Hydrological connectivity between riparian groundwater and streamwater system in Kishanganga Basin: insights from solutes and stable water isotopes

Hydrological connectivity between riparian groundwater and streamwater system in Kishanganga Basin: insights from solutes and stable water isotopes | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Hydrological connectivity between riparian groundwater and streamwater system in Kishanganga Basin: insights from solutes and stable water isotopes G N Pintoo, Gh Jeelani, Suhail A. Lone, Abhijit Mukherjee This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7332425/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 03 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Environmental Earth Sciences → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Riparian groundwater plays a critical role in sustaining river baseflow, supporting ecosystems and ensuring water availability in the hydrologically dynamic regions of the Himalaya. However, hydrological studies in many transboundary catchments like Kishanganga Basin (KGB) remain unexplored due to the security and logistic reasons. In the present study, a comprehensive assessment of the hydrochemical characteristics, solute sources, water quality and stable isotopes of riparian groundwater and streamwater was conducted to understand the major geochemical processes controlling solute sources, hydrochemical evolution and hydrological connectivity. The results suggested that the groundwater chemistry is primarily controlled by water-rock interactions with Ca-Mg-HCO₃ type water facies revealing carbonate weathering as a dominant process. Geochemical modeling suggested that groundwater is undersaturated with respect to calcite, dolomite, gypsum and fluorite that facilitates mineral dissolution, while saturation with Fe(III) oxides suggests localized precipitation of ferrous minerals. The regression line of streamwater (δ²H = 6.8 × δ¹⁸O + 18, R² = 0.97) and groundwater (δ²H = 7.2 × δ¹⁸O + 22, R² = 0.97) revealed minor variation in slope, attributed to subtle differences in fractionation processes influenced by local environmental factors that promote evaporation of streamwater. The isotopic similarity between streamwater and riparian groundwater underscores a high degree of hydraulic connectivity. Contaminant assessment highlights arsenic (As) and fluoride (F⁻) as main geogenic pollutants in a few wells and springs, with potential health risks for local populations, particularly infants and children. The Water Quality Index (WQI) and irrigation suitability indices suggest that groundwater is fit for drinking and agricultural use, except at few locations with elevated As and F⁻ concentration. Self-organizing maps (SOM) and Pearson correlation analyses further illustrate the spatial variability of hydrochemical parameters and contamination hotspots. The findings emphasize the need for sustainable groundwater management strategies to mitigate contamination risks and ensure long-term water security in the KGB. Contaminant Geogenic Himalaya Isotope Kishanganga Riparian Solute Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Table 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files Table1.docx Table2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 03 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Environmental Earth Sciences → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 18 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 15 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 12 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 11 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 10 Aug, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 10 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 09 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7332425","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":515199815,"identity":"3cac9b68-d0ab-41bc-99bb-02a947954556","order_by":0,"name":"G N Pintoo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kashmir","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"G","middleName":"N","lastName":"Pintoo","suffix":""},{"id":515199816,"identity":"c7249cfc-b122-4a89-93fa-9bc92d9e74ca","order_by":1,"name":"Gh Jeelani","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACAwYGCwYGZuYDDAxAxAClCGmRAGphSyBeCwNYCwOPAVwLXiDv3nyg4EOFhLw5O883iQ9nGOT4biQwHi7Ao8XwzLEEwxlnJAx3NvNuk5xxg8FY8kYCw+EZ+LTMyDEw5m2TYNxwmHebNM8HhsQNIC08+LTMf2Ng/PefhP2GwzzPQFrqCWqRl+AxMGZskEgEamGT5rnBkGBASIsBT1qCYc8xieQNh9mMLUGemnnmYQN+W9oPHzP4UWNju+H84Yc3Phyzkec7nnz4M15bDjCwGSDxQRHE2IBHA9CWBgbmB3hVjIJRMApGwSgAADzkUUGFM2GtAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kashmir","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gh","middleName":"","lastName":"Jeelani","suffix":""},{"id":515199819,"identity":"dffb1b4a-b2b4-47cc-a483-ac03a7abbc11","order_by":2,"name":"Suhail A. 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10:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":36,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":581356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig.8..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/bb630c57ac7176f834648943.png"},{"id":91842506,"identity":"0e55ea06-436f-4b50-ad9f-c71efa741adc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:57","extension":"png","order_by":37,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":166579,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig.9..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/167e3b25dd98ff3432c4f545.png"},{"id":91842500,"identity":"9d19e972-fa69-42e3-ae60-7593ef81f5d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:57","extension":"xml","order_by":38,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":225580,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"83488f38341d4d018b5c94877819082e1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/67faea28f669944fe92422c0.xml"},{"id":91844163,"identity":"568667c4-7ebd-4fec-b05e-1d26e088544b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:08:56","extension":"html","order_by":39,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":230730,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/9c7ba6cf02689327f8acf18e.html"},{"id":91846155,"identity":"9d2da239-4863-44b6-a66e-2603ed148a14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:16:56","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27170615,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy area map showing the groundwater and streamwater sample locations. Blue lines on the map showing the extensive drainage network of Kishanganga Basin (KGB). Green colored solid stars depict groundwater (tube wells, springs etc.), while the pink colored solid triangles depict the streamwater sampling locations. World Topographic map available with ArcGIS 10.5.1 is used as a base map. The map on the top-left side shows the position of study area with respect to India.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.1..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/0e987045fd055193f4b9b013.png"},{"id":91842464,"identity":"b66f725e-194e-4c4a-aa83-b517e89780cc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9000755,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGibbs diagrams illustrating the hydrogeochemical evolution of surface water (SW, represented by orange triangles) and groundwater (GW, represented by green squares). The left panel plots Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) against the ratio of Na⁺/(Na⁺ + Ca²⁺), while the right panel shows TDS versus Cl⁻/(Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻).. Most of the data points for both surface water and groundwater are clustered within the rock dominance field, indicating that water–rock interactions such as the weathering of silicate and carbonate minerals are the primary processes influencing water composition in the study area.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/911281996e6db4549f95c3a4.png"},{"id":91846153,"identity":"36747b21-32f8-4be3-9bb2-9ea0d2b3f30e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:16:56","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9709849,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eScatter plots illustrating the dominant geochemical weathering processes influencing surface water (SW, orange triangles) and groundwater (GW, green squares). Panel (a) plots Mg²⁺/Na⁺ versus Ca²⁺/Na⁺ (b) plots HCO₃⁻/Na⁺ against Ca²⁺/Na⁺. These molar ratios help to distinguish between different geochemical processes. The majority of data points in both panels are concentrated in the carbonate dissolution field, suggesting that the dissolution of carbonate minerals (e.g., calcite and dolomite) is the dominant process contributing to the ionic composition of the waters in the study area. Only a few data points fall outside this field, with minimal representation in the silicate weathering and evaporite dissolution zones.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.3..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/9fef4dbb8f523d409a6b4c2a.png"},{"id":91846154,"identity":"616abb2c-50d3-4044-aad4-2d94cfab1335","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:16:56","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15091043,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSeries of bivariate plots (a–e) used to interpret the hydrogeochemical processes governing the chemistry of surface water (SW, orange triangles) and groundwater (GW, green squares). Panels (a), (b) and (c) explore relationships between alkaline earth metals (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) and bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and sulfate (SO₄²⁻), suggesting the role of carbonate and sulfate mineral dissolution. Panel (a) shows a positive correlation between Ca²⁺ and HCO₃⁻, indicating calcite dissolution. Panel (b) further reinforces carbonate weathering with a strong linear relationship between (Ca²⁺ + Mg²⁺) and HCO₃⁻. Panel (c), which plots (Ca²⁺ + Mg²⁺) versus (HCO₃⁻ + SO₄²⁻), suggests both carbonate and gypsum dissolution contribute to groundwater and surface water chemistry. Panel (d) plots Na⁺ versus Cl⁻ and exhibits some dispersion, indicating sources beyond halite dissolution, such as silicate weathering or ion exchange. Finally, panel (e) compares (Ca²⁺ + Mg²⁺) to (Na⁺ + K⁺), with most points plotting above the 1:1 line, suggesting dominance of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ likely due to carbonate dissolution, and supporting the inference of limited silicate weathering or cation exchange.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.4..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/412aab75d5f2d779f640986d.png"},{"id":91842511,"identity":"24fa92e3-481b-4697-b619-f1df97064901","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:57","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19384232,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePiper trilinear diagram used to classify the hydrochemical facies of surface water (orange triangles) and groundwater (green squares). Most of the samples cluster in the Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-HCO₃⁻ facies (Field 1), indicating dominance of carbonate weathering and representing freshwater of temporary hardness. A few samples extend into the SO₄²⁻-Cl⁻-Na⁺ facies (Field 2), suggestive of anthropogenic input or evaporite dissolution. The dominance of bicarbonate in the anion field and calcium-magnesium in the cation field confirms the prevalence of the Ca-Mg-HCO₃ type in both groundwater and surface water.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.5..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/60f4836e2ff3e6cacffc4880.png"},{"id":91842466,"identity":"e1398015-393a-4ddd-8e6d-54dfed67a1ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5190364,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSelf-Organizing Maps (SOMs) generated for groundwater (GW-SOM, top panel) and surface water (SW-SOM, bottom panel) to explore spatial patterns and interrelationships among physicochemical parameters. In the GW-SOM, higher intensities of parameters such as Na⁺, K⁺, As, and TDS are observed in specific clusters, suggesting possible geogenic or anthropogenic influences. Patterns in HCO₃⁻, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺ distributions point toward carbonate weathering dominance. In contrast, the SW-SOM indicates elevated levels of As, Ca²⁺ and K⁺ in different zones, with pH and NO₃⁻ showing distinct distribution patterns likely influenced by surface runoff and land use.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.6..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/093102fb7a621c6936969523.png"},{"id":91842489,"identity":"0de02f0d-0e0b-4c9a-9329-fb42a07de99a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30011762,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEh-pH diagrams depicting the aqueous speciation of (a) arsenic and (b) fluoride in surface water (SW) and groundwater (GW) samples. The arsenic Eh-pH diagram (a) illustrates the dominant species under varying redox and pH conditions, indicating the stability fields for H₃AsO₄, H₂AsO₄⁻, HAsO₄²⁻, HAsO₃²⁻, AsO₄³⁻, As(OH)₃ and AsO₂OH. Most data points cluster in the HAsO₄²⁻ and AsO₄³⁻ fields, suggesting oxidative conditions conducive to arsenate species stability. The fluoride Eh-pH diagram (b) shows the stability domains for F⁻, HF, and associated mineral phases such as fluorite (CaF₂), HFO (hydrous ferric oxides) and carbonate minerals. Most water samples fall within the F⁻ stability field, under near-neutral to slightly alkaline pH and moderately reducing to oxidizing conditions.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.7..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/32600bad8fb543f8bf355eb2.png"},{"id":91842510,"identity":"aec5ca6a-a223-417d-aa11-c961e7efee3f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:57","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23400826,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaturation index (SI) plots illustrating the geochemical relationship between phosphate (Ca₅(PO₄)₃OH) and various calcium minerals in surface water (SW) and groundwater (GW) samples: (a) gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), (b) calcite (CaCO₃), (c) aragonite (CaCO₃) and (d) dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂). The majority of the samples are undersaturated with respect to gypsum, indicating limited gypsum dissolution or precipitation processes. In contrast, many samples approach equilibrium or are oversaturated with respect to calcite and aragonite, suggesting a propensity for carbonate precipitation in the aquatic environment. The dolomite saturation varies, with most groundwater samples showing a trend toward equilibrium, reflecting water-rock interaction and potential dolomitization.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.8..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/45ac0345f04b8e8cdf71655c.png"},{"id":91842467,"identity":"90dc1537-c78f-4f42-84aa-839175c2b416","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1601175,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBox plots representing the non-carcinogenic health risk (Hazard Quotient, HQ) via oral ingestion pathway for arsenic (yellow) and fluoride (gray) among different age groups: infants, children, and adults. The HQ values are notably higher for arsenic compared to fluoride across all groups, with children exhibiting the highest variability and median HQ values for arsenic. The interquartile range (IQR) and whiskers (min to max) illustrate greater exposure risk for arsenic, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children and infants. The median HQ values for fluoride remain below those for arsenic in all age groups, suggesting comparatively lower health risks.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.9..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/e8212f64eddbde587f84f847.png"},{"id":91842478,"identity":"63457557-af74-4832-9d64-bc16fac52ba5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2942395,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDual isotope plot (δ²H vs. δ¹⁸O) for streamwater (black crosses) and groundwater (blue diamonds) showing the local meteoric water line (LMWL) in comparison with the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL; solid black line). The regression equations for streamwater (δ²H = 6.89 × δ¹⁸O + 18; R² = 0.97) and groundwater (δ²H = 7.2 × δ¹⁸O + 22; R² = 0.97) exhibit strong linear relationships, indicating meteoric origin of the waters with slight evaporation effects in streamwater. The shift in intercept for groundwater suggests possible recharge under different climatic conditions or altitudes.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.10..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/377270cbec96cdffece68e03.png"},{"id":91842472,"identity":"77c40528-8277-4125-98af-ebf7c1c2b887","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:56","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2115310,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConceptual model illustrating the hydrogeological and hydrochemical processes in the riparian groundwater system of the Kishanganga Basin (KGB). The diagram highlights the interaction between streamwater and riparian groundwater, emphasizing water-rock interactions dominated by carbonate weathering, leading to Ca-Mg-HCO₃ type facies. Isotopic similarity between streamwater and groundwater underscores strong hydraulic connectivity. The model also highlights geogenic contaminants, notably arsenic and fluoride, posing potential health risks in certain locations. Water quality assessment indicates groundwater is generally suitable for drinking and agriculture, except in areas with elevated contaminants.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.11..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/96c2b16d74e46da84d53892a.png"},{"id":91842512,"identity":"f6712208-0b8e-42f5-a721-d36616a648db","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:01:00","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":15208,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/e99f043b3e4363242321551b.docx"},{"id":91842461,"identity":"39981bd2-151b-4509-89b3-31b0a6742e2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 10:00:55","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18567,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7332425/v1/2a22e3daebd64e0bc1e352ea.docx"}],"financialInterests":"\u003cp\u003eNo competing interests reported.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e","formattedTitle":"Hydrological connectivity between riparian groundwater and streamwater system in Kishanganga Basin: insights from solutes and stable water isotopes","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":false,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-earth-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enge","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Earth Sciences](https://www.springer.com/journal/12665)","snPcode":"12665","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12665/3","title":"Environmental Earth Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Contaminant, Geogenic, Himalaya, Isotope, Kishanganga, Riparian, Solute","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7332425/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7332425/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eRiparian groundwater plays a critical role in sustaining river baseflow, supporting ecosystems and ensuring water availability in the hydrologically dynamic regions of the Himalaya. However, hydrological studies in many transboundary catchments like Kishanganga Basin (KGB) remain unexplored due to the security and logistic reasons. In the present study, a comprehensive assessment of the hydrochemical characteristics, solute sources, water quality and stable isotopes of riparian groundwater and streamwater was conducted to understand the major geochemical processes controlling solute sources, hydrochemical evolution and hydrological connectivity. The results suggested that the groundwater chemistry is primarily controlled by water-rock interactions with Ca-Mg-HCO₃ type water facies revealing carbonate weathering as a dominant process. Geochemical modeling suggested that groundwater is undersaturated with respect to calcite, dolomite, gypsum and fluorite that facilitates mineral dissolution, while saturation with Fe(III) oxides suggests localized precipitation of ferrous minerals. The regression line of streamwater (δ\u0026sup2;H\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;δ\u0026sup1;⁸O\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;18, R\u0026sup2; = 0.97) and groundwater (δ\u0026sup2;H\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026times;\u0026thinsp;δ\u0026sup1;⁸O\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;22, R\u0026sup2; = 0.97) revealed minor variation in slope, attributed to subtle differences in fractionation processes influenced by local environmental factors that promote evaporation of streamwater. The isotopic similarity between streamwater and riparian groundwater underscores a high degree of hydraulic connectivity. Contaminant assessment highlights arsenic (As) and fluoride (F⁻) as main geogenic pollutants in a few wells and springs, with potential health risks for local populations, particularly infants and children. The Water Quality Index (WQI) and irrigation suitability indices suggest that groundwater is fit for drinking and agricultural use, except at few locations with elevated As and F⁻ concentration. Self-organizing maps (SOM) and Pearson correlation analyses further illustrate the spatial variability of hydrochemical parameters and contamination hotspots. The findings emphasize the need for sustainable groundwater management strategies to mitigate contamination risks and ensure long-term water security in the KGB.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Hydrological connectivity between riparian groundwater and streamwater system in Kishanganga Basin: insights from solutes and stable water isotopes","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-22 10:00:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7332425/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-18T10:40:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-15T11:40:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-12T14:19:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"203018778494874055894512020851914572370","date":"2025-09-15T09:29:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"216461669034196078753047049218902057269","date":"2025-09-14T05:53:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-11T18:26:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-11T02:34:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-11T02:33:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Earth Sciences","date":"2025-08-09T08:13:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-earth-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enge","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Earth Sciences](https://www.springer.com/journal/12665)","snPcode":"12665","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12665/3","title":"Environmental Earth Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"83405483-54fd-419a-b01b-0b65191f4318","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:17:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7332425","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-026-12909-1","journal":{"identity":"environmental-earth-sciences","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Earth Sciences"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-03 15:59:54","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 3rd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-22 10:00:50","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12665-026-12909-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-026-12909-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7332425","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7332425","identity":"rs-7332425","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}