relatively high density of smaller and younger trees, which is indicative of active forest regeneration and growth. The vertical structure analysis is vital for understanding the forest\u0026rsquo;s ecological dynamics and regeneration potential. It offers insights into the forest's age structure and the influence of human disturbances, such as selective logging, which may disproportionately impact the upper story while allowing the lower and middle stories to persist [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the observed patterns align with global studies on forest regeneration, which emphasize the importance of maintaining species diversity across all vertical layers to promote ecosystem resilience [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest was assessed by surveying 59 woody plant species, recording a total of 2890 seedlings/ha, 1593 saplings/ha, and 750 mature individuals/ha. The ratio of seedlings to mature individuals was 3.85:1, and the ratio of saplings to mature individuals was 2.1:1, both indicating a greater presence of seedlings and saplings compared to mature individuals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). These results provide important insights into the population dynamics and regeneration capacity of the forest\u0026rsquo;s species, which is essential for long-term conservation planning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, species such as Clausena anisata, Maytenus arbutifolia, Calpurnia aurea, Vernonia auriculifera, and Albizia gummifera were found to have the highest seedling densities, while species like Maytenus arbutifolia, Calpurnia aurea, Clausena anisata, and Vernonia auriculifera were predominant in sapling counts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). These findings suggest that these species are more successful in recruitment and may be better suited to the forest\u0026rsquo;s ecological conditions. However, some species such as Ekebergia capensis, Myrica salicifolia, Pterolobium stellatum, and Vernonia amygdalina showed no seedlings (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), although saplings were present. This could be due to selective browsing by herbivores, which may reduce seedling survival [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterestingly, other species such as Grewia ferruginea, Maytenus obscura, Osyris quadripartita, Rhus glutinosa, and Solanecio gigas had seedlings but lacked saplings (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that these species may have difficulties progressing to the sapling stage, possibly due to environmental factors or disturbances like overgrazing and firewood collection, which inhibit their growth and survival [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, the regeneration status analysis shows that 54% of woody species are not regenerating adequately in the study area, primarily due to anthropogenic disturbances and environmental stress factors (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Species that show poor regeneration, such as Myrica salicifolia and Pterolobium stellatum, contrast with the relatively better regeneration of shrub species (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that certain tree species may face higher biotic pressures that reduce their capacity to regenerate successfully. In contrast, shrubs tend to be more resilient, possibly due to their higher tolerance to disturbances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe population structure and regeneration patterns can be classified into four regeneration categories based on the density of seedlings, saplings, and mature trees: Class 1 (No Seedlings or Saplings): 32 species (54%) fall into this category, indicating a complete lack of regeneration (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Class 2 (Seedlings but No Saplings): 5 species (8.5%) show that seedlings are present but do not progress to the sapling stage, possibly due to environmental constraints. Class 3 (Saplings but No Seedlings): 4 species (6.8%) exhibit a higher number of saplings but lack seedlings, suggesting possible overgrazing or species-specific survival challenges. Class 4 (Seedlings and Saplings\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1 individual/ha): 18 species (30.5%) demonstrate successful regeneration, with both seedlings and saplings present, indicating good recruitment (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Priority for conservation efforts should be focused on Class 1 and Class 2 species, as these species face the highest risk of local extinction due to their lack of regeneration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. Conversely, species in Class 4 show promising regeneration patterns and should be further monitored to ensure their continued survival.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther analysis revealed that the overall regeneration potential of tree species in the Sekelamariam Forest is satisfactory at the community level, with many species demonstrating good regeneration potential. However, 61% of tree and shrub species are classified as poor or non-regenerating (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), underscoring the significant threats posed by overgrazing, firewood collection, and the poor biotic potential of certain tree species, which may hinder seedling survival and growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. As young individuals of any species are more vulnerable to environmental stress and anthropogenic disturbance, it is crucial to safeguard their regeneration potential to prevent further degradation of the forest ecosystem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regeneration patterns in this forest are also influenced by a variety of factors, including the soil seed bank, physical conditions, and human activities. This highlights the need for effective management strategies that consider the interplay of these factors to enhance the forest\u0026rsquo;s regeneration and ensure its sustainability. The primary focus should be on species with no seedlings or saplings to prevent their local extinction and to enhance the overall health of the forest ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest shows that while a large proportion of the species exhibit satisfactory regeneration, significant disturbances are impeding the full regeneration potential of many tree species. It is crucial to implement conservation measures, such as reducing grazing pressure, controlling firewood collection, and promoting seedling-to-sapling survival, to ensure the long-term sustainability of the forest ecosystem. Prioritizing species with poor or non-regenerating populations is vital to prevent further degradation and to maintain forest biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conculussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the regeneration status of the Sekelamariam Forest offers both hope and challenges for its long-term ecological health. The forest's diverse species composition and relatively high density of seedlings and saplings are encouraging signs for future regeneration. However, significant concerns arise when examining the basal area and population structure, with many species, particularly trees, showing inadequate regeneration. This imbalance in age structure\u0026mdash;where seedlings and saplings outnumber mature trees\u0026mdash;suggests that while recruitment is occurring, the survival and growth of young individuals are being hindered by environmental stressors and human-induced disturbances, such as overgrazing and firewood collection. The dominance of a few species in the forest composition, alongside the regeneration struggles of many others, underscores the need for immediate conservation action. A notable 54% of woody species are failing to regenerate adequately, with some at risk of local extinction. To address this, it is crucial to focus conservation efforts on these vulnerable species and improve conditions for the regeneration of those that are struggling to progress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings point to the urgent need for focused conservation efforts to safeguard the forest's biodiversity. Prioritizing species with poor regeneration and addressing the underlying environmental stresses is essential for ensuring the forest\u0026rsquo;s long-term resilience. Effective management strategies, including reducing grazing pressure and controlling firewood collection, will be crucial in fostering a healthier ecosystem. By acting now to protect vulnerable species and enhance regeneration processes, we can ensure that the Sekelamariam Forest remains a thriving and sustainable environment for generations to come.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAuthor contribution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYA, from Debre Markos University in Ethiopia, made significant contributions to the research by conceiving and designing the experiments, conducting hands-on experimentation, analyzing data, providing interpretations, and writing the paper. TB (PhD) from Hawassa University in Ethiopia played a pivotal role in shaping the research through his contributions to the conceptualization and design of the experiments, conducting in-depth data analysis and interpretation, and actively participating in the paper-writing process. TA (PhD) from the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute made invaluable contributions to the development of the research concept, experiment design, data analysis, interpretation, and paper writing. ET (PhD in Forest and Livelihoods) from Injibara University, Ethiopia, contributed to the concept development, experiment design, data analysis, and paper writing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding Declaration:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no specific funding for this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical Trial\u0026nbsp;number:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets produced and analyzed in this study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon a Reasonable request\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeclarations\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;competing interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to Participate declaration:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to Publish declaration:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthics Statement\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors confirm their adherence to the journal\u0026apos;s ethical policy and declare that all research procedures were conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to express our sincere gratitude to Hawassa University and the Ministry of Education for their generous financial support, which made this research possible. Their contribution has been invaluable in facilitating the successful completion of this study, and we deeply appreciate their commitment to advancing scientific research and education in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuang, J., Zhang, D., \u0026amp; Zhang, L. (2003). Role of woody species in forest ecosystems and their ecological importance. Forest Ecology and Management, 174(2), 115-123.Huang, J., Zhang, D., \u0026amp; Zhang, L. (2003). Role of woody species in forest ecosystems and their ecological importance. Forest Ecology and Management, 174(2), 115-123.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKebede, A., Teketay, D., \u0026amp; Tadesse, S. (2021). Forest composition and diversity in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s highland ecosystems. Journal of Ecology, 109(6), 2004-2015.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEnsermu Kelbessa, \u0026amp; Teshome Soromessa. (2008). 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Plant Ecology, 222(2), 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-020-01147-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRainer, H., Thomas, D., \u0026amp; Wang, X. (2020). Vegetation structure and regeneration patterns in disturbed tropical forests. Ecological Applications, 30(5), e02015. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap .\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e)Chaudhary, A., Burivalova, Z., Koh, L. P., \u0026amp; Hellweg, S. (2016). Impact of Forest Management on Species Richness: Global Meta-Analysis and Economic Trade-Offs. Scientific Reports, 6, 1\u0026ndash;10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23954\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMeyer, S., Salgado, D., \u0026amp; Morin, R. (2020). Ecological resilience and species distribution in Mediterranean ecosystems. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 29(4), 570-584. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13082 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGetachew Tesfaye and Demel Teketay. 2005. The influence of logging on natural regeneration of woody species in Harenna montane forest, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eEthiopian Journal of Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(1): 59-73.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-applied-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Applied Sciences](https://link.springer.com/journal/42452)","snPcode":"42452","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42452/3","title":"Discover Applied Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Woody species structure, Regeneration status, Sekelamariam forest, Biodiversity conservation, Population dynamics, Anthropogenic impact","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6461689/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6461689/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding the structure and regeneration status of woody species is essential for the conservation and sustainable management of forest ecosystems. This study assessed the species composition, population structure, and regeneration dynamics of Sekelamariam Forest in Denbecha, located in the sub-tropical highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia. A systematic sampling approach was employed, with 42 plots (20 m \u0026times; 20 m) established for mature woody species, while five subplots (5 m \u0026times; 5 m) within each plot recorded saplings and seedlings. Plots were spaced at 50 m intervals along altitudinal gradients, with transects placed 100 m apart. A total of 59 woody species, representing 39 genera and 38 families, were identified, with Fabaceae being the most dominant family, followed by Euphorbiaceae. The forest exhibited a stem density of 750 stems/ha for mature trees, 1,593 stems/ha for saplings, and 2,890 stems/ha for seedlings, with a total basal area of 7.4 m\u0026sup2;/ha. Signs of anthropogenic disturbances, including grazing and selective cutting, were observed, particularly at lower elevations, leading to the depletion of valuable species. The population structure and regeneration analysis indicated that while some species exhibited strong regeneration potential, others showed poor recruitment, emphasizing the urgent need for conservation interventions. Given its status as one of the last remaining natural forests in the region, protecting Sekelamariam Forest is critical for biodiversity conservation and as a genetic reservoir for afforestation and restoration initiatives in surrounding landscapes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Forest Regeneration and Woody Species Composition in Sekelamariam Forest in the Sub-Tropical Highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-13 15:52:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6461689/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-04T07:44:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-03T11:09:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"283722541383213278029210708473842339745","date":"2025-05-31T03:43:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-28T17:41:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-28T13:56:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"105866347268400569543858766857140320799","date":"2025-05-28T10:08:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-20T14:22:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-13T15:20:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"107746458636962311503855588496140855544","date":"2025-05-13T09:17:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"266373413640131811604003918515823210743","date":"2025-05-12T05:52:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"178146533496653678308103743096711066730","date":"2025-05-11T22:53:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-09T09:56:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-05T11:36:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-05T11:33:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Applied Sciences","date":"2025-04-16T08:57:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-applied-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Applied Sciences](https://link.springer.com/journal/42452)","snPcode":"42452","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/42452/3","title":"Discover Applied Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"423df98f-8d80-4611-897b-8eb89abed4dc","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-11T02:53:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-13 15:52:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6461689","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6461689","identity":"rs-6461689","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}