Consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient

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Mseleku, M. Chimonyo, M. S.C. Ngidi, R. Slotow This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688113/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The contribution of village chickens to food and nutrition security and achieving sustainable food systems in both rural and urban environments has not received sufficient attention. The objective of the study was to investigate the consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient using a structured questionnaire with 300 respondents. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in urban ( n = 100), peri-urban ( n = 100), and rural ( n = 100) areas of Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. A positive linear relationship between distance from the city centre and preference for village chicken products based on tastiness (P < 0.05) was observed. The preference for village chicken products based on the absence of growth promoters increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.001). Non-preference of village chicken products based on non-desired smell increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.05). A positive linear relationship between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken meat and eggs (P < 0.001) was observed. Consumption of village chicken intestines increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.01). Consumption of village chicken gizzards increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.01). A quadratic relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken hearts (P < 0.01). Appropriate policies that promote the optimal consumption of village chicken products are required, particularly in urban areas. Eggs growth promoters meat resource-challenged communities sustainable food system 1. Introduction Food insecurity, poverty, and lack of sustainable livelihoods are increasing in the tropics [ 1 ]. Village chickens are abundant in many rural areas in Africa [ 2 , 3 ]. Production of village chicken has been linked with the livelihoods of resource-poor households through the enhancement of income, diet quality, and food and nutrition security [ 4 ]. In addition, village chicken production creates opportunities for employment and offers socio-cultural advantages in resource-limited societies [ 5 ]. Village chickens are environmentally friendly and a cheap source of protein, using waste scavenging feed resources [ 6 ]. Village chickens scavenge on household kitchen waste material and grass to produce high-quality meat and eggs for human consumption [ 7 ]. Production of village chicken meat, eggs, and offal is fundamental in combating animal protein deficiency in the nutrition of resource-challenged communities [ 8 ]. Village chicken ownership is positively associated with the consumption of chicken products and the nutritional outcomes of vulnerable groups [ 9 ]. Chicken products are popular due to their nutritional value, ease of cooking and digestion, and socio-economic-related factors [ 10 ]. In the developing world, many smallholder farmers rely on village chicken products to meet their dietary protein requirements [ 11 , 12 ]. The consumption of village chicken products has been steadily increasing [ 8 ]. Consuming small amounts of these products could make a substantial contribution to the nutrient adequacy of vulnerable groups through the provision of bioavailable micronutrients and high-quality protein [ 13 ]. Food insecurity in urban and peri-urban environments is on the rise, and keeping village chickens is no longer a preserve on rural villages. Village chicken production is increasingly becoming popular. Village chickens are a readily accessible source of meat and eggs. Understanding household consumption patterns in both rural and urban environments is important for the development of sustainable village chicken production [ 14 ]. There is, however, little, if any, literature on consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient. Determining the consumption patterns of these products is crucial in mitigating food and nutrition insecurity for vulnerable groups. Hence, it helps in tracking how these products are shared during family feasting and reveals the underprioritized groups. Understanding the consumption patterns of village chicken products further helps in achieving sustainable consumption and identifying areas of improvement across rural, peri-urban and urban environments since the availability and utilisation of village chickens vary in these settings. The relationship between distance from the city centre and consumption patterns of village chicken products was hypothesized to be linear. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Ethical consideration All study participants provided informed consent to participate in the study. The gatekeeper’s letter was obtained from the Msunduzi municipality to conduct the study. The study participants’ rights, religions, culture, and dignity were not violated. The study participants were assured that their confidential information would not be disclosed, and they had a right to stop the interview whenever they felt uncomfortable. The experimental procedures were performed according to the ethical guidelines specified by the Certification of Authorization to Experiment on Living Humans provided by the Social Sciences – Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee, Protocol Reference No: HSSREC/00005927/2023. 2.2 Study site and design The study was conducted in uMgungundlovu district (29.6006° S, 30.3794° E) in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. Twelve sites were selected to create an urban-rural gradient [ 15 ]. These sites were selected based on their distance relative to the city centre. A transect approach was used [ 15 ], with two 70 km transects running south-west and north-east from Pietermaritzburg central business district (CBD). The sites representing the rural environment were Nkumba, Swayimana, KwaHlwemini and Impendle, while Taylors Halt, Maqongqo, Ezibananeni and Gezubuso were regarded as peri-urban settlements. Imbali, Edendale, Sobantu and Eastwood represented urban settings (Table 1 ). The rural and peri-urban areas have high unemployment rate, and farming is the primary economic activity for many households [ 16 ]. A peri-urban area is a mixed rural and urban landscape around cities, and it is characterized by urban-rural transformations [ 17 ]. The urban area has a high number of informal settlements. The area is situated near the city centre, with agricultural practices uncommon. Community members commonly have small subsistence vegetable gardens. Village chickens were available in all these sites. Pietermaritzburg experiences hot-wet months from December to February. It is characterised by summer rainfall and its climate is warm and temperate with an average annual rainfall of 865 mm. The average maximum temperatures range between 22.6 and 24.5 ºC and the minimum temperatures range between 9.9 and 16 ºC [ 18 ]. Table 1 Geographical location of surveyed sites Site Distance from the city centre (km) Geographic coordinates Latitude Longitude City centre 30.378738 -29.60153 Urban areas Imbali 6.8 30.3476 -29.6424 Edendale 8.7 30.2945 -29.651 Sobantu 5.9 30.4228 -29.5964 Eastwood 6.1 30.4329 -29.5847 Peri-urban areas Gezubuso 23.8 30.22359 -29.68036 Taylors Halt 29.5 30.1764169 -29.709073 Maqongqo 23.1 30.56668 -29.57203 Ezibananeni 21.4 30.522897 -29.57527 Rural areas Impendle 61.5 29.93397 -29.733139 Nkumba 70.0 29.86277 -29.73461 Swayimana 51.2 30.66987 -29.50158 KwaHlwemini 48.3 30.7114 -29.48092 2.3 Selection of households and data collection Three hundred households were used in the study. Scheduled meetings with local authorities, such as chiefs and local headmen, were arranged to gain access to sites. Data were collected from both males and females with an age group of ≥ 18 years. In each area, 25 participants were selected for interviews based on their personal experience on the production of village chicken products and their consumption. The sampling technique involved approaching participants with extensive knowledge of the consumption patterns of village chicken products. Participants were identified by local authorities. The participants were visited at their homesteads. Face-to-face personal interviews were used to collect data on production practices and consumption patterns of village chicken products. The interviews were administered in the local IsiZulu vernacular, and trained enumerators and the researcher conducted them. Data collection included aspects on: (1) type of village chicken products consumed; (2) part of meat or offal consumed; (3) reasons for consuming these products; and (4) reasons not to prefer these products. The participants were asked questions and given the option to rank, where applicable. 2.4 Statistical analyses All the data were analysed using SAS (2012). The PROC general linear model (GLM) procedure was used to analyse reasons for preferring and not preferring village chicken products. The PROC FREQ procedure for chi-square was used to compute the associations between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken meat and offal type. Response surface regression (RSREG) procedure was used to determine the relationship between distances from the city centre and consumption patterns of village chicken products. The model used was: Y = β 0 + β 1 D + β 2 D 2 + E Where: Y is the response variables (consumption patterns) β 0 , β 1 , β 2 are regression coefficients D is the distance from city centre E is the residual error 3. Results 3.1 Preference for village chicken products Tastiness, followed by leanness and freshness, were the main reasons for preferring village chicken products across the urban-rural gradient (Table 2 ). There was a linear relationship between distance from the city centre and the tastiness of village chicken products. The preference for village chicken products based on tastiness increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.05). There was a linear relationship between distance from the city centre and absence of growth promoters in village chicken products. The preference for village chicken products based on the absence of growth promoters increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.001). Low tenderness and hygiene were the main reasons for the non-preference of village chicken products (Table 3 ). Strong odour from village chicken products and being unfamiliar with these products were the least reasons for non-preference. A linear relationship between distance from the city centre and not preferring village chicken based on the non-desired smell was observed. Non-preference of village chicken products based on non-desired smell increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.05). A linear relationship between distance from the city centre and non-preference of village chicken products based on low hygiene was observed. Non-preference of village chicken products based on low hygiene decreased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.05). A linear relationship between distance from the city centre and non-preference of village chicken products based on unfamiliarity was observed. Non-preference of village chicken products based on unfamiliarity decreased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.001). Table 2 Least square means and standard errors for preference of village chicken products Reason Site Regression coefficients Urban Peri-urban Rural Linear Leanness 2.17 ± 0.12 2.09 ± 0.12 1.89 ± 0.11 0.79 NS Tastiness 1.38 ± 0.07 1.69 ± 0.07 1.62 ± 0.06 0.25 * Colour 4.41 ± 0.14 4.48 ± 0.16 4.24 ± 0.14 -0.01 NS Freshness 2.07 ± 0.12 2.07 ± 0.11 2.18 ± 0.12 0.56 NS No growth promoters 3.17 ± 0.19 4.00 ± 0.21 4.23 ± 0.10 1.40 *** NS : not significant; * : P < 0.05; *** : P < 0.001. The lower the mean rank value, the more important. Table 3 Least square means and standard errors for reasons not to prefer village chicken products Reason Site Regression coefficients Urban Peri-urban Rural Linear Low tenderness 1.38 ± 0.13 1.46 ± 0.13 1.20 ± 0.10 -0.61 NS Non-desired smell 2.50 ± 0.19 3.00 ± 0.18 2.92 ± 0.16 1.10 * Low hygiene 2.24 ± 0.14 2.19 ± 0.15 2.61 ± 0.15 0.93 * Unfamiliar 2.33 ± 0.17 2.45 ± 0.17 3.38 ± 0.17 0.24 *** NS : not significant; * : P < 0.05; *** : P < 0.001. The lower the mean rank value, the more important. 3.2 Consumption patterns of village chicken products Table 4 shows the association between area and consumption of village chicken products within a household. There was an association between area, age and gender with consumption of village chicken thighs, feet, back, gizzard, and heart (P < 0.05). Over 38% of males consumed thigh meat portions across the urban-rural gradient. More than 37% of children consumed village chicken feet, back, and hearts across the urban-rural gradient. Meat was the main village chicken product consumed along the urban-rural gradient (Table 5 ). Eggs were the least consumed village chicken product type. A linear relationship was observed between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken meat and eggs. No quadratic relationships were detected. Consumption of village chicken meat and eggs increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.001). Village chicken meat and eggs were mostly consumed by households situated in rural areas. Village chicken offal were mostly consumed by households situated in peri-urban areas. Table 4 Household consumption of village chicken meat and offal types along the urban-rural gradient (%) Characteristic Urban Peri-urban Rural χ 2 Sig Male Female Children Male Female Children Male Female Children Breasts 54.0 41.3 4.8 48.5 40.7 10.8 43.6 40.8 15.6 4.29 NS Thighs 60.3 31.5 8.2 52.8 30.6 16.7 38.9 33.7 27.4 12.99 * Drumsticks 33.3 33.3 33.3 42.6 23.0 34.4 42.2 39.1 18.8 4.56 NS Wings 23.4 17.0 59.6 26.3 21.1 52.6 11.9 21.4 66.7 3.27 NS Neck 25.4 18.6 55.9 20.5 13.6 65.9 14.8 29.6 55.6 5.32 NS Feet 27.9 20.9 51.2 16.7 31.5 51.9 4.2 47.9 47.9 13.20 * Back 16.7 27.1 56.3 12.5 3.1 84.4 15.0 27.5 57.5 9.57 * Intestines 26.2 31.0 42.9 27.3 40.9 31.8 21.4 37.5 41.1 6.09 NS Liver 38.0 40.0 22.0 37.5 27.1 35.4 27.5 41.2 31.4 4.27 NS Gizzard 42.2 35.6 22.2 36.8 36.8 26.3 16.0 38.0 46.0 12.60 * Heart 28.3 34.8 37.0 17.9 7.1 75.0 22.5 25.0 52.5 11.12 * * P 0.05. χ 2 – Chi-square value. Table 5 Consumption of village chicken products Product type Site Regression coefficients Urban Peri-urban Rural Linear Meat 1.08 ± 0.03 1.19 ± 0.03 1.28 ± 0.03 0.07 *** Eggs 1.15 ± 0.04 1.25 ± 0.04 1.36 ± 0.04 0.13 *** Offal 1.23 ± 0.13 1.21 ± 0.13 1.27 ± 0.13 0.32 NS *** : P < 0.001; NS : Not significant. The higher the mean value, the more important. 3.3 Consumption of village chicken meat and offal types The thigh, followed by breast and drumstick were the most preferred village chicken meat portions along the urban-rural gradient (Table 6 ). The back, followed by wings and neck were the least preferred village chicken meat portions. A linear relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken intestines. Consumption of village chicken intestines increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.01). The liver and gizzards were the most consumed village chicken offal types. The hearts and intestines were the least consumed village chicken offal types. A linear relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken gizzards. Consumption of village chicken gizzards increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P < 0.01). A quadratic relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken hearts (P < 0.01). Table 6 Consumption of village chicken meat and offal types Meat and offal type Site Regression coefficients Urban Peri-urban Rural Linear Quadratic Breast 1.75 ± 0.08 1.70 ± 0.08 1.63 ± 0.08 0.74 NS -0.15 NS Thigh 1.94 ± 0.09 1.64 ± 0.09 1.48 ± 0.09 0.76 NS -0.20 NS Drumstick 2.20 ± 0.10 2.19 ± 0.10 2.00 ± 0.09 0.33 NS -0.06 NS Wings 2.55 ± 0.12 2.26 ± 0.13 2.36 ± 0.12 1.84 NS -0.47 NS Neck 2.41 ± 0.11 2.45 ± 0.12 2.31 ± 0.11 0.80 NS -0.23 NS Feet 2.44 ± 0.11 2.35 ± 0.10 2.23 ± 0.11 0.64 NS -0.14 NS Back 2.43 ± 0.12 2.72 ± 0.13 2.40 ± 0.11 1.80 NS -0.42 NS Intestines 2.40 ± 0.11 2.05 ± 0.12 1.83 ± 0.12 1.90 ** -0.38 NS Liver 2.04 ± 0.11 1.98 ± 0.12 1.84 ± 0.11 1.43 NS -0.33 NS Gizzards 2.30 ± 0.11 2.11 ± 0.12 1.76 ± 0.11 1.59 ** -0.32 NS Hearts 2.30 ± 0.13 2.57 ± 0.15 2.06 ± 0.18 3.05 NS -0.74 ** *** : P < 0.001; NS : Not significant. The lower the mean value, the more important. 4. Discussion The study reveals the importance of investigating the consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient. The urban-rural gradient approach allows for capturing unique consumption pattern features of village chicken products. It was expected that the consumption patterns of village chicken products would be linear along the urban-rural gradient. Village chickens are prominent in rural and peri-urban areas, which makes them easily accessible for consumption. Consumption patterns of village chicken products are influenced by several factors. Household wealth status, income, cultural activities, and religious festivals significantly influence the consumption patterns of village chicken products [ 19 ]. The finding that most males across the urban-rural gradient consumed preferred village chicken meat portions agrees with Dumas et al. [ 20 ], who revealed that women have limited access to meat consumption. Markos et al. [ 19 ] reported a lower consumption of village chicken meat in female-headed than male-headed households. Men are served either large or preferred meat portions [ 20 ]. The finding that most males across the urban-rural gradient consumed breast and drumstick meat portions, and gizzards is in accordance with Dumas et al. [ 20 ], who reported that men are served the meatiest portions such as breast, drumstick, and gizzards. Meaty viscera are perceived to be important in improving old men’s libido and strength [ 21 ]. The finding that tastiness was the main reason across the urban-rural gradient to consume village chicken products is in accordance with Bett et al . [ 12 ]. Similar finding was revealed by Elkhoraibi et al. [ 22 ], who reported that village chicken products tasted better compared to products purchased from the supermarkets. Dyubele et al. [ 11 ] reported that consumers scored higher for sensory attributes (except for tastiness) of broiler than village chicken meat. The finding that preference of village chicken products based on the absence of growth promoters increased with an increase in distance from the city centre could be attributed to health and nutrition awareness of consumers. Consumer preference is strongly impacted by educational level and health consciousness [ 23 ]. Elkhoraibi et al. [ 22 ] reported that village chicken owners perceived these products as nutritious and safer to consume compared to those from commercial farms. Irregular or no use of growth promoters maintains the quality of village chicken products [ 24 ]. The finding that leanness is one of the main reasons to prefer village chicken products across the urban-rural gradient is similar to Bett et al. [ 12 ], who reported that households prefer village chicken over broiler meat due to its leanness. The observation that the age of household members influenced the consumption of village chicken products is similar to that of Billah et al. [ 25 ]. The observation suggests that adults are prioritized when it comes to meals. The per capita consumption of village chicken products by adults is high [ 25 ]. In contrast, Ayalew et al. [ 26 ] revealed that consumption of village chicken products is done without any prioritization of any family group. Hence, some households prioritized children when it comes to the consumption of these products. This is, however, attributed to family income, size, and education [ 26 ]. The finding that consumption of village chicken eggs increased with an increase in distance from the city centre suggests that the production patterns of eggs in rural areas are higher compared to peri-urban and urban areas. This further suggests that there is a high number of eggs produced in rural areas, therefore, this prompts an increased consumption to avoid the spoilage of eggs, since not all eggs normally get hatched when they are incubated naturally. The finding that consumption of village chicken eggs was higher in households situated peri-urban areas than those situated in urban areas concurs with Chagomoka et al. [ 27 ], who revealed that egg consumption patterns were higher in households situated in sub-urban than urban areas. The finding that consumption of village chicken products increased with an increase in distance from the city centre could be attributed to household income status. Village chicken keepers who resided in rural areas tended to have lower household income compared to those from peri-urban and urban areas [ 22 ]. The finding further suggests that village chickens are readily available and accessible for consumption in rural areas compared to peri-urban and urban areas. A positive linear relationship between village chicken meat and egg consumption with distance from the city centre could be attributed to flock sizes. Singh et al. [ 28 ] revealed that village chicken flock sizes are positively associated with egg consumption. Rural and peri-urban areas possess larger village chicken flock sizes compared to urban areas [ 29 ]. The observed positive linear relationship between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken intestines and gizzards could be attributed to family and flock sizes. Kumari et al . [ 30 ] reported a negative correlation between consumption of chicken products and household size. Members within large family sizes are likely to get insufficient or smaller meat portions, therefore, they compensate with offal consumption. The observation that eggs are the least consumed village chicken product concurs with Mtileni et al. [ 31 ], who revealed that eggs are rarely consumed and left for hatching to increase flock size. Hence, this would lead to minimal or reduced egg consumption. 5. Conclusions The study revealed factors influencing households’ consumption of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient. Distance from the city centre, gender and age of household members highly influenced the consumption of village chicken products. Understanding the factors that influence the consumption patterns of village chicken products is crucial in developing policies that support optimal intake of these products. Employment and income opportunities are needed in the agricultural sector and off-farm activities for income generation to improve the consumption of village chicken products. To effectively monitor the consumption patterns of village chicken products, an assessment of dietary diversity needs to be explored. Abbreviations CBD Central Business District GLM General linear model HSSREC Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee KM Kilometre NS Not significant RSREG Response surface regression Declarations Data availability The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Consent to publish declaration: not applicable Ethics declarations The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines governing research involving human participants, as outlined by the Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee. An informed consent form was obtained from all study participants, as well as from the Msunduzi local municipality. Compliance with ethical standards was ethically proved (Reference No: HSSREC/00005927/2023) (Reference Number: AREC/043/017) by the University of KwaZulu-Natal Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee. Clinical trial number: not applicable Funding The research was funded by the Sustainable and Healthy Food Systems – Southern Africa (SHEFS-SA) Project, supported through the Wellcome Trust’s Climate and Health Programme [Grant No 205200/Z/16/Z & 227749/Z/23/Z]. Author contribution The first author designed the work and drafted the paper. The co-authors supervised the writing phase and revised the paper. Competing Interests The authors declare that there are no competing interests. References Garibaldi LA, Gemmill-Herren B, D’Annolfo R, Graeub BE, Cunningham SA, Breeze TD. Farming Approaches for Greater Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Food Security. Trends Ecol Evol. 2017;32:68–80. Gunya B, Muchenje V, Gxasheka M, Tyasi T, Masika P. Management Practices and Contribution of Village Chickens to Livelihoods of Communal Farmers: The Case of Centane and Mount Frere in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Biodiversitas 2020, 21 . Benson S, George A, Shivachi IL. 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Foods 2023, 12 . Kumari KN, Mallika EN, Reddy PA. Consumption Pattern of Chicken Meat and Meat Products in Rural Areas of Coastal Andhra Pradesh Districts. Indian J Poult Sci. 2011;46:132–4. Mtileni BJ, Muchadeyi FC, Maiwashe A, Chimonyo M, Mapiye C, Dzama K. Influence of Socioeconomic Factors on Production Constraints Faced by Indigenous Chicken Producers in South Africa. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;45. 10.1007/s11250-012-0175-4 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 04 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 02 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 25 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 11 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 05 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 30 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 27 Oct, 2025 Editor invited by journal 25 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 24 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7688113","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":542242299,"identity":"27ce4da6-3938-4fe3-9ff9-c66454b5d412","order_by":0,"name":"C. Mseleku","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of KwaZulu-Natal","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"C.","middleName":"","lastName":"Mseleku","suffix":""},{"id":542242300,"identity":"c16affd6-09b9-40cb-bf7c-33088125e604","order_by":1,"name":"M. Chimonyo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Venda","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M.","middleName":"","lastName":"Chimonyo","suffix":""},{"id":542242301,"identity":"8efb5edd-f2f1-4883-bf0f-bdc6c403d1f2","order_by":2,"name":"M. S.C. Ngidi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of KwaZulu-Natal","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M.","middleName":"S.C.","lastName":"Ngidi","suffix":""},{"id":542242302,"identity":"79c8e336-51f9-4c3d-b61f-8b7746d21a23","order_by":3,"name":"R. Slotow","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of KwaZulu-Natal","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"R.","middleName":"","lastName":"Slotow","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-23 02:23:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688113/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688113/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":95707076,"identity":"0f505023-be81-4735-8d97-deb10e6b6760","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-12 07:04:07","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":185112,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Mselekuetal.2025.21.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688113/v1/934e67a2953e9efa72136e34.docx"},{"id":95707074,"identity":"13d74e80-d08c-405f-a461-77acecbc7c9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-12 07:04:07","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":5769,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"daa12bc5b40842b6933d469336a269b0.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688113/v1/836a2fb4bf8f3aa73eb204c5.json"},{"id":95707075,"identity":"a8755fa3-3930-41fc-bfd0-c720fdb55c29","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-12 07:04:07","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":115174,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"daa12bc5b40842b6933d469336a269b01enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688113/v1/96e31713dfb6333fca17e9ac.xml"},{"id":95800390,"identity":"e65b1070-408d-4c9a-8a88-537208b7cab8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 08:22:35","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":114377,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"daa12bc5b40842b6933d469336a269b01structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688113/v1/def448dd617cf49891d6e3b1.xml"},{"id":95707077,"identity":"77149689-ca88-4142-8f39-7befbd3232ea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-12 07:04:07","extension":"html","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":119817,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688113/v1/776a6b5987c13260ac2433b4.html"},{"id":95804681,"identity":"35fc7836-841b-476c-a8e9-089beefb06c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 08:39:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":954755,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7688113/v1/d25fbafc-915f-4f0b-afc0-f83f2bc24dc9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFood insecurity, poverty, and lack of sustainable livelihoods are increasing in the tropics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Village chickens are abundant in many rural areas in Africa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Production of village chicken has been linked with the livelihoods of resource-poor households through the enhancement of income, diet quality, and food and nutrition security [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, village chicken production creates opportunities for employment and offers socio-cultural advantages in resource-limited societies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Village chickens are environmentally friendly and a cheap source of protein, using waste scavenging feed resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Village chickens scavenge on household kitchen waste material and grass to produce high-quality meat and eggs for human consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduction of village chicken meat, eggs, and offal is fundamental in combating animal protein deficiency in the nutrition of resource-challenged communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Village chicken ownership is positively associated with the consumption of chicken products and the nutritional outcomes of vulnerable groups [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Chicken products are popular due to their nutritional value, ease of cooking and digestion, and socio-economic-related factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. In the developing world, many smallholder farmers rely on village chicken products to meet their dietary protein requirements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. The consumption of village chicken products has been steadily increasing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Consuming small amounts of these products could make a substantial contribution to the nutrient adequacy of vulnerable groups through the provision of bioavailable micronutrients and high-quality protein [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFood insecurity in urban and peri-urban environments is on the rise, and keeping village chickens is no longer a preserve on rural villages. Village chicken production is increasingly becoming popular. Village chickens are a readily accessible source of meat and eggs. Understanding household consumption patterns in both rural and urban environments is important for the development of sustainable village chicken production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. There is, however, little, if any, literature on consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient. Determining the consumption patterns of these products is crucial in mitigating food and nutrition insecurity for vulnerable groups. Hence, it helps in tracking how these products are shared during family feasting and reveals the underprioritized groups. Understanding the consumption patterns of village chicken products further helps in achieving sustainable consumption and identifying areas of improvement across rural, peri-urban and urban environments since the availability and utilisation of village chickens vary in these settings. The relationship between distance from the city centre and consumption patterns of village chicken products was hypothesized to be linear.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Ethical consideration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll study participants provided informed consent to participate in the study. The gatekeeper\u0026rsquo;s letter was obtained from the Msunduzi municipality to conduct the study. The study participants\u0026rsquo; rights, religions, culture, and dignity were not violated. The study participants were assured that their confidential information would not be disclosed, and they had a right to stop the interview whenever they felt uncomfortable. The experimental procedures were performed according to the ethical guidelines specified by the Certification of Authorization to Experiment on Living Humans provided by the Social Sciences \u0026ndash; Humanities \u0026amp; Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee, Protocol Reference No: HSSREC/00005927/2023.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Study site and design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in uMgungundlovu district (29.6006\u0026deg; S, 30.3794\u0026deg; E) in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. Twelve sites were selected to create an urban-rural gradient [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. These sites were selected based on their distance relative to the city centre. A transect approach was used [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], with two 70 km transects running south-west and north-east from Pietermaritzburg central business district (CBD). The sites representing the rural environment were Nkumba, Swayimana, KwaHlwemini and Impendle, while Taylors Halt, Maqongqo, Ezibananeni and Gezubuso were regarded as peri-urban settlements. Imbali, Edendale, Sobantu and Eastwood represented urban settings (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rural and peri-urban areas have high unemployment rate, and farming is the primary economic activity for many households [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. A peri-urban area is a mixed rural and urban landscape around cities, and it is characterized by urban-rural transformations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The urban area has a high number of informal settlements. The area is situated near the city centre, with agricultural practices uncommon. Community members commonly have small subsistence vegetable gardens. Village chickens were available in all these sites.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePietermaritzburg experiences hot-wet months from December to February. It is characterised by summer rainfall and its climate is warm and temperate with an average annual rainfall of 865 mm. The average maximum temperatures range between 22.6 and 24.5 \u0026ordm;C and the minimum temperatures range between 9.9 and 16 \u0026ordm;C [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeographical location of surveyed sites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from the city centre (km)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeographic coordinates\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCity centre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.378738\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.60153\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUrban areas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImbali\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.3476\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.6424\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEdendale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.2945\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.651\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSobantu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.4228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.5964\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEastwood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.4329\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.5847\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePeri-urban areas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGezubuso\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.22359\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.68036\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaylors Halt\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.1764169\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.709073\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaqongqo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.56668\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.57203\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEzibananeni\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.522897\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.57527\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRural areas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImpendle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.93397\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.733139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNkumba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.86277\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.73461\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSwayimana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.66987\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.50158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKwaHlwemini\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.7114\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-29.48092\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Selection of households and data collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree hundred households were used in the study. Scheduled meetings with local authorities, such as chiefs and local headmen, were arranged to gain access to sites. Data were collected from both males and females with an age group of \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;18 years. In each area, 25 participants were selected for interviews based on their personal experience on the production of village chicken products and their consumption. The sampling technique involved approaching participants with extensive knowledge of the consumption patterns of village chicken products. Participants were identified by local authorities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe participants were visited at their homesteads. Face-to-face personal interviews were used to collect data on production practices and consumption patterns of village chicken products. The interviews were administered in the local IsiZulu vernacular, and trained enumerators and the researcher conducted them. Data collection included aspects on: (1) type of village chicken products consumed; (2) part of meat or offal consumed; (3) reasons for consuming these products; and (4) reasons not to prefer these products. The participants were asked questions and given the option to rank, where applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Statistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll the data were analysed using SAS (2012). The PROC general linear model (GLM) procedure was used to analyse reasons for preferring and not preferring village chicken products. The PROC FREQ procedure for chi-square was used to compute the associations between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken meat and offal type. Response surface regression (RSREG) procedure was used to determine the relationship between distances from the city centre and consumption patterns of village chicken products. The model used was:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eY\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;β\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;β\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e D\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;β\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e D\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;E\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere: Y is the response variables (consumption patterns)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e, β\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, β\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e are regression coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eD is the distance from city centre\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eE is the residual error\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Preference for village chicken products\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTastiness, followed by leanness and freshness, were the main reasons for preferring village chicken products across the urban-rural gradient (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). There was a linear relationship between distance from the city centre and the tastiness of village chicken products. The preference for village chicken products based on tastiness increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). There was a linear relationship between distance from the city centre and absence of growth promoters in village chicken products. The preference for village chicken products based on the absence of growth promoters increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow tenderness and hygiene were the main reasons for the non-preference of village chicken products (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Strong odour from village chicken products and being unfamiliar with these products were the least reasons for non-preference. A linear relationship between distance from the city centre and not preferring village chicken based on the non-desired smell was observed. Non-preference of village chicken products based on non-desired smell increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). A linear relationship between distance from the city centre and non-preference of village chicken products based on low hygiene was observed. Non-preference of village chicken products based on low hygiene decreased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). A linear relationship between distance from the city centre and non-preference of village chicken products based on unfamiliarity was observed. Non-preference of village chicken products based on unfamiliarity decreased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeast square means and standard errors for preference of village chicken products\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReason\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegression coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeri-urban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLinear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeanness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.79\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTastiness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColour\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFreshness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.56\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo growth promoters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.40\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e: not significant; \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e: P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e: P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. The lower the mean rank value, the more important.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeast square means and standard errors for reasons not to prefer village chicken products\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReason\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegression coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeri-urban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLinear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow tenderness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.61\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-desired smell\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.10\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow hygiene\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnfamiliar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e: not significant; \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e: P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e: P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. The lower the mean rank value, the more important.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Consumption patterns of village chicken products\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the association between area and consumption of village chicken products within a household. There was an association between area, age and gender with consumption of village chicken thighs, feet, back, gizzard, and heart (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Over 38% of males consumed thigh meat portions across the urban-rural gradient. More than 37% of children consumed village chicken feet, back, and hearts across the urban-rural gradient.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeat was the main village chicken product consumed along the urban-rural gradient (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Eggs were the least consumed village chicken product type. A linear relationship was observed between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken meat and eggs. No quadratic relationships were detected. Consumption of village chicken meat and eggs increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Village chicken meat and eggs were mostly consumed by households situated in rural areas. Village chicken offal were mostly consumed by households situated in peri-urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHousehold consumption of village chicken meat and offal types along the urban-rural gradient (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeri-urban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eχ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSig\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBreasts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThighs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrumsticks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeck\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBack\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntestines\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiver\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGizzard\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeart\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e* P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Sig: significance, NS: not significant P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; Chi-square value.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsumption of village chicken products\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduct type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegression coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeri-urban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLinear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEggs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOffal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e: P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; \u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e: Not significant. The higher the mean value, the more important.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Consumption of village chicken meat and offal types\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe thigh, followed by breast and drumstick were the most preferred village chicken meat portions along the urban-rural gradient (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The back, followed by wings and neck were the least preferred village chicken meat portions. A linear relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken intestines. Consumption of village chicken intestines increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). The liver and gizzards were the most consumed village chicken offal types. The hearts and intestines were the least consumed village chicken offal types. A linear relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken gizzards. Consumption of village chicken gizzards increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). A quadratic relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken hearts (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsumption of village chicken meat and offal types\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeat and offal type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegression coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeri-urban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLinear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuadratic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBreast\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.74\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThigh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.20\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrumstick\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.84\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.47\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeck\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.14\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBack\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.80\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.42\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntestines\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.90\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.38\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiver\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.43\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGizzards\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.59\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.32\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHearts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.05\u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.74\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e: P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; \u003csup\u003eNS\u003c/sup\u003e: Not significant. The lower the mean value, the more important.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study reveals the importance of investigating the consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient. The urban-rural gradient approach allows for capturing unique consumption pattern features of village chicken products. It was expected that the consumption patterns of village chicken products would be linear along the urban-rural gradient. Village chickens are prominent in rural and peri-urban areas, which makes them easily accessible for consumption. Consumption patterns of village chicken products are influenced by several factors. Household wealth status, income, cultural activities, and religious festivals significantly influence the consumption patterns of village chicken products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe finding that most males across the urban-rural gradient consumed preferred village chicken meat portions agrees with Dumas \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], who revealed that women have limited access to meat consumption. Markos \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] reported a lower consumption of village chicken meat in female-headed than male-headed households. Men are served either large or preferred meat portions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The finding that most males across the urban-rural gradient consumed breast and drumstick meat portions, and gizzards is in accordance with Dumas \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that men are served the meatiest portions such as breast, drumstick, and gizzards. Meaty viscera are perceived to be important in improving old men\u0026rsquo;s libido and strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe finding that tastiness was the main reason across the urban-rural gradient to consume village chicken products is in accordance with Bett \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar finding was revealed by Elkhoraibi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that village chicken products tasted better compared to products purchased from the supermarkets. Dyubele \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] reported that consumers scored higher for sensory attributes (except for tastiness) of broiler than village chicken meat. The finding that preference of village chicken products based on the absence of growth promoters increased with an increase in distance from the city centre could be attributed to health and nutrition awareness of consumers. Consumer preference is strongly impacted by educational level and health consciousness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Elkhoraibi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] reported that village chicken owners perceived these products as nutritious and safer to consume compared to those from commercial farms. Irregular or no use of growth promoters maintains the quality of village chicken products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe finding that leanness is one of the main reasons to prefer village chicken products across the urban-rural gradient is similar to Bett \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that households prefer village chicken over broiler meat due to its leanness. The observation that the age of household members influenced the consumption of village chicken products is similar to that of Billah \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The observation suggests that adults are prioritized when it comes to meals. The per capita consumption of village chicken products by adults is high [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, Ayalew \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] revealed that consumption of village chicken products is done without any prioritization of any family group. Hence, some households prioritized children when it comes to the consumption of these products. This is, however, attributed to family income, size, and education [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe finding that consumption of village chicken eggs increased with an increase in distance from the city centre suggests that the production patterns of eggs in rural areas are higher compared to peri-urban and urban areas. This further suggests that there is a high number of eggs produced in rural areas, therefore, this prompts an increased consumption to avoid the spoilage of eggs, since not all eggs normally get hatched when they are incubated naturally. The finding that consumption of village chicken eggs was higher in households situated peri-urban areas than those situated in urban areas concurs with Chagomoka \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], who revealed that egg consumption patterns were higher in households situated in sub-urban than urban areas. The finding that consumption of village chicken products increased with an increase in distance from the city centre could be attributed to household income status. Village chicken keepers who resided in rural areas tended to have lower household income compared to those from peri-urban and urban areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. The finding further suggests that village chickens are readily available and accessible for consumption in rural areas compared to peri-urban and urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA positive linear relationship between village chicken meat and egg consumption with distance from the city centre could be attributed to flock sizes. Singh \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] revealed that village chicken flock sizes are positively associated with egg consumption. Rural and peri-urban areas possess larger village chicken flock sizes compared to urban areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. The observed positive linear relationship between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken intestines and gizzards could be attributed to family and flock sizes. Kumari \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] reported a negative correlation between consumption of chicken products and household size. Members within large family sizes are likely to get insufficient or smaller meat portions, therefore, they compensate with offal consumption. The observation that eggs are the least consumed village chicken product concurs with Mtileni \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], who revealed that eggs are rarely consumed and left for hatching to increase flock size. Hence, this would lead to minimal or reduced egg consumption.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study revealed factors influencing households\u0026rsquo; consumption of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient. Distance from the city centre, gender and age of household members highly influenced the consumption of village chicken products. Understanding the factors that influence the consumption patterns of village chicken products is crucial in developing policies that support optimal intake of these products. Employment and income opportunities are needed in the agricultural sector and off-farm activities for income generation to improve the consumption of village chicken products. To effectively monitor the consumption patterns of village chicken products, an assessment of dietary diversity needs to be explored.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCBD\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral Business District\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eGLM\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral linear model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHSSREC\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHumanities \u0026amp; Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eKM\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKilometre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNS\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eRSREG\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResponse surface regression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003enot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines governing research involving human participants, as outlined by the Humanities \u0026amp; Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee. An informed consent form was obtained from all study participants, as well as from the Msunduzi local municipality. Compliance with ethical standards was ethically proved (Reference No: HSSREC/00005927/2023) (Reference Number: AREC/043/017) by the University of KwaZulu-Natal Humanities \u0026amp; Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u003c/strong\u003e not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research was funded by the Sustainable and Healthy Food Systems – Southern Africa (SHEFS-SA) Project, supported through the Wellcome Trust’s Climate and Health Programme [Grant No 205200/Z/16/Z \u0026amp; 227749/Z/23/Z].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first author designed the work and drafted the paper. The co-authors supervised the writing phase and revised the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there are no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGaribaldi LA, Gemmill-Herren B, D\u0026rsquo;Annolfo R, Graeub BE, Cunningham SA, Breeze TD. Farming Approaches for Greater Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Food Security. Trends Ecol Evol. 2017;32:68\u0026ndash;80.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGunya B, Muchenje V, Gxasheka M, Tyasi T, Masika P. 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Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;45. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s11250-012-0175-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11250-012-0175-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-food","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discoverfood","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Food](https://www.springer.com/44187)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Food","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Eggs, growth promoters, meat, resource-challenged communities, sustainable food system","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688113/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688113/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe contribution of village chickens to food and nutrition security and achieving sustainable food systems in both rural and urban environments has not received sufficient attention. The objective of the study was to investigate the consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient using a structured questionnaire with 300 respondents. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in urban (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100), peri-urban (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100), and rural (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100) areas of Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. A positive linear relationship between distance from the city centre and preference for village chicken products based on tastiness (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) was observed. The preference for village chicken products based on the absence of growth promoters increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Non-preference of village chicken products based on non-desired smell increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). A positive linear relationship between distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken meat and eggs (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) was observed. Consumption of village chicken intestines increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Consumption of village chicken gizzards increased with an increase in distance from the city centre (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). A quadratic relationship was observed between the distance from the city centre and consumption of village chicken hearts (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Appropriate policies that promote the optimal consumption of village chicken products are required, particularly in urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Consumption patterns of village chicken products along the urban-rural gradient","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-12 07:04:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7688113/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-04T10:24:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-02T05:26:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"158638912091413733681790756124611221986","date":"2025-11-26T04:53:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-25T05:42:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-11T06:04:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-05T08:25:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"214997417875445917409904265716133984026","date":"2025-11-05T07:01:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"276287642922801773755051748103404503576","date":"2025-10-30T22:26:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"182288712739658792814555763644574035391","date":"2025-10-30T17:42:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-30T17:30:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-27T10:14:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-25T13:33:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-24T14:04:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Food","date":"2025-10-24T14:01:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-food","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discoverfood","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Food](https://www.springer.com/44187)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Food","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"be277198-b3cd-4d2c-94d6-c053432617c4","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-31T12:39:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-12 07:04:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7688113","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7688113","identity":"rs-7688113","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}