Highly reconfigurable neuron-mimicking conductive networks through nanophase structure engineering

Highly reconfigurable neuron-mimicking conductive networks through nanophase structure engineering | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Highly reconfigurable neuron-mimicking conductive networks through nanophase structure engineering Jiajun Fu, Wei Zhong, Haojie Zhao, Bowen Yao, Zhen-Ze Li, Zhifeng Wang, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6540613/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 29 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in Nature Communications → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Bionic electronics are designed to bridge the gap between biological realms and conventional electronics by imitating the mechanical performance and versatile functionalities of biological tissue. However, it remains a great challenge to replicate the high dynamics and reconfigurability of living tissues at the hardware level without compromising electrical performance, spatial resolutions, and structural integrity. This issue is mainly rooted in the inherent conflict between excellent electrical performance and dynamic properties, in which the former requires electrical active components to have an intimate electrical connection at the molecular level while the latter nevertheless necessitates weak and responsive intermolecular interaction. To address this problem, a novel methodology of reversible nanophase regulation is proposed, inspired by the well-known ion-specific effect discovered in biological systems. As an exemplary model, physically crosslinked conductive networks are prepared with conducting polymers and polyvinyl alcohol as building blocks. With the benefits of the dynamic response to specific ions, the conductive network can successfully integrate multiple, traditionally contradictory properties—combining outstanding electrical/mechanical performance with excellent reconfigurability features such as micro-patternability and erasability of conductive pathways, in-situ wet solderability with good spatial resolution, and closed-loop recyclability. At last, the methodology proposed here showed good generality and could be extended to other material systems, promising to inspire the design of novel reconfigurable bionic devices for the integration of biological tissue and electronics in a diverse range of applications including human-machine interactions, neural tissue engineering, and degradable bioelectronics. Physical sciences/Materials science/Soft materials/Gels and hydrogels Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology/Nanoscale materials/Molecular self-assembly Physical sciences/Chemistry/Physical chemistry Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Bionic electronics aims to merge biological living organisms and conventional electronic devices, with great promise in novel applications such as wearable/implantable intelligent devices, tissue engineering, human-machine interaction, and neurorobotics 1 , 2 . For example, hydrogel-based bioelectronics has been developed to imitate the physical performance ( e.g. , softness, permeability, and aquosity) of biological tissue for in-vivo physiological monitoring 3 , 4 , neuron modulation 5 , 6 , regenerative medicine 7 , etc. , outperforming their rigid counterparts 8 – 10 . However, at the hardware level, biological living tissues are characterized by high reconfigurability and molecular responsiveness when compared to conventional man-made electronics. Particularly, living tissues can tune their physiological functions by reconfiguring their chemical or physical structure in either active or passive pathways 11 – 13 . Such molecular-level dynamics therefore endow living systems with high intelligence and self-adaptiveness that conventional electronics struggle to replicate at the hardware level. For example, the brains encode and remove memories by strengthening or weakening synaptic connections between neurons through trans-synaptic proteins such as neurexins (presynaptic) and neuroligins (postsynaptic) 14 – 16 (Fig. 1 a). By contrast, most conventional electronic devices, such as printed circuit boards (PCB), neuron stimulators, and medical electrical patches, were incapable of reconfiguring their circuitry, thus leading to limited dynamics in spatial and temporal dimensions once the fabrication procedure is complete. To offer reconfigurability to electronics, two strategies at different spatial scales were proposed, i.e. , macroscopic geometric regulation and molecular structure (or doping level) regulation. Based on these two strategies, several novel reconfigurable devices were developed, with examples ranging from the adjustable antennae based on mechanical stretching 17 – 19 , rewritable conductive hydrogel by controlling their swelling degrees 20 – 24 to active optical metasurface devices based on dynamic conducting polymer 25 , 26 and neuromorphic devices by engineering ion migration and electron transport within semiconductors 27 – 29 . Unfortunately, these two strategies struggled to integrate wide tunability of electrical performance, size scalability, cycling endurance, structural integrity, and device compactness, inferior to bulky but delicate living organisms. This issue was mainly rooted in an intrinsic conflict in material design, where the high electrical performance usually required electrical materials to have highly conjugated or crystalline molecular structures with intimate electrical contacts, while the high reconfigurability usually necessitates weak and responsive intermolecular interaction. For instance, light-responsive conductive hydrogel could be constructed through host-guest interaction but suffered from a low electrical conductance or structural compactness 24 . Therefore, reconfigurable bionic electronics sharing a similar physiological mechanism of organisms are highly demanded and challenging, promising to bridge the gap between biology and electronics for the intellectualization of conventional electronics and their integration with biological organisms. The specific ion effect, encompassing the popular Hofmeister series, has long been found to strongly affect a range of biological processes, mainly originating from electrostatic interaction, hydration effects, and/or molecular sieve effects 30 – 32 . For example, the secondary structure of proteins varied in the presence of different types of ions; the specific ion channels located at synapses (ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors) could facilitate various forms of synaptic plasticity that were associated with memory and learning 33 – 35 . Inspired by the reconfigurable biological systems with specific ion effect, we herein propose a general strategy, reversible nanophase regulation of non-covalent crosslinking networks, to successfully construct neuron-mimicking highly reconfigurable conductive networks (Fig. 1 a). In detail, conductive organogels with dynamic phase structures were prepared as an exemplary model with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and conducting polymer (CP, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate, PEDOT:PSS) serving as mechanical and electrical component (Fig. 1 b-d). This conductive network could reversibly transform in different thermodynamic states with different nanophase structures through the introduction of specific ions, driven by the delicate balance of inter- and intra-molecular non-covalent interactions of polymers (Fig. 1 b). With the excellent controllability over the phase structure through the specific ion effect, the reconfiguration of electrical performance was successfully realized with electronic conductivity able to be turned in a wide range of as high as 4–5 magnitudes. In addition, the conductive pathways could be repeatedly micro-patterned within one organogel by laser exposure, significantly beneficial for the structural stability of organogel-based bionic electronics integrating conductor and dielectrics with outstanding interfacial robustness (Fig. 1 e). Moreover, with the great benefits of the high reconfigurability of hydrogen bonding networks, in situ wet soldering and closed-loop recycling could also be realized through a strategy of dispersed medium redistribution. For the in situ wet soldering, the conductive organogels could be soldered to various substrates with PVA/CP aqueous solution as solder through mild thermal treatment (Fig. 1 f, g). Compared with the previously reported soldering methods for conductive hydrogels, the new strategy here required no additional dying-reswelling step, thus capable of preserving the 3-dimensional (3D) geometric structures of hydrogels for various application scenarios requiring high conformability. For the closed-loop recycling, attributed to the high reversibility of the non-covalent network with lowly volatile glycerol as the dispersing phase, the conductive organogels could also be recycled in a nearly closed loop through dialysis and heating, with no significant loss in mechanical and electrical properties. Last, with these unique features, the reconfigurable conductive networks were therefore demonstrated for the application of various bioelectronics and wearable electronics including reconfigurable printing circuit board (Rec-PCB), on-body wrist for electrophysiological signal capture, and rewritable electroluminescent devices. As a whole, a reversible nanophase regulation strategy was proposed to develop reconfigurable bionic conductive networks that could successfully integrate some inherently contradictory characteristics including high conductance, reconfigurability, interfacial stability, solderability, and closed-loop recyclability. This strategy also showed great compatibility with other material systems, such as metal-based elastomers, shedding light on the design of bionic next-generation electronics. Additionally, this work successfully demonstrated the specific ion effect could be utilized to delicately in situ tune the physical properties of noncovalent networks through nanophase structure engineering, providing an efficient toolbox for the mechanism study of polymer-based functional composites especially for the volatile or degradable system where the employment of the conventional time-temperature superposition principle may be restrained. Material design, electrical, and mechanical performances Conductive organogels were constructed as exemplary reconfigurable models by employing CP (PEDOT:PSS), PVA, and glycerol as conductive filler, phase-regulating components, and dispersed medium, respectively. In particular, CP and PVA were able to offer abundant hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions that were susceptible to specific ion effects, thus benefiting the reconfigurability of polymer networks, whereas glycerol could serve as both a plasticizer to prevent over-dense stacking of CP and PVA for higher dynamics and lowly volatile medium for expanded working temperature windows. For the preparation of the organogels, glycerol suspensions containing CP and PVA were drop-casted or spin-coated on substrates and then partially dried in an ambient environment (~ 25 ℃) for 24 hours. During this drying process, most water was selectively evaporated, leaving behind pristine CP-PVA organogels (p-CP-PVA) with solid contents of ~ 40% (Supplementary Fig. 1). The p-CP-PVA organogels were free-standing and exhibited outstanding mechanical robustness with Young’s modulus of 2.8–13.5 MPa, fracture strain of 415%-1047%, fractural strength of 5.9–11.4 MPa, and toughness of 24.4–71.4 MJ m − 3 , depending on the relative contents of each components (Supplementary Note 1 and Supplementary Figs. 2 and 3). For the electrical performance, the p-CP-PVA organogels were almost non-electronically-conductive, as measured by a significantly low conductivity of 0.46–0.73 mS cm − 1 (Supplementary Fig. 4). At last, to improve the conductance, mild thermal annealing was implemented at 30–80°C. The resultant organogels (CP-PVA) experienced significant improvement by 4–5 orders of magnitudes, reaching up to 112.5 S cm − 1 , accompanied by slight changes in solid contents and mechanical performance (Fig. 2 a, b, Supplementary Fig. 5 and Supplementary Note 2). Moreover, the conductivities of organogels showed low dependency on the gel thickness in a wide range of 0.3-1.0 µm, confirming the uniform distribution of CP within the organogel matrix (Supplementary Fig. 6 and Supplementary Note 3). Moreover, when compared with the pure PVA organogel, the thermally-annealed CP-PVA organogel exhibited unexpected improvement in mechanical performance, highly distinct from previously most cases where introducing conductive filler usually resulted in the stiffening and embrittling of composites. Specifically, with the CP’s relative content increasing from 0 wt% to 16 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), there were simultaneous increases in Young’s modulus, fracture strain, strength, and toughness by 208.3% (2.4 to 7.4 MPa), 30.4% (761–992%), 70.6% (6.8 to 11.6 MPa) and 145.5% (32.5 to 79.8 MJ m − 3 ), respectively (Fig. 2 c, d, Supplementary Fig. 7). As a result, the PVA-CP organogels exhibited superior comprehensive performance in terms of conductivity, stretchability, and toughness when compared with previously reported conducting polymer hydrogels (Fig. 2 e, f, Supplementary Fig. 8 and Supplementary Table 1). Furthermore, the CP-PVA organogels exhibited satisfactory conductance retention upon tensile strain, as shown by low increases in resistance by only 0.04, 0.22, and 1.20 times at the strains of 50%, 100%, and 200%, respectively (Supplementary Fig. 9). The successful decoupling of the electrical and mechanical performance could be attributed to the formation of bi-continuous nanophase structures within the organogels, which will be discussed in the following. At last, the CP-PVA organogels exhibited higher resistance to environmental humidity and high/low temperature than its hydrogel counterpart with only water as the dispersed medium, due to the low volatility of glycerol (Supplementary Fig. 10–17 and Supplementary Note 4). For example, upon exposure to a high-temperature environment of 80°C, the CP-PVA organogels showed satisfactory stability in terms of mechanical and electrical properties. Such high intactness could not only enhance the system’s reliability but also greatly expand the methodological toolbox for rational control over the conductive network by regulating nanophase structure, a key for the reconfigurable system. Mechanism on the formation of bi-continuous phase The successful decoupling of electrical and mechanical performances of the CP-PVA organogel could be attributed to the formation a bicontinuous nanophase structure composed of PVA-rich and CP-rich domains (Fig. 2 g). This unique nanophase structure was a thermodynamic-favored state as a delicate balance between the miscibility and self-aggregability of the CP and PVA chains in the glycerol medium, driven by hydrogen bonds and π-π interaction. On the one hand, the PVA and CP could strongly interact with each other through ionic hydrogen bonds, according to Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra. In the FT-IR spectra, with the addition of CP, the hydroxyl absorption peak of PVA exhibited an obvious redshift from 3282 cm⁻¹ to 3263 cm⁻¹, which could be mainly ascribed to the formation of ionic hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl groups of PVA and sulfonate groups CP (Fig. 2 h, Supplementary Fig. 18 and Supplementary Tables 2, 3, and 4). This intermolecular interaction could be further confirmed by the structural disordering of the PVA network, as revealed by the decrease of average lattice size of PVA from 2.4 to 1.8 nm as calculated by the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of diffraction peak of ( \(\:10\stackrel{-}{1}\) ) crystalline face (2 θ = 19.5°) in the XRD spectra (Supplementary Fig. 19). On the other, both PVA and CP chains were prone to self-assemble themselves solely especially after thermal annealing at 80°C. In detail, firstly, the thermal annealing could significantly activate the segmental motion of PVA and CP by partially dissociating the hydrogen bonds, as shown by the blue shift of the hydroxy peak in the temperature-dependence FT-IR spectra (Fig. 2 i and Supplementary Fig. 20). During this annealing process, both the PVA and CP chains transited into more ordered molecular configurations mainly driven by hydrogen bonds, π-π interaction, and hydrophobic interaction. The PVA chains exhibited a higher crystalline degree with lattice size increasing from 1.8 to 4.3 nm whereas the CP chains conjugated in a more delocalized degree through π-π interaction and hydrophobic interaction as revealed by the redshift of thiophene-derived C α =C β peak from ~ 1428 to 1421 cm − 1 in Raman spectra (Fig. 2 j and Supplementary Fig. 21). Such transformation of CP under thermal annealing was consistent with the results reported previously, where the PEDOT:PSS chains would extended and stacked with each other, thus allowing for a better interchain contact 36 – 38 . With the synergy of the two opposite tendencies as mentioned above, phase separation in the nanometer scale, therefore, occurred within the PVA-CP organogels, leading to the formation of a bicontinuous phase structure composed of PVA- and CP-rich domains. In detail, after thermal annealing, the CP-PVA organogels exhibited an improved degree of nanophase separation as shown by a significantly decreased interphase distance with high contrast in the phase images according to atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterizations (Fig. 2 k). The nanophase separation structure could greatly benefit the electrical interconnecting of CP chains while preventing their over-aggregation, thus leading to a uniform conductive percolation network throughout the PVA matrix (Fig. 2 k). Additionally, the phase separation degree was quantified by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). In SAXS, the scattering peak of PVA-CP organogels turned more pronounced with a positive shift after thermal annealing, corresponding to a decrease in the average interphase distance from 10.6 to 8.2 nm (Supplementary Fig. 22). Worthy to note, the bi-continuous nanophase was thermodynamic-favored in the glycerol medium and could be regulated by altering the chain mobility and intermolecular interaction (this will be discussed in the following). As a whole, driven by the hydrogen bonds, π-π stacking, and hydrophobic interaction, a delicate balance between the miscibility and self-aggregability of the CP and PVA chains was realized, thus leading to a bicontinuous nanophase structure composed of PVA-and CP-rich domains, where the former account for mechanical performance and the latter responsible for electrical performance. The phase separation in the nanoscale could ensure the uniform distribution of conductive percolation networks and stress transfer pathways, thus rendering a successful integration of excellent electrical and mechanical performances (toughness). Regulable conductance through specific ion effect Given that it is bicontinuous nanophases accounting for the successful decoupling of electrical and mechanical performance, the CP-PVA organogels’ conductance was therefore expected to be regulable if the nanophase structure could be engineered on demand. Herein, this hypothesis was successfully verified by introducing the specific ion effect into the organogel system (Supplementary Fig. 23). The specific ion effect, encompassing the Hofmeister series, originally described a persistent trend in the effect of ions on the secondary structure and dispersibility of bio-macromolecules 32 . In general, cations with high charge density or anions with low charge density usually led to higher solvation degrees of bio-macromolecules, while cations with low charge density or anions with high charge density usually induced the opposite effect. A widely accepted mechanism behind this phenomenon involves the ions impacting the solvation shell of molecules by electrostatic and polarization effects 30 , 39 , 40 . This phenomenon has also been extended to hydrogel systems recently, with examples including PVA 41 , polyampholyte 42 , 43 , and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNiPAM) hydrogels 44 . These hydrogels exhibited regulable mechanical properties (e.g., Youngs’ modulus) depending on the types of ions introduced in the system 45 . For the CP-PVA organogels developed here, their conductance showed a high dependency on the types of ions introduced. Overall, cations showed a pronounced impact on the conductance of the organogels, following a similar ranking to the traditional Hofmeister series, whilst anions imposed a weak influence (Fig. 3 a, b). Particularly, after being subject to treatment with glycerol solution containing 2 mol L − 1 Ca 2+ ion for 3 days (followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment to evaporate most of the water), the CP-PVA conductive organogels (CP’s relative content: 22 wt%, solid content: 51 wt%) could be transformed from a high-conductance state (27.3 S cm − 1 ) (denoted as State I) to a high-resistance state (1.9×10 − 2 S cm − 1 ) (denoted as State II) (Fig. 3 b) with no significant change in organogel’s solid contents (solid content changing from 51–44%, Supplementary Fig. 23a and b); when the anions such as NO 3 2− and I − were introduced, 65% and 70% of reduction in conductance were observed, respectively (Fig. 3 b). Furthermore, the high resistance in State II could be maintained or even further increased by dialyzing out the Ca 2+ ion from the organogels with glycerol solution followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment (denoted as State III). As the partial removal of ionic conductive species, the conductivity was measured to decrease from 1.9×10 − 2 to 3.3×10 − 3 S cm − 1 . Moreover, the organogels in State III could be re-engineered to the high conductive state (back to State I, denoted as State I 2 ) by thermal annealing at 80°C for 2 hours, so that a closed cycle of regulation over the conductance state with a high on-off ratio was successfully realized (Supplementary Fig. 23c). At last, this regulation cycles could be repeated several times with no significant alteration in the electrical performance (Supplementary Fig. 24). Mechanism on the nanophase structure reconfiguration Such excellent adjustability of conductance could be ascribed to the reversible swinging of the nanophase structure within the CP-PVA organogels in three different thermodynamic states, highly distinct from previously reported cases that conductance reconfiguration of gels commonly relied on swelling/deswelling of the system (Fig. 3 c, d). In detail, firstly, the State I exhibited a bi-continuous phase structure as discussed in the above section, and should be thermodynamically favored given that thermal annealing was applied. Secondly, for State II, the bi-continuous phase was erased through Ca 2+ treatment driven by thermodynamics. In detail, the kosmotropic cations Ca 2+ could bind with PVA chains to break the hydrogen bonds among them as confirmed by FT-IR, XRD, and SAXS spectra 45 , thus leading to the higher mobility and immiscibility of PVA and CP chains (Fig. 3 e and Supplementary Fig. 25, 26). As a result, the bi-continuous phase structure within the organogel was transformed into a more homogenous phase structure so that the CP-PVA organogel in State II became highly resistant (Supplementary Fig. 23c). Worth to note, that such transformation should not be ascribed to the swelling of organogels given there is no significant change in organogels’ solid contents as discussed above (selective evaporation at an ambient environment were implemented to evaporate most of the water absorbed during salt treatment before resistance measurement). Meanwhile, State II was also thermodynamically favored, as proved by the negligible change in resistance of the organogel (containing CaCl 2 ) when being subjected to thermal annealing at a high temperature of 60°C if CaCl 2 was not being dialyzed out (Supplementary Fig. 27). Thirdly, unlike the thermodynamically stable State I and II, State III was thermodynamically unstable but kinetically stable. The CP-PVA organogels after dialysis could remain highly resistant for a long duration at room temperature ( e.g. , 30 ℃ for more than 7 days) (Fig. 3 f). Such good kinetic stability could be attributed to the low chain mobility seriously retarded by hydrogen bonds among PVA and PSS chains. Subsequently, because of its thermodynamic instability, the organogel without CaCl 2 could be transformed back to a high conductance state (State I 2 ) through thermal annealing at a high temperature of 80°C for 2 hours, accompanied by the recovery of bi-continuous structure, as proved by AFM images, SAXS and XRD spectra (Fig. 3 e, g and Supplementary Fig. 26). Therefore, with the strong influence of the specific ion effect in the dynamic non-covalent interactions of polymer chains, reversible control over the organogels’ conductance with an outstanding on-off ratio was successfully achieved. To further confirm this conclusion, three sets of control samples were prepared, including CP-PVA organogels with varying contents of CP, glycerol-free CP-PVA hydrogels, and CP-PVA MA organogels (PVA MA : methacrylate modified PVA). In detail, ( i ) for the PVA-CP organogels with varying contents of PVA, decreasing the relative contents of PVA benefited the overall conductivity of the organogels but at the compromise of on-off ratio (Supplementary Figs. 28 and 29). This could be well explained by the lower dynamics of polymer chains because of the high content of CP in the composite network, where salt-resistant π-π stacking of PEDOT chains gradually dominated. ( ii ) For the glycerol-free CP-PVA hydrogels, they showed a weaker specific ion effect than the organogel system, as revealed by a low change ratio of only 31% in conductance (Fig. 3 h and Supplementary Fig. 30). The weak response of CP-PVA hydrogels to the specific ion effect proved the strong effect of glycerol in the chain dynamics of PVA. According to the XRD characterization, glycerol could serve as an efficient plasticizer to improve the chain mobility by weakening the hydrogen bonds and crystalline degrees of PVA (Supplementary Fig. 31) 46 ; ( iii ) For the CP-PVA MA organogels, once the PVA MA were chemically crosslinked in previous, conductive percolation networks could no longer be formed even upon the application of thermal annealing. Instead, the CP-PVA MA organogels, if not crosslinked, could be regulated between high conductance state and high resistance state by the specific ion effect, similar to its CP-PVA counterparts (Fig. 3 i, Supplementary Fig. 32). This phenomenon further confirmed the essential role of chain dynamics in the conductance tunability of CP-PVA composite system. Additionally, in contrast to the previously reported cases in pure PVA hydrogel system 45 , cations showed a significantly stronger influence, on the CP-PVA organogels than that of anions, as discussed above. This abnormal phenomenon suggested the negatively charged CP (PEDOT:PSS) probably inhibited the anion penetration through electrostatic repulsion. As a whole, reversible control over the conductance of CP-PVA organogels was successfully achieved through nanophase structure engineering, leveraging the thermodynamically-driven reversible transformation of dynamic polymer networks in various ionic environments. Reconfigurable bionic printing circuit board (Rec-PCB) with robust interfaces With the highly dynamic characteristic of phase structure, the PVA-CP organogels provided an ideal platform for neuron-like bionic circuitry with remarkable reconfigurability at the hardware level, surpassing the limitations of previously reported intact conductive hydrogels or organogels. To showcase this unique feature, Rec-PCBs were fabricated by selectively annealing pristine CP-PVA organogels via laser irradiation, enabling the in situ formation of patternable conductive domains through photothermal conversion (Fig. 4 a). To optimize the fabrication conditions, we first investigated the influence of the laser power on the conductivity and structural stability of CP-PVA organogels (Fig. 4 b and Supplementary Fig. 33). With the laser power increasing (50–400 W m − 2 ), all the CP-PVA organogels with varied CP’s and solid contents exhibited a similar conductivity trend: an initial increase with peak conductivities in a range of 4.5 S cm − 1 -107.1 S cm − 1 at a laser power of 150 W m − 2 (corresponding to a local temperature of ~ 85°C), followed by a decline at higher power. This reduction at relatively elevated power was likely due to the thermal-induced deswelling of organogels, as confirmed by infrared thermography (IRT) images and mechanical tensile tests, which showed localized overheating ( e.g. , ~ 200°C for 250 W·m − 2 ) and deteriorated mechanical performance (Supplementary Fig. 33–35). Based on these results, a laser power of 150 W m − 2 was identified as an optimum condition for the patterning of conductive pathways, using CP-PVA organogels with a solid content of ~ 50 wt% (relative to the total mass of organogels) and CP’s content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA) as the workpiece. Upon laser irradiation, electrical circuits could be fabricated in situ within one CP-PVA organogel (Fig. 4 c, d). The locally transformed conductive pathway, generated at a laser power of 150 W m − 2 , exhibited a low optical contrast to the naked eye, but with boundaries visible under backlighting conditions due to the slight dehydration under irradiation (Supplementary Fig. 34). To quantitively study the photothermal-induced formation of conductive pathways, CP-PVA organogels were subject to laser irradiation through a photomask. First, all the conductive traces with line widths ranging from 50 to 200 µm showed conductivities comparable to that of corresponding bulky materials, indicating the good size scalability of the laser-induced patterning (Supplementary Fig. 36). Second, the spatial resolution of the micropatterning process was evaluated by laser-writing pairs of adjacent conductive traces (Supplementary Figs. 37 and 38). Restrained by the inevitable thermal diffusion and resolution limit of photomask used here, the minimum inter-line spacing between two conductive traces to avoid electrical cross-talk was determined to be 100 µm. Below this threshold, adjacent conductive traces became partially electrically connected. The resolution was expected to further improve by downsizing the laser spot through optical engineering in the future. Thirdly, the laser-induced conductive traces exhibited good uniformity and homogeneity in both horizontal and vertical directions: the absolute resistance of conductive traces followed Ohm’s law as shown by a good linear relationship with the trace length (Fig. 4 e-g), and exhibited good consistency for both the upper (directly exposed to laser) and lower surfaces (Supplementary Figs. 39 and 40). Moreover, distinct from the conventional circuit with fixed trace layout determined fabrication, the CP-PVA organogels developed here possessed remarkable dynamic characteristics, enabled by the reconfigurable nanophase structure, resembling the adaptive nature of biological neuron networks. To showcase this characteristic, a Rec-PCB model with an array of dumbbell-shaped conductive traces was fabricated by selectively irradiating a CP-PVA organogel. The conductance between pairs of contact pads in the array (Fig. 4 h and Supplementary Fig. 41) was measured and found to lie in line with the traces of laser irradiation, where the patterned traces exhibited conductance values up to 3–4 orders of magnitude higher than those of not-irradiated regions. Moreover, the conductive pathway could be erased by CaCl 2 treatment (followed by dialysis), resulting in a sharp resistance increase of 3–4 orders of magnitude. The pathways could then be rewritten through subsequent laser irradiation (Fig. 4 i). This erasing-rewrite procedure could be repeated for more than 5 cycles, indicating the excellent reconfigurability of the Rec-PCB (Supplementary Fig. 42). In addition to enabling high reconfigurability, the in situ laser-assisted fabrication strategy also ensured the formation of a robust interface between the conductive traces and the surrounding matrix, attributed to the thermal gradient zone arising from inevitable heat diffusion within the organogels during irradiation (Fig. 4 j). AFM analysis confirmed the presence of an interface layer between conductive and non-conductive domains. This layer facilitated remarkable interfacial adhesion and structural integrity through chain entanglement and non-covalent interactions (hydrogen bonds, π-π interactions, etc .) (Fig. 4 k, l). The interfacial stability was successfully proved by tensile testing of CP-PVA organogels that were partially laser irradiated (Fig. 4 m and Supplementary Fig. 43). The laser-patterned organogels showed mechanical performance comparable to those of pristine samples, with crack propagation formed upon strain commonly initiating at a random position rather than at the interface between irradiated and non-irradiated areas (Supplementary Video 1). Meanwhile, the patterned traces maintained stable electrical response under cyclic tensile strain, with no noticeable interfacial delamination (Supplementary Fig. 44). In contrast, most previously reported gel-based circuits lack in situ patternability and reconfigurability, and usually had to rely on adhesives for structural integrity. Conformal soldering and closed-loop recycling Beyond their electrical versatility, the high reconfigurability of CP-PVA organogels also enabled conformal soldering and closed-loop recyclability, advancing their utility in 3-dimensional (3D) and sustainable electronics. A widely used approach for the soldering of conductive gels involved a drying-reswelling procedure, where the conductive gels were dehydrated to achieve imitate contact with targeted substrates 47–49 . However, this strategy led to severe deformation or collapse of gels with complex 3D geometries. Herein, leveraging the high reconfigurability of the CP-PVA organogels, a geometry-preserving soldering strategy was developed to achieve strong and shape-retentive bonding between CP-PVA organogels and various substrates, without the need for complete dehydration. In detail, for soldering, CP-PVA organogels at State III were coated with a thin layer of sans-glycerol CP/PVA aqueous solution (mass loading: 10 µL cm − 2 ), gently pressed against the targeted adherend (5 kPa), selectively dried overnight (for mechanical bonding), and then thermally annealed at 80°C (for electrical connect). With this method, broken CP-PVA organogels could be healed together with no noticeable deterioration in mechanical and electrical performance (Fig. 5 a-c). Importantly, complex geometries such as Möbius band structure could be preserved after soldering (Fig. 5 d). In addition, CP-PVA organogels could also be strongly bonded to Cu, Sn, and Au substrates, achieving high adhesion toughness values of 1295, 1051, and 660 J m − 2 respectively (Fig. 5 e-g and Supplementary Fig. 45–47). The electrical contacts between CP-PVA organogel and metals were proved ohmic contact as indicated by the linear current-voltage response (Supplementary Fig. 48). Furthermore, the electrical contact could also be spatially patterned by levering local laser irradiation, where only the irradiated domains were electrically connective (Fig. 5 h). This method allowed for a multichannel board-to-board connection between CP-PVA organogel and flexible PCB (Fig. 5 h), a capability not easily achieved with previously reported adhesion strategy. The mechanism underlying the wet soldering capability involved the solvent-mediated dynamic reconfiguration of the CP-PVA organogel network in the presence of the aqueous solder (sans-glycerol CP/PVA solution, Fig. 5 i). Specifically, when aqueous CP/PVA solder was applied to the CP-PVA organogel at State III, the glycerol within the organogel and water from the solder underwent diffusion driven by a concentration gradient. On one hand, water infiltration partially loosened the original polymer network of organogels, enabling the interfacial assembly with the CP and PVA chains from the aqueous solder via hydrogen bonds and polar interaction. As a result, a semi-interpenetrated network with high interfacial toughness was obtained at the interface after selective drying (Supplementary Fig. 49). Concurrently, the low glycerol contents at the interface promoted the crystallization of PVA chains, further strengthening the joints via the high-energy domains (Supplementary Fig. 50a). Meanwhile, the glycerol in the organogels diffused into the aqueous solder and then induced the configuration transformation of CP (from solder) from benzenoid to quinoid structure under thermal annealing (80°C), thus reducing the contact resistance between CP-PVA organogels and substrates (Supplementary Fig. 50b). To validate this mechanism, control soldering experiments were performed using solders with different components, including PVA/CP glycerol solution, CP sans-glycerol aqueous solution, and PVA sans-glycerol aqueous solution (Supplementary Fig. 51). The glycerol-containing solder yielded poor interfacial adhesion, with a significant reduction in fractural strain from 687–254% along with cracks commonly initiating at the interface along. Such a significant deterioration in adhesion performance implied the essential role of the solvent recipe. The glycerol suppressed both the re-assembly of polymer networks and the crystallization of PVA chains, key processes for robust adhesion (Supplementary Fig. 31). Meanwhile, sans-glycerol solder lacking either CP or PVA failed to provide both strong adhesion and reliable electrical contacts, as shown by the sharp rise in the resistance of soldered samples upon strain or significant reduction in adhesion toughness, highlighting the necessity of CP and PVA (Supplementary Fig. 51). For recycling, the CP-PVA organogels could be reprocessed in a closed-loop route, enabled by the highly dynamic organogel networks and the low volatility of glycerol. In detail, through dialysis with minimal water to remove glycerol (the glycerol-containing solution was retained for reuse), the CP-PVA organogels could be well dissolved in water by heating at 80°C for 2 hours (Fig. 5 j). The resulting dispersion displayed excellent colloidal stability, with a zeta potential of − 55 mV and uniform size distribution (295 nm), closing matching the original (− 50 mV, 255 nm; Supplementary Fig. 52). Subsequently, new organogels could be regenerated by re-introducing the recovered glycerol solution (obtained in the dialysis process), drop-casting, and selective evaporation at ambient environments. The regenerated organogels exhibited only mild reduction in mechanical performance and electrical properties ( e.g. , 16.5% and 9.0% decreases in Young’s modulus and toughness, respectively; Supplementary Fig. 53). In addition, the regenerated organogels also inherited excellent electrical reconfigurability, in which conductive pathway could be erased via CaCl 2 treatment and then be re-constructed through laser irradiation (Supplementary Figs. 54 and 55). Demonstrations As a whole, by in situ tuning of the nanophase structure of conductive organogels through specific ion effect, three pairs of inherently conflicted properties were successfully integrated within one system: ( i ) high electrical and mechanical performance, ( ii ) patternability and reconfigurability of highly conductive pathways, and ( iii ) in situ solderability and closed-loop recyclability of conductive gels. To showcase these capabilities, four representative applications were developed, including ( i ) organogel-based printing circuit boards (PCBs) for plug-and-play interconnection with conventional rigid PCBs, ( ii ) organogel-based integrated electronic wrist bands for electrophysiological signal capture, ( iii ) in situ rewritable electroluminescent devices and rewritable LED bands, and ( iv ) organogel-based stretchable circuitry models for audio playing. As a first example, a 6-channel organogel-based printing circuit board (GPCB) was fabricated (line spacing: 5.5 mm, line width: 1 mm) (Fig. 6 a). The GPCB was soft, stretchable, and could be connected to conventional rigid PCBs through zero-insertion-force (ZIF) connectors for analog signal transmission (Fig. 6 b). Attributed to the high structural integrity with high toughness, the electrical connection/disconnection of GPCB to the conventional rigid PCB could be repeated for > 1000 cycles, with no noticeable deterioration in electrical performance (Supplementary Fig. 56). Moreover, the GPCB demonstrated a broader operational frequency range compared to its hydrogel counterpart, probably due to the lower relative permittivity of the organic system (Supplementary Fig. 57). Secondly, a CP-PVA organogel-based digital wristband in situ patterned with 8 pairs of electrodes was prepared for electrophysiological signal recording (Fig. 6 c). The digital wrist could be connected to a commercially available flexible PCB through wet soldering by using CP/PVA aqueous solder with laser patterning. Compared to the previously reported bioelectrodes, the digital wrist band developed here combined several advantages, including mixed electronic-ionic conductance for a low impedance, high conformability to wrinkled skins, high interfacial robustness with no extra introduction of insulative elastomer, and excellent environmental stability (Supplementary Fig. 58). Consequently, high signal-to-noise ratio electrophysiological recordings were achieved, surpassing those obtained with commercially available electrodes (Supplementary Fig. 59). As an example, real-time monitoring of muscle activity was demonstrated by recording the surface electromyography (sEMG) maps in space and time domains, highlighting potential applications in medical diagnosis or human-machine interaction (Fig. 6 d, 6 e, and Supplementary Fig. 60). Thirdly, to showcase the reconfigurability, organogel-based electroluminescence (EL) devices and rewritable LED bands were prepared (Fig. 6 f and g). The EL devices consisted of a laser-patterned PVA-CP bottom electrode, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-ZnS EL layer, and Cu top electrodes. Upon electric power, the EL emission accurately replicated the layout of the electrical traces patterned within the CP-PVA organogels. More importantly, the layout could be dynamically altered by in situ rewriting the conductive traces through sequential treatment with CaCl 2 solution, dialysis, and laser scribing (Fig. 6 f, Supplementary Fig. 61 and Supplementary Video 2). The reconfigurable LED band featured an LED matrix soldered onto the CP-PVA organogel substrate using PVA/CP aqueous solder. Its conductive pathways could be adjusted by leveraging the electrical reconfigurability of CP-PVA organogel, enabling on-demand modification of the electrical layout (Fig. 6 g, Supplementary Fig. 62). Notably, beyond these examples, the hardware-level reconfigurability is expected to inspire the design of novel next-generation biomimetic electronics for a variety of applications including tissue engineering, information processing, and cyborgs. For example, dynamically reconfigurable conductive organogels could support neural tissue culture with spatiotemporal plasticity. Finally, to demonstrate the excellent solderability of the CP-PVA organogels for use as printing circuit boards, a functional stretchable audio-playing circuit was assembled. The circuit comprised resistors, capacitors, switches, an LED, a speaker, and an FLM038A integrated circuit (IC) (Fig. 6 h, Supplementary Fig. 63). The electronic components were soldered onto a laser-patterned CP-PVA GPCB using CP/PVA aqueous solder followed by thermal annealing, resulting in strong bonding and reliable electrical connectivity. The final circuit was highly soft, stretchable, and capable of playing preloaded audio tracks stored in the FLM038A chip during operation (Supplementary Video 3). Discussion This work presents a general strategy for constructing neuron-imitating reconfigurable new-generation electronics by leveraging reversible nanophase regulation of dynamic non-covalent conductive networks. Specifically, the nanophase structure of the non-covalent conductive networks exhibits significant response to specific ions, governed by thermodynamics, allowing for reversible modulation of both electrical and mechanical properties. As a result, the organogel-based conductive networks could successfully integrate high electrical performance with several additional features that are typically challenging to combine: mechanical performance, conductance reconfigurability, in situ patternability of conductive pathways, in situ solderability with spatial resolution, and closed-loop recyclability. Furthermore, the strategy here has also proved applicable to conductive organogels from other conductive components such as Ag and polyaniline (Supplementary Fig. 64). With these unique features, neuron-tissue-like reconfigurable printing circuit boards can be designed and utilized for the application of reconfigurable bioelectronics and sustainable electronics. Moreover, the integration of in situ patterning of conductive traces and soldering capability successfully addressed a long-standing challenge in gel-based bioelectronics: achieving robust, multichannel interconnection between gel systems and conventional rigid electronics (such as IC and PCB). A reliable board-to-board connection between CP-PVA organogel and commercial flexible PCB is demonstrated here, a capability not easily realized using conventional adhesion strategies for conductive gels. At last, this study greatly deepens the fundamental understanding of the evolution of the nanophase microstructure of conductive gel and more essentially elucidates the underlying mechanism of ion-driven modulation. The conceptual framework introduced here is expected to inspire the development of novel reconfigurable bionic devices and help bridge the interface among the biological world, aqueous gel electronics, and conventional rigid electronics. Methods Materials Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS, solid content: ~1.1 wt%) was ordered from Heraeus Epurio Ltd. Glycerin (AR, 99%), Acrylamide (AR, 99%), ammonium persulphate (APS, AR, 98%), methacrylic anhydride were (94%, Contains 2% stabilizer), triethylamine (AR, 99%), α-Ketoglutaric acid (98%) were supported by Haohong Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Poly(vinyl alcohol (PVA, Mw:89000–98000, 99% alcoholysis), aniline (AR, 99%), silver powder (Ag, 5 um), sodium chloride (NaCl, 98%), potassium chloride (KCl, 98%), cesium chloride (CsCl, 98%), lithium chloride (LiCl, 98%), calcium chloride (CaCl 2 , 98%), sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 , 98%), sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 , 98%), sodium citrate (98%), sodiumiodide (NaI, 98%), acetone (98%), ethanol (98%), hydrochloric acid (HCl, analytical reagent grade), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were purchased from Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. Preparation of CP-PVA organogels and CP organogels CP-PVA organogels were prepared by selectively evaporating glycerol solution containing PEDOT:PSS and PVA at room temperature followed by thermal annealing at 80°C for 2 h. Typically, pristine PEDOT:PSS aqueous solutions were first filtered through a syringe filter with a pore size of 0.45 µm to remove large particles and then added to a PVA glycerol solution (the content of glycerol was 4 wt% relative to the total mass of final solution, and the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL − 1 and 26.1 mg mL − 1 respectively, if not particularly mentioned). The obtained suspension was drop-casted on a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.1 mL cm − 2 ) and dried at the ambient environment (~ 25 ℃) overnight to obtain free-standing p-CP-PVA organogels with a thickness of ~ 92 um. The solid contents of p-CP-PVA organogels could be controlled by varying the glycerol’s relative contents in the precursor solutions. The resultant organogel exhibited a high resistance. To improve the conductance, a further thermal annealing process was implemented at 80°C for 2 h. For the preparation of thin CP-PVA organogels with high optical transparency, a spin-coating method was employed, where the precursor glycerol solutions containing CP and PVA were spin-coated onto glass plates or elastomer films (EcoflexTM 00–45 Near Clear™) previously treated by oxygen plasma at speeds of 500, 700, 900, 1100, 1300, and 1500 rpm and dried at the ambient environment (~ 25 ℃) overnight. To improve the conductance, a further thermal annealing process was implemented at 80°C for 2 h. For the control experiments, pure CP and PVA organogels were prepared. For the preparation of pure CP organogels, PEDOT: PSS suspensions were added with glycerol (4 wt%, relative to the total mass of solution), and then drop-casted onto glass plates previously treated with O 2 plasma for 5 minutes (volumetric loading: 75 µL cm − 2 ), followed by thermal annealing at 80°C for 2 hours. For the preparation of pure PVA organogels, PVA glycerol suspensions (the content of glycerol was 4 wt% relative to the total mass of final solution; the content of PVA was 10 wt% relative to the total mass of suspensions) were drop-casted onto glass plates previously treated with O 2 plasma for 5 minutes (volumetric loading: 30 µL cm − 2 ), and annealed at 80°C for 2 hours. Preparation of methacrylate PVA (PVA MA ) and CP-PVA MA organogels The PVA MA was synthesized by the esterification reaction between PVA and methacrylic anhydride, following the previous literarure 50 . First, PVA (Sigma-Aldrich, 89000–98000 kDa, 98% hydrolyzed) was dissolved in water by heating at 90°C for 2 hours to obtain 10 wt% PVA solution. Then, the PVA solution was added with methacrylic anhydride (5 mol% relative to PVA) under stirring, left to react at 60°C for 48 h, and then quenched by neutralizing with triethylamine. At last, PVA MA power was obtained by slowly dropping the reaction solution into acetone (5 equivalent volumes relative to the solution) under vigorous agitation, filtering, washing with excessive acetone, and drying at 60°C. For the preparation of the CP-PVA MA organogels, glycerol suspensions (4 wt%, relative to the total mass of solution) containing 7.4 mg mL − 1 of CP, 0.3 mg mL − 1 of α-ketoglutaric acid, and 26.1 mg mL − 1 of PVA MA (CP’s relative content: 22 wt%) was dropped-casting on a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.1 mL cm − 2 ), and dried under ambient conditions (25 ℃) for 24 hours to selectively evaporate most of the water. At last, free-standing CP-PVA MA organogel was successfully obtained and crosslinked by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light (wavelength: 365 nm) for 30 min. For the preparation of CP-PVA MA organogels without chemical crosslinking, a polymerization inhibitor was added to a sans-photoinitiator glycerol solution (4 wt%, relative to the total mass of solution) containing 7.4 mg mL − 1 of CP and 26.1 mg mL − 1 of PVA MA (CP’s relative content: 22 wt%, relative to the total mass of PVA and CP), and then followed with a similar procedure as described above except without UV exposure step. Preparation of CP-PVA organogels at different states The CP-PVA organogels used for the tests had a solid content of ~ 50 wt% with CP’s relative content of 22 wt%. The thermally-annealed CP-PVA organogels were donated as State I. For the preparation of CP-PVA organogels at State II, the thermally-annealed CP-PVA organogels (State I) were soaked with a glycerol solution containing 2 mol L − 1 Ca 2+ ion for 3 days, followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment (~ 25°C) for 24 hours. For the preparation of CP-PVA organogels at State III, the CP-PVA organogels at State II were dialyzed in a 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and partially dried in an ambient environment for 24 hours to evaporate most of the water. At last, the CP-PVA organogel at State III could be transformed back to State I (denoted as State I 2 ) through thermal annealing at 80°C for 2 hours. Preparation of sans-glycerol CP-PVA hydrogels Sans-glycerol CP-PVA conductive hydrogels were prepared from conductive CP-PVA organogel by employing a popular drying-reswelling strategy reported previously 51 . In detail, p-CP-PVA organogels (CP’s relative content: 22 wt%, relative to the mass of PVA and CP; solid content: ~40%) were thermally annealed at 80 C for 2 hours followed by dialyzing the organogels in water, followed by drying at the ambient environment (25°C) and reswelling in purified water. Preparation of polyaniline (PANi)-PVA and Ag-PVA organogels PANi-PVA organogels were synthesized following an ice-templated polymerization method reported previously 52 . In detail, a monomer-containing solution (solution A) was first prepared by adding 80 µL of HCl solution (35 wt%) and 28 mg of aniline in 1 mL of 10 wt% PVA solution, followed by vigorous stirring until a clear and transparent solution was formed. The mixture solution was cooled in an ice bath. Subsequently, 0.5 mL of ammonium persulfate (APS) solution (162 mg mL − 1 ) was added to solution A. The resulting solution was poured into a mold and frozen in liquid nitrogen for 2 hours. Finally, the frozen samples were transferred to a refrigerator at − 20°C and kept static for 24 hours, during which aniline was polymerized to form PANi. PANi-PVA organogels were obtained by thawing the frozen samples at room temperature, followed by dialysis in 50 wt% glycerol solution for 12 h and drying at ambient temperature for 24 hours. For the preparation of the Ag-PVA organogels, 0.15 g of silver flake powder (diameter: 5 µm) and 0.6 mL of a glycerol solution (50 wt%) were added to 2 mL of a 10 wt% PVA solution and mixed with a planetary-type mixer at 2500 rpm for 10 min (HMV200D, Shenzheng Hasai Technology, China). Then, the mixture solution was drop-casted onto a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.1 mL cm − 2 ) and dried at ambient temperature (~ 25°C) for 24 hours. Writing and erasing the conductive pathway of organogels To pattern the conductive traces, the p-CP-PVA organogels or CP-PVA organogels at State III were irradiated by a continuous laser (DT1-3W; Lighthouse photonics, China) with an optical power density of 150 W m − 2 (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s − 1 , if not particularly mentioned. An infrared thermal imager (A615, Teledyne FLIR, U.S.) was employed to record the temperature variations and infrared thermal images of the CP-PVA organogels during laser irradiation, capturing their photothermal response. To quantitatively study the photothermal-induced patterning of conductive traces, CP-PVA organogels at State III were subject to laser irradiation through a photomask. The pre-patterned photomask was then brought into intimate contact with the organogel surface and precisely aligned under microscopic observation (the design of the photomask is shown in Supplementary Figs. 36 and 37. Laser irradiation under default laser parameters was subsequently applied through the photomask apertures to induce conductive traces. The characterization of laser-irradiated CP-PVA organogels via digital source meter (2450 Graphical SourceMeter, Keithley, U.S.) and probe station (YZ-50, Yuxin Technology, China) measurements. The reconfigurability of laser-induced conductive traces was investigated through the ion-specific effect and laser photothermal effect. Specifically, a pre-patterned photomask was brought into intimate contact with the CP-PVA organogel surface and precisely aligned under microscopic observation (the design of the photomask is shown in Supplementary Fig. 35). Laser irradiation was applied through the photomask apertures to induce conductive traces. The resistance values between arbitrary pairs of contact pads were measured using the digital source meter and probe station. The conductive traces of CP-PVA organogels were strongly influenced by their nanophase structure, which could be modulated through treatment with different salt solutions. Typically, to erase the conductance of the CP-PVA organogels, the CP-PVA organogels with conductive traces (State I) were immersed in a 15 wt% glycerol salt solution with a salting-in effect (e.g., 2 M CaCl 2 solution) for 3 days, followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment (~ 25°C) for 24 hours (State II). Worth noting, the organogels could maintain a high resistance after dialysis in 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and drying in an ambient environment (~ 25°C) for 24 hours (State III). Subsequently, new conductive traces were patterned on the CP-PVA organogels through photomask-guided laser irradiation (State I 2 ). The resistance values between arbitrary pairs of contact pads were measured via the digital source meter and probe station, where probes were pre-coated with silver paste to minimize contact resistance. Conformal soldering of conductive organogels The CP-PVA organogels could be soldered to themselves or some common metals used in conventional electronics, such as Cu, Sn, and Au. Typically, CP-PVA organogel was first dip-coated with a sans-glycerol CP/PVA aqueous solution (containing 26.1 mg mL − 1 of PVA and 7.4 mg mL − 1 of CP) and then gently pressed against the targeted adherend (5 kPa), and selective evaporation at an ambient temperature (~ 25°C) for 12 hours. Afterward, the assembly was thermally annealed at 80 o C for 2 hours to establish the electrical connection. Particularly, for bonding with metal substrates, the surface was first cleaned with ethanol to remove organic contaminants, followed by 5 minutes of oxygen plasma treatment to enhance surface hydrophilicity. To validate the dynamic reconfiguration of the CP-PVA organogels, control soldering experiments were performed using different soldering solutions, including PVA/CP glycerol solution (the content of glycerol was 4 wt% relative to the total mass of the final solution, and the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL − 1 of CP and 26.1 mg mL − 1 ), CP sans-glycerol aqueous solution (solid content: 1.1–1.3 wt%), and PVA sans-glycerol aqueous solution (solid content: ~ 10 wt%). Subsequently, conformal soldering was performed using the aforementioned procedures to assess the effectiveness of each solder under controlled conditions. Closed-loop recycling of conductive CP-PVA organogels CP-PVA organogels can be closed-loop recycled through dissolution followed by selective solvent evaporation. Specifically, CP-PVA organogels (30 mm in length and 20 mm in width) with laser-patterned conductive traces were dialyzed in a small amount of water to remove glycerol, and the resulting dialysis solution containing glycerol was collected for subsequent reuse. The dialyzed sample was then dispersed in 1 mL of deionized water and stirred at 80°C until a clear solution was obtained. After cooling to room temperature, the previously collected dialysis solution was added to recover the glycerol content (2 wt%, relative to the total mass of the solution). The resulting mixture was filtered through a 220 µm pore size membrane, drop-cast onto a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.2 mL cm⁻ 2 ), and allowed to dry under ambient conditions (25°C) for 24 hours. Fabrication of organogel-based printing circuit boards The CP-PVA organogels, with a solid content of ~ 50 wt% and CP’s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), were used for experiments. The CP-PVA organogels were cut into rectangular strips measuring 10 cm in length and 3.5 cm in width using a scalpel. Subsequently, 6 channels conductive traces (spacing: 5.5 mm, width: 1 mm) were induced on the CP-PVA organogels via continuous laser direct writing with an optical power density of 150 W m − 2 (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s − 1 . The organogel-based printing circuit traces could be connected to two zero-insertion-force (ZIF) connectors, capable of transmitting analog signals within a wide range of frequencies (10 MHz-100 HZ). Preparation of electrode arrays for EMG recording The p-CP-PVA organogels with a solid content of ~ 40 wt% and CP’s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA) were used for experiments. Specifically, p-CP-PVA organogel (180 mm in length and 50 mm in width) was selected for patterning electrode traces by a continuous laser (150 W m − 2 , wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm, speed: 6 cm min − 1 ) to serve as surface electromyography (sEMG) electrodes. The PVA solution containing 50 mg mL − 1 PVA and 20 mg mL − 1 glycerol was applied over the electrode surface and dried at ambient temperature (30°C) as an insulating layer. Before this, a suitable size PDMS membrane was placed over the electrode area and interface region for protection. Fabrication of in situ rewritable electroluminescence devices Organogel-based electroluminescence devices adopted a sandwich structure 53 , consisting of a patterned organogel bottom electrode, an electroluminescent layer, an insulating layer, and a Cu top electrode. In detail, the CP-PVA organogel with laser-patterned conductive traces was used as an electrode. ZnS electroluminescent powder was dispersed in uncured PDMS (at a mass ratio of 1.4:1) and applied to the surface of the CP-PVA organogels to form the light-emitting layer. The samples were then solidified in the ambient environment (25 ℃) for 4 hours. Next, barium powder was dispersed in uncured PDMS at a 1:1 mass ratio and applied to the surface of the light-emitting layer to serve as the insulating layer. These samples were also solidified in the ambient environment (~ 25 ℃) for 2 hours. Finally, conductive copper paste was applied to the surface of the insulating layer to form the electrode layer. Lastly, alternating currents 100 V and 3 kHz were applied between the CP-PVA organogel and the conductive copper paste to activate the electroluminescent powder. To study the in situ rewritable of the CP-PVA organogel-based electroluminescence devices. The CP-PVA organogel-based electroluminescence devices were immersed in 15 wt% glycerol solutions (relative to the total mass of solution) with a salting-in effect (e.g., 2 M CaCl 2 solution) for 3 days. Then, the devices were dialysis in 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and selectively evaporation in an ambient environment (~ 25°C) overnight to erase the conductive traces of CP-PVA organogels. The CP-PVA organogels were subsequently repatterned with conductive traces via continuous laser direct writing with an optical power density of 150 W m − 2 (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s − 1 . Fabrication of in situ rewritable LED bands The p-CP-PVA organogels, with a solid content of ~ 40 wt% and CP’s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), were used for experiments. Subsequently, conductive traces were patterned on the CP-PVA organogel by a continuous wave laser (power density: 150 W m − 2 , wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm, speed: 6 cm min − 1 ). The conductive traces as shown in Supplementary Fig. 53. The aqueous CP/PVA solder (the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL − 1 of CP and 26.1 mg mL − 1 ) was printed onto the CP-PVA organogel through a customized stencil, serving as contact pads for LEDs. Then, the LEDs are placed on the corresponding contact pads. Finally, the LED bands were left at ambient temperature (~ 25°C) to selectively evaporation excess water from the CP/PVA aqueous solder, and powered by a constant current of 20 mA. To study the in situ rewritable of the CP-PVA organogel-based LED bands. The CP-PVA organogel-based LED bands were immersed in 15 wt% glycerol solutions (relative to the total mass of solution) with a salting-in effect (e.g., 2 M CaCl 2 solution) for 3 days. Then, the LED bands were dialysis in 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and selectively evaporation in an ambient environment (~ 25°C) overnight to erase the conductive traces of CP-PVA organogels. The CP-PVA organogels were subsequently rewritten with new conductive traces via continuous laser direct writing with an optical power density of 150 W m − 2 (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s − 1 (Supplementary Fig. 53). Fabrication of organogel-based stretchable circuitry model for audio playing The organogel-based stretchable circuitry model was fabricated by constructing an audio circuit with a patterned CP-PVA organogel serving as a printing circuit board. Here, we patterned the p-CP-PVA organogels to create conductive traces and contacts for circuit applications. The p-CP-PVA organogels, with a solid content of ~ 40 wt% and CP’s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), were used for experiments. Subsequently, conductive traces were constructed on the p-CP-PVA organogels by a continuous wave laser (power density: 150 W m − 2 , wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm, speed: 6 cm min − 1 ). The CP/PVA aqueous solder (the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL − 1 of CP and 26.1 mg mL − 1 ) was printed onto the p-CP-PVA organogel, serving as contact pads for electronic components. The electronic components are placed on the corresponding contact pads. Finally, the electronic components were left at room temperature to allow the evaporation of excess water from the CP/PVA aqueous solder. Detailed circuit diagram and printed circuit board design are provided in Supplementary Fig. 54, and the list of components can be found in Supplementary Table 5. The organogel-based audio player circuit is powered by a lithium-ion battery. Online content Any methods, additional references, Nature Portfolio reporting summaries, source data, supplementary information, acknowledgments, peer review information; details of author contributions and competing interests; and statements of data and code availability are available at Statistical analysis All experiments were conducted with a sample size of at least four (n ≥ 4) and results were presented as mean ± standard deviations (SD) or as box-and-whisker plots. Statistical analyses were performed using the two-sided t -test for comparisons between two groups or one-way analysis of variances (ANOVA) for comparison among multiple groups, using Origin software. Significance levels were defined as p ≥ 0.05 (not significant, NS), p < 0.05 (*), p < 0.01 (**), p < 0.001 (***). Electrophysiological recording data were pre-processed using a bandpass filter (5–50 Hz) implemented in Origin software. Declarations Ethical approval All human-related experiments were conducted with the consent of volunteers and approved by the Institute Animal Ethics Committee of Nanjing University of Science and Technology (210913001). Data availability The main data supporting the results in this study are available within the paper and its Supplementary Information. Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52203002, 52072177, and 52272084), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 30923010204, 30918012201, 2023102003 and 30919011405), and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFB3808800). All the experiments involving humans were conducted in full compliance with local laws and approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Nanjing University of Science and Technology (ACUC-NUST-202402280091). Informed written consent from all human participants was obtained. Author contributions B.Y and J.F. initiated the concept and designed the overall studies. W.Z. and H.Z. led the experiments and collected the overall data. Z.L, and Y.G. contributed to microelectrode fabrication. Z.W., contributed to the small-angle X-ray scattering spectroscopy characterization. All authors contributed the data analysis and provided feedback on the manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Supplementary information is available at Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Bowen Yao or Jiajun Fu. Peer review information Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints. References Liu, Y. et al. Morphing electronics enable neuromodulation in growing tissue. Nat. Biotechnol. 38 , 1031-1036 (2020). Madhvapathy, S. R. et al. Implantable bioelectronic systems for early detection. Science 381 , 1105-1112 (2023). Yoo, J.-Y. et al. Wireless broadband acousto-mechanical sensing system for continuous physiological monitoring. Nat. Med. 29 , 3137-3148 (2023). Ye, C. et al. A wearable aptamer nanobiosensor for non-invasive female hormone monitoring. Nat Nanotechnol 19, 330–337 (2024). Fang, Y. et al. Micelle-enabled self-assembly of porous and monolithic carbon membranes for bioelectronic interfaces. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16 , 206-213 (2021). Zhou, A. et al. A wireless and artefact-free 128-channel neuromodulation device for closed-loop stimulation and recording in non-human primates. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 3 , 15-26 (2019). Huang, Y. et al. Bioelectronics for electrical stimulation: materials, devices and biomedical applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 53 , 8632-8712 (2024). Minev, I. R. et al. Electronic dura mater for long-term multimodal neural interfaces. Science 347 , 159-163 (2015). Yi, J. et al. Water-responsive supercontractile polymer films for bioelectronic interfaces. Nature 624 , 295-302 (2023). Yin, J., Wang, S., Tat, T. & Chen, J. Motion artefact management for soft bioelectronics. Nat. Rev. Bioeng. 2 , 541-558 (2024). Wu, X. S. et al. Self-assembly of biological networks via adaptive patterning revealed by avian intradermal muscle network formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 116 , 10858-10867 (2019). Homberger, D. G. et al. The role of mechanical forces on the patterning of the avian feather-bearing skin: a biomechanical analysis of the integumentary musculature in birds. J. Exp. Zool. B Mol. Dev. Evol. 298 , 123-139 (2003). Hütt, M.-T. et al. Perspective: network-guided pattern formation of neural dynamics. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B, Biol. Sci. 369 , 20130522 (2014). Marder, E. Neuromodulation of neuronal circuits: back to the future. Neuron 76 , 1-11 (2012). Hempel, C. M. et al. Spatio-temporal dynamics of cyclic AMP signals in an intact neural circuit. Nature 384 , 166-169 (1996). Bargmann, C. I. Beyond the connectome: how neuromodulators shape neural circuits. Bioessays 34 , 458-465 (2012). Mazlouman, S. J. et al. A reconfigurable patch antenna using liquid metal embedded in a silicone substrate. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 59 , 4406-4412 (2011). Ramachandran, V. et al. Elastic instabilities of a ferroelastomer beam for soft reconfigurable electronics. Extreme Mech. Lett. 9 , 282-290 (2016). Fink, Z. et al. Repairable and reconfigurable structured liquid circuits. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2402708 (2024). Park, J.-E. et al. Rewritable, printable conducting liquid metal hydrogel. ACS Nano 13 , 9122-9130 (2019). Ohm, Y. et al. Reconfigurable electrical networks within a conductive hydrogel composite. Adv. Mater. 35 , 2209408 (2023). Liu, Y. et al. Rewritable electrically controllable liquid crystal actuators. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 , 2302110 (2023). Zhao, Y. et al. Somatosensory actuator based on stretchable conductive photothermally responsive hydrogel. Sci. Robot. 6 , eabd5483 (2021). Lin, Y. L. et al. Light-responsive MXenegel via interfacial host-guest supramolecular bridging. Nat. Commun. 15 , 916 (2024). Chen, S. & Jonsson, M. P. Dynamic conducting polymer plasmonics and metasurfaces. ACS Photonics 10 , 571-581 (2023). Doshi, S. et al. Electrochemically mutable soft metasurfaces. Nat. Mater. 24 , 205-211 (2025). Keene, S. T. et al. A biohybrid synapse with neurotransmitter-mediated plasticity. Nat. Mater. 19 , 969-973 (2020). Lee, Y. et al. A low-power stretchable neuromorphic nerve with proprioceptive feedback. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7 , 511-519 (2023). Wang, W. et al. Neuromorphic sensorimotor loop embodied by monolithically integrated, low-voltage, soft e-skin. Science 380 , 735-742 (2023). Andreev, M. et al. Influence of ion solvation on the properties of electrolyte solutions. J. Phys. Chem. B 122 , 4029-4034 (2018). Zhang, Y. J. & Cremer, P. S. Interactions between macromolecules and ions: the Hofmeister series. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 10 , 658-663 (2006). Hofmeister, F. Zur lehre von der wirkung der salze: zweite mittheilung. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 24 , 247-260 (1888). Nanou, E. & Catterall, W. A. Calcium channels, synaptic plasticity, and neuropsychiatric disease. Neuron 98 , 466-481 (2018). Littleton, J. T. & Ganetzky, B. Ion channels and synaptic organization. Neuron 26 , 35-43 (2000). Lee, H.-K. et al. Phosphorylation of the AMPA receptor GluR1 subunit is required for synaptic plasticity and retention of spatial memory. Cell 112 , 631-643 (2003). Huang, J. et al. Influence of thermal treatment on the conductivity and morphology of PEDOT/PSS films. Synth. Met. 139 , 569-572 (2003). Liu, Y. et al. Morphing electronics enable neuromodulation in growing tissue. Nat. Biotechnol. 38 , 1031-1036 (2020). He, H. et al. Enhancement in the mechanical stretchability of PEDOT:PSS films by compounds of multiple hydroxyl groups for their application as transparent stretchable conductors. Macromol. 54 , 1234-1242 (2021). Record, M. T. et al. Introductory lecture: interpreting and predicting Hofmeister salt ion and solute effects on biopolymer and model processes using the solute partitioning model. Faraday Discuss. 160 , 9-44 (2013). Gregory, K. P. et al.The electrostatic origins of specific ion effects: quantifying the Hofmeister series for anions. Chem Sci 12 , 15007-15015 (2021). Hua, M. T. et al. Strong tough hydrogels via the synergy of freeze-casting and salting out. Nature 590 , 594-599 (2021). Li, X. et al. Effect of salt on dynamic mechanical behaviors of polyampholyte hydrogels. Macromol. 56 , 535-544 (2022). Jin, Y. et al. Time-salt type superposition and salt processing of poly(methacrylamide) hydrogel based on Hofmeister series. Macromol. 57 , 2746–2755 (2024). Zhang, Y. et al. Effects of Hofmeister anions on the LCST of PNIPAM as a function of molecular weight. J. Phys. Chem. C 111 , 8916-8924 (2007). Wu, S. et al. Poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels with broad-range tunable mechanical properties via the hofmeister effect. Adv. Mater. 33 , 2007829 (2021). Mohsin, M., Hossin, A. & Haik, Y. Thermal and mechanical properties of poly (vinyl alcohol) plasticized with glycerol. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 122 , 3102-3109 (2011). Inoue, A. et al. Strong adhesion of wet conducting polymers on diverse substrates. Sci. Adv. 6 , eaay5394 (2020). Daeyeon, W. et al. Laser-induced wet stability and adhesion of pure conducting polymer hydrogels. Nat. Electron. 7 , 475–486 (2024). Xue, Y. et al. Mechanically-compliant bioelectronic interfaces through fatigue-resistant conducting Polymer Hydrogel Coating. Adv. Mater. 35 , e2304095 (2023). Hua, M. et al. 4D Printable tough and thermoresponsive hydrogels. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13 , 12689-12697 (2021). Lu, B. et al. Pure PEDOT:PSS hydrogels. Nat Commun 10 , 1043 (2019). Zhao, Y. et al. Hierarchically structured stretchable conductive hydrogels for high-performance wearable strain sensors and supercapacitors. Matter 3 , 1196-1210 (2020). Zheng, S. et al. Pressure-stamped stretchable electronics using a nanofibre membrane containing semi-embedded liquid metal particles. Nat. Electron. 7 , 576-585 (2024). Additional Declarations There is NO Competing Interest. Supplementary Files Supportinginformation.pdf Supporting information SupplementaryVideo1.mp4 Supplementary Video 1 SupplementaryVideo2.mp4 Supplementary Video 2 SupplementaryVideo3.mp4 Supplementary Video 3 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 29 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in Nature Communications → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6540613","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":472007976,"identity":"4f0e2c33-7b9e-4625-886b-e2c45a273b67","order_by":0,"name":"Jiajun Fu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBElEQVRIie2RvWrDMBRGbzFYyy1ZHeyHEBQcgiF6gT6EjCBdQih4KWQJeOgiyJpCHqJrNxmBnyHgJdnboRSKhw69zs9opWOgOtMxfAcZCcDjuULYEqQBBBiwstp10hG5EjSnZKhrxTvBPyRH+Po+PSwvJ5Hcmzaxcx6F08VjYoWAoGoQJnNHIiuNthjFZd2s0eYaQpUhqKIvEZQYpOXbpp42JBIB0xjB5EvXKT+UvG5naUGJQBh8X0wsnpKA5EYDhu4Ed9Im+JC/0CXHSKJteDfecNWfsJn6/NBZvqKn/LrVmWDP5X77/jTpTSiSQD9z5CBBZ7x3TzAD0J4/WsfQ4/F4/i2/Vu5WJwxj4/AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8542-9556","institution":"Nanjing Univeristy of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jiajun","middleName":"","lastName":"Fu","suffix":""},{"id":472007977,"identity":"90b21450-6ad7-477c-82c0-ab7d31c007bc","order_by":1,"name":"Wei Zhong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wei","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhong","suffix":""},{"id":472007978,"identity":"a9331110-e26a-4875-aaed-547c9d5c744c","order_by":2,"name":"Haojie Zhao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Univeristy of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haojie","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":472007979,"identity":"1d4c8982-289f-4117-82ba-7bf8b01ff1aa","order_by":3,"name":"Bowen Yao","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0750-9523","institution":"Nanjing Univeristy of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bowen","middleName":"","lastName":"Yao","suffix":""},{"id":472007980,"identity":"dd6d793b-9406-45f0-be3f-e708193f2042","order_by":4,"name":"Zhen-Ze Li","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-3448-8794","institution":"Tsinghua university","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhen-Ze","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":472007981,"identity":"2bccdd11-854a-4841-b8c1-1b1cd179de78","order_by":5,"name":"Zhifeng Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhifeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":472007982,"identity":"9f0cf793-3f5e-41e7-a946-8c2a73afb4b7","order_by":6,"name":"Yuhao Geng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Univeristy of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuhao","middleName":"","lastName":"Geng","suffix":""},{"id":472007983,"identity":"cf834803-3f27-42b7-8bb9-cc34846170c3","order_by":7,"name":"Wen Sun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Univeristy of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wen","middleName":"","lastName":"Sun","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-27 13:20:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6540613/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6540613/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-68088-3","type":"published","date":"2025-12-29T05:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":84766540,"identity":"5fc2f5ba-6ab4-422d-80af-915cb7408e43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:17:24","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2543094,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDesign and benefits of highly reconfigurable neuron-mimicking conductive networks. a,\u003c/strong\u003e Schematics of neural circuitry and reconfigurable conductive networks.\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eBrains encode and remove memory by altering the neural interconnection. Similar to the neural networks, conductive pathways in the reconfigurable conductive network made of CP-PVA organogels could be repeatedly micro-patterned through laser irradiation and salt treatment. \u003cstrong\u003eb,\u003c/strong\u003e Schematics of the nanophase structure and conductive pathway of the reconfigurable conductive networks upon different treatments. \u003cstrong\u003ec, d, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photographs of the CP-PVA organogels with high flexibility and toughness.\u003cstrong\u003e e, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photograph of the CP-PVA organogels with micropatterned conductive pathways upon a strain of 200%. The in situ micropatterning of conductive pathways rendered the organogel-based circuit board with excellent interfacial robustness.The inset showed the circuit diagram of the conductive pathways. \u003cstrong\u003ef,\u003c/strong\u003e Digital photograph of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) soldered onto conductive CP-PVA organogels and powered by a constant current of 20 mA. \u003cstrong\u003eg, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photograph of conductive CP-PVA organogel strips soldered together and used to connect to an LED.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/f6441160cdf1dd8a7c558a56.png"},{"id":84766547,"identity":"31cab54d-f5f8-41ca-8066-a5d3d92a5ece","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:17:24","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2923875,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDecoupling of mechanical and electrical performance and mechanism. a, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photographs of CP-PVA organogel stretched to 10 times the original length (Scale bar,15 mm). \u003cstrong\u003eb, \u003c/strong\u003eThe\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003ebox-and-whisker plots of the conductivities of CP-PVA organogels with different relative contents of CP (relative to the total mass of PVA and CP. \u003cstrong\u003ec, d, \u003c/strong\u003eTensile stress-strain curves and performance comparison of CP-PVA organogels with different content of CP (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA). The stress-strain curves were recorded at a strain rate of 200% min\u003csup\u003e−1\u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003ee, f, \u003c/strong\u003eAshby plots comparing the toughness, strain, and conductivity of CP-PVA organogels with previously reported conducting polymer hydrogels. Data points are obtained from references mentioned in Supplementary Fig. 8 and Supplementary Table 1. \u003cstrong\u003eg,\u003c/strong\u003e Schematic illustration of the bicontinuous nanophase structure formed within the CP–PVA organogels. \u003cstrong\u003eh, \u003c/strong\u003eFT-IR spectra of CP, PVA, and CP-PVA organogels (CP’s content = 22 wt%, relative to the total mass of CP and PVA; solid content: ~50 wt%). \u003cstrong\u003ei, \u003c/strong\u003eTemperature-dependent FT-IR spectra of CP-PVA organogel as the temperature increased from 20 °C to 140 °C with an interval of 10 °C. The CP-PVA organogel had a CP’s content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA) and a solid content of ~50 wt%. \u003cstrong\u003ej, \u003c/strong\u003eRaman spectra of CP-PVA organogels before and after thermal annealing at 80 °C for 2 hours (CP’s content = 22 wt%, relative to the total mass of CP and PVA; solid content: ~50 wt%). \u003cstrong\u003ek, \u003c/strong\u003eAFM characterizations of CP-PVA organogels (CP’s content = 22 wt%, relative to the total mass of CP and PVA; solid content: ~50 wt%) before and after thermal annealing: height image (left panel), phase image (middle panel), and tunneling current image recorded in TUNA (tunneling AFM) mode (right panel) (Scale bar = 500 nm). The data in panels \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003ei,\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003ej\u003c/strong\u003e were presented as mean values ± standard deviation (s.d.), with four samples tested in independent measurements. The data in panel \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e are presented in box-and-whisker plots, where the central dots, lines, and box limits indicate the mean, the median, and the upper/lower quartiles, and the whiskers extend to 1.5× the interquartile range from the quartiles. Statistical significance was assessed using two-sided \u003cem\u003et-tests \u003c/em\u003efor comparisons between two groups (panels \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e, and \u003cstrong\u003ej\u003c/strong\u003e), and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for comparisons among multiple groups (panels \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003e), with significance levels, denoted as \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e ≥ 0.05 (not significant, NS), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05(*), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01(**), and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001(***).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/0608f5062cfc1e39b0925437.png"},{"id":84766542,"identity":"4778b0a1-6ef4-4936-81cc-5581ee330aaf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:17:24","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2903957,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegulating conductance through phase reconfiguration. a, b, \u003c/strong\u003eSpecific ion effects ranked according to the conductance change ratio of CP-PVA organogels after ionic treatment (CH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eCOO\u003csup\u003e−\u003c/sup\u003e is denoted as AC\u003csup\u003e−\u003c/sup\u003e) (\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e). The conductivities of CP-PVA organogels were measured using the four-point probe method (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e). The CP-PVA organogels used for the tests had a solid content of ~50 wt% with CP’s relative content of 22 wt%. \u003cstrong\u003ec, d, \u003c/strong\u003eLeveraging the specific ion effect, the CP-PVA organogels could be reversibly tunned among three distinct thermodynamic states with characteristic electrical performance: a thermodynamically-favorable low-resistance state (State I), a thermodynamically-favorable high-resistance state (State II), and a kinetically-favorable high-resistance state (State III). \u003cstrong\u003ee, \u003c/strong\u003eXRD patterns (left panel) of CP-PVA organogels at different states and average crystalline size (right panel) calculated from the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of diffraction peak of () crystalline face. The diffraction peaks at 19.5° were ascribed to (10) crystalline facets of PVA chains in the CP-PVA hydrogels. The data in the right panel were presented in box-and-whisker plots, where the central dots, lines, and box limits indicate the mean, the median, and the upper/lower quartiles, and the whiskers extend to 1.5× the interquartile range from the quartiles. \u003cstrong\u003ef, \u003c/strong\u003eThe conductance stability of CP-PVA organogel at State III, stored at ambient environments for a different time. \u003cstrong\u003eg, \u003c/strong\u003eAFM characterizations of CP-PVA organogels at different states: height image (left panel), phase image (middle panel), and tunneling current image recorded in TUNA mode (right panel) (Scale bar, 500 nm). \u003cstrong\u003eh, \u003c/strong\u003eSchematic illustration of CP-PVA hydrogel. The CP-PVA hydrogel showed a weak response to specific ion effects, with most conductance pathways remaining stable upon CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e treatment. \u003cstrong\u003ei, \u003c/strong\u003eSchematic illustration of CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels. If chemically crosslinked, the CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels failed to form a conductive percolation network, even under thermal annealing conditions. The data in \u003cstrong\u003eb, e, \u003c/strong\u003eand\u003cstrong\u003e f \u003c/strong\u003eare presented as mean values ± standard deviation (s.d.), with four samples tested in independent measurements. Statistical significance was assessed using two-sided \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests for comparisons between two groups (panels \u003cstrong\u003eb \u003c/strong\u003eand\u003cstrong\u003e e \u003c/strong\u003e(right panel)), with significance levels denoted as \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e ≥ 0.05 (not significant, NS), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05(*), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01(**), and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001(***).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/140c50f46541a4357c6d3780.png"},{"id":84766543,"identity":"4c7438bc-6566-4e63-bd75-886f6d7bfb85","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:17:24","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2209275,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicropatterning and reconfiguration of conductive traces. a, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photographs of CP-PVA organogels with laser-defined conductive traces (scale bar of inset, 5mm). \u003cstrong\u003eb, \u003c/strong\u003eConductivities of CP-PVA organogels with varied CP’s contents (thickness: ~75 μm) after laser irradiation at different power densities, measured using a four-point probe method. \u003cstrong\u003ec, d, \u003c/strong\u003eCross-interference of adjacent conductive traces: microscopic images of two dumbbell-shaped conductive traces fabricated within a CP-PVA organogel (scale bar, 400 μm) (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e); resistance between two contact pads for conductive traces with different inter-line spacing (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e). \u003cstrong\u003ee-g \u003c/strong\u003eHomogeneity of conductive traces in vertical and horizontal direction: illustrative schematics showing the upper surface of CP-PVA organogels was directly exposed to laser exposure for the patterning of conductive traces (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e), digital photographs of dumbbell-shaped conductive traces (scale bar, 20 mm) (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e); resistance of conductive traces with different lengths, measured at the upper and lower surface of CP-PVA organogels (\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e). \u003cstrong\u003eh, i, \u003c/strong\u003eReconfigurability of conductive traces:\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003emicroscopic images of a conductive trace array fabricated within a CP-PVA organogel (scale bar, 100 μm) (\u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e); summary of resistance values measured between arbitrary pair of contact pads (\u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003e). The area outlined with white dashed lines in the microscopic images indicates the laser-induced conductive trace. \u003cstrong\u003ej-l,\u003c/strong\u003e Interfacial analysis between laser-irradiated and non-irradiated regions: microscopic photograph (\u003cstrong\u003ej\u003c/strong\u003e); AFM phase image (\u003cstrong\u003ek\u003c/strong\u003e); tunneling current image recorded in TUNA mode (\u003cstrong\u003el\u003c/strong\u003e). \u003cstrong\u003em,\u003c/strong\u003e Stretching behavior of a partially laser-irradiated CP-PVA organogel at a strain rate of 200% min\u003csup\u003e−1\u003c/sup\u003e (scale bar, 15 mm). The areas outlined with white dashed lines represent laser-irradiated areas. The data in \u003cstrong\u003eb,\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ed, \u003c/strong\u003eand\u003cstrong\u003e g\u003c/strong\u003e were presented as mean values ± standard deviation (s.d.), with four samples tested in independent measurements. Statistical significance was assessed using two-sided \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests for comparisons between two groups (panels \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e), with significance levels denoted as \u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e≥ 0.05 (not significant, NS),\u003cem\u003e p\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05(*), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01(**), and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001(***).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/c1272c70482a7c2230927685.png"},{"id":84767707,"identity":"e756dc2e-03f8-4c9d-b490-1904d37b1dac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:25:24","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2119618,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConformal soldering and closed-loop recycling of reconfigurable CP-PVA organogel network. a, \u003c/strong\u003eSchematic of the wet soldering process between CP-PVA organogel and various substrates. \u003cstrong\u003eb, c, \u003c/strong\u003eStress-strain curves (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) and resistance change (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) of pristine CP-PVA organogel and soldered sample formed by soldering two CP-PVA organogel pieces. The tensile tests were performed at a strain rate of 200% min\u003csup\u003e−1\u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003ed, e, \u003c/strong\u003eDemonstration of in situ conformal soldering. A Möbius-strip-shaped construct was formed by soldering two CP-PVA organogels, whereas a hydrogel analog failed to retain structure during the soldering process (with the popular annealing-reswelling method) (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e), CP-PVA organogel was also soldered to a stainless-steel hemisphere while preserving its hemispherical geometry (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e). \u003cstrong\u003ef, g, \u003c/strong\u003eWet soldering of CP-PVA organogel to a Cu substrate (scale bar, 3cm) (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e) and 90° peel-off tests of CP-PVA organogels adhered onto Cu, Sn, and Au substrates (\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e). \u003cstrong\u003eh, \u003c/strong\u003eSoldering of CP-PVA organogel to a flexible PCB. The CP-PVA organogels could be spatially patterned through laser irradiation, allowing for multichannel board-to-board connects. \u003cstrong\u003ei, \u003c/strong\u003eSchematic illustrating the mechanism of wet soldering.\u003cstrong\u003e j, \u003c/strong\u003eClosed-loop recycling of CP-PVA organogels.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/9db4efb8bffefb081723d107.png"},{"id":84766548,"identity":"3a9b6006-0a80-4495-ab16-2d9733211c0d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:17:25","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2164814,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDemonstrations of reconfigurable organogels. a, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photograph of 6-channeled GPCB connected to conventional rigid PCBs through ZIF connectors. The inset showed the enlarged digital photographs of the GPCB (scale bar, 20 mm; scale bar of inset, 10 mm). \u003cstrong\u003eb, \u003c/strong\u003eThe GPCB are connected to conventional ZIF connectors for analog signal transmission (ranging from 2 MHz-10 MHz) \u003cstrong\u003ec, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photograph of CP-PVA organogel-based digital wristband containing 8 pairs of electrodes for electrophysiological signal recording (scale bar, 10 mm). \u003cstrong\u003ed, e, \u003c/strong\u003esEMG signals recorded with the organogel-based digital wristband during the performance of four different gestures (gestures I, II, III, V) (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e); sEMG maps corresponding to the four-hand gestures were generated by calculating the root mean square (RMS) amplitude for each channel (\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e). \u003cstrong\u003ef,\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eg,\u003c/strong\u003e Digital photograph of the reconfigurable organogel-based EL devices (\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e) and LED bands (\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e). The EL devices were powered by a 100 V, 1 kHz a.c. supply (alternating current denoted as a.c.). A constant current of 20 mA powered the LED bands. \u003cstrong\u003eh, \u003c/strong\u003eDigital photograph of GPCB-based stretchable circuitry models for audio playing, consisting of resistors, capacitors, switches, an LED, a speaker, and an FLM038A integrated circuit (IC). The GPCB-based audio player circuitry model was highly soft and operable upon strain.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/5be9e16f87d71eb1359ee95f.png"},{"id":101933180,"identity":"25743e2f-0b65-499a-be8b-fc2486d8c114","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 08:07:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":22084826,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/59c9410b-bfad-48df-bc93-19c8f0d59ab2.pdf"},{"id":84767706,"identity":"a14367a0-458e-4d76-ada2-fbc52c9ca1d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:25:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":5027276,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supporting information","description":"","filename":"Supportinginformation.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/ed8a51692e571de46a3fa987.pdf"},{"id":84767708,"identity":"60b2c3ef-1d75-47f4-939b-d55d00140eb7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:25:25","extension":"mp4","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":14493069,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Video 1","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryVideo1.mp4","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/7091bc331443d8ab4fb28d32.mp4"},{"id":84766549,"identity":"789c966c-352d-47a2-b739-6a73d20b82f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:17:25","extension":"mp4","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":8806996,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Video 2","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryVideo2.mp4","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/8ed0bcb72d852730562cdd57.mp4"},{"id":84766551,"identity":"2d940558-4ef6-44cf-b5e6-31809c74e306","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-17 07:17:25","extension":"mp4","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":14284440,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Video 3","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryVideo3.mp4","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6540613/v1/16f729842d23833f18891a0b.mp4"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Highly reconfigurable neuron-mimicking conductive networks through nanophase structure engineering","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBionic electronics aims to merge biological living organisms and conventional electronic devices, with great promise in novel applications such as wearable/implantable intelligent devices, tissue engineering, human-machine interaction, and neurorobotics\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For example, hydrogel-based bioelectronics has been developed to imitate the physical performance (\u003cem\u003ee.g.\u003c/em\u003e, softness, permeability, and aquosity) of biological tissue for in-vivo physiological monitoring\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, neuron modulation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, regenerative medicine\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003cem\u003eetc.\u003c/em\u003e, outperforming their rigid counterparts\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, at the hardware level, biological living tissues are characterized by high reconfigurability and molecular responsiveness when compared to conventional man-made electronics. Particularly, living tissues can tune their physiological functions by reconfiguring their chemical or physical structure in either active or passive pathways\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Such molecular-level dynamics therefore endow living systems with high intelligence and self-adaptiveness that conventional electronics struggle to replicate at the hardware level. For example, the brains encode and remove memories by strengthening or weakening synaptic connections between neurons through trans-synaptic proteins such as neurexins (presynaptic) and neuroligins (postsynaptic)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea). By contrast, most conventional electronic devices, such as printed circuit boards (PCB), neuron stimulators, and medical electrical patches, were incapable of reconfiguring their circuitry, thus leading to limited dynamics in spatial and temporal dimensions once the fabrication procedure is complete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo offer reconfigurability to electronics, two strategies at different spatial scales were proposed, \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e, macroscopic geometric regulation and molecular structure (or doping level) regulation. Based on these two strategies, several novel reconfigurable devices were developed, with examples ranging from the adjustable antennae based on mechanical stretching\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, rewritable conductive hydrogel by controlling their swelling degrees\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21 CR22 CR23\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e to active optical metasurface devices based on dynamic conducting polymer\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and neuromorphic devices by engineering ion migration and electron transport within semiconductors\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Unfortunately, these two strategies struggled to integrate wide tunability of electrical performance, size scalability, cycling endurance, structural integrity, and device compactness, inferior to bulky but delicate living organisms. This issue was mainly rooted in an intrinsic conflict in material design, where the high electrical performance usually required electrical materials to have highly conjugated or crystalline molecular structures with intimate electrical contacts, while the high reconfigurability usually necessitates weak and responsive intermolecular interaction. For instance, light-responsive conductive hydrogel could be constructed through host-guest interaction but suffered from a low electrical conductance or structural compactness\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, reconfigurable bionic electronics sharing a similar physiological mechanism of organisms are highly demanded and challenging, promising to bridge the gap between biology and electronics for the intellectualization of conventional electronics and their integration with biological organisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe specific ion effect, encompassing the popular Hofmeister series, has long been found to strongly affect a range of biological processes, mainly originating from electrostatic interaction, hydration effects, and/or molecular sieve effects\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For example, the secondary structure of proteins varied in the presence of different types of ions; the specific ion channels located at synapses (ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors) could facilitate various forms of synaptic plasticity that were associated with memory and learning\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Inspired by the reconfigurable biological systems with specific ion effect, we herein propose a general strategy, reversible nanophase regulation of non-covalent crosslinking networks, to successfully construct neuron-mimicking highly reconfigurable conductive networks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea). In detail, conductive organogels with dynamic phase structures were prepared as an exemplary model with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and conducting polymer (CP, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate, PEDOT:PSS) serving as mechanical and electrical component (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb-d). This conductive network could reversibly transform in different thermodynamic states with different nanophase structures through the introduction of specific ions, driven by the delicate balance of inter- and intra-molecular non-covalent interactions of polymers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb). With the excellent controllability over the phase structure through the specific ion effect, the reconfiguration of electrical performance was successfully realized with electronic conductivity able to be turned in a wide range of as high as 4–5 magnitudes. In addition, the conductive pathways could be repeatedly micro-patterned within one organogel by laser exposure, significantly beneficial for the structural stability of organogel-based bionic electronics integrating conductor and dielectrics with outstanding interfacial robustness (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ee).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, with the great benefits of the high reconfigurability of hydrogen bonding networks, in situ wet soldering and closed-loop recycling could also be realized through a strategy of dispersed medium redistribution. For the in situ wet soldering, the conductive organogels could be soldered to various substrates with PVA/CP aqueous solution as solder through mild thermal treatment (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ef, g). Compared with the previously reported soldering methods for conductive hydrogels, the new strategy here required no additional dying-reswelling step, thus capable of preserving the 3-dimensional (3D) geometric structures of hydrogels for various application scenarios requiring high conformability. For the closed-loop recycling, attributed to the high reversibility of the non-covalent network with lowly volatile glycerol as the dispersing phase, the conductive organogels could also be recycled in a nearly closed loop through dialysis and heating, with no significant loss in mechanical and electrical properties. Last, with these unique features, the reconfigurable conductive networks were therefore demonstrated for the application of various bioelectronics and wearable electronics including reconfigurable printing circuit board (Rec-PCB), on-body wrist for electrophysiological signal capture, and rewritable electroluminescent devices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a whole, a reversible nanophase regulation strategy was proposed to develop reconfigurable bionic conductive networks that could successfully integrate some inherently contradictory characteristics including high conductance, reconfigurability, interfacial stability, solderability, and closed-loop recyclability. This strategy also showed great compatibility with other material systems, such as metal-based elastomers, shedding light on the design of bionic next-generation electronics. Additionally, this work successfully demonstrated the specific ion effect could be utilized to delicately in situ tune the physical properties of noncovalent networks through nanophase structure engineering, providing an efficient toolbox for the mechanism study of polymer-based functional composites especially for the volatile or degradable system where the employment of the conventional time-temperature superposition principle may be restrained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n"},{"header":"Material design, electrical, and mechanical performances","content":"\u003cp\u003eConductive organogels were constructed as exemplary reconfigurable models by employing CP (PEDOT:PSS), PVA, and glycerol as conductive filler, phase-regulating components, and dispersed medium, respectively. In particular, CP and PVA were able to offer abundant hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions that were susceptible to specific ion effects, thus benefiting the reconfigurability of polymer networks, whereas glycerol could serve as both a plasticizer to prevent over-dense stacking of CP and PVA for higher dynamics and lowly volatile medium for expanded working temperature windows. For the preparation of the organogels, glycerol suspensions containing CP and PVA were drop-casted or spin-coated on substrates and then partially dried in an ambient environment (~ 25 ℃) for 24 hours. During this drying process, most water was selectively evaporated, leaving behind pristine CP-PVA organogels (p-CP-PVA) with solid contents of ~ 40% (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe p-CP-PVA organogels were free-standing and exhibited outstanding mechanical robustness with Young’s modulus of 2.8–13.5 MPa, fracture strain of 415%-1047%, fractural strength of 5.9–11.4 MPa, and toughness of 24.4–71.4 MJ m\u003csup\u003e− 3\u003c/sup\u003e, depending on the relative contents of each components (Supplementary Note 1 and Supplementary Figs.\u0026nbsp;2 and 3). For the electrical performance, the p-CP-PVA organogels were almost non-electronically-conductive, as measured by a significantly low conductivity of 0.46–0.73 mS cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). At last, to improve the conductance, mild thermal annealing was implemented at 30–80°C. The resultant organogels (CP-PVA) experienced significant improvement by 4–5 orders of magnitudes, reaching up to 112.5 S cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e, accompanied by slight changes in solid contents and mechanical performance (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea, b, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;5 and Supplementary Note 2). Moreover, the conductivities of organogels showed low dependency on the gel thickness in a wide range of 0.3-1.0 µm, confirming the uniform distribution of CP within the organogel matrix (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;6 and Supplementary Note 3).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, when compared with the pure PVA organogel, the thermally-annealed CP-PVA organogel exhibited unexpected improvement in mechanical performance, highly distinct from previously most cases where introducing conductive filler usually resulted in the stiffening and embrittling of composites. Specifically, with the CP’s relative content increasing from 0 wt% to 16 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), there were simultaneous increases in Young’s modulus, fracture strain, strength, and toughness by 208.3% (2.4 to 7.4 MPa), 30.4% (761–992%), 70.6% (6.8 to 11.6 MPa) and 145.5% (32.5 to 79.8 MJ m\u003csup\u003e− 3\u003c/sup\u003e), respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec, d, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;7). As a result, the PVA-CP organogels exhibited superior comprehensive performance in terms of conductivity, stretchability, and toughness when compared with previously reported conducting polymer hydrogels (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ee, f, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;8 and Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1). Furthermore, the CP-PVA organogels exhibited satisfactory conductance retention upon tensile strain, as shown by low increases in resistance by only 0.04, 0.22, and 1.20 times at the strains of 50%, 100%, and 200%, respectively (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). The successful decoupling of the electrical and mechanical performance could be attributed to the formation of bi-continuous nanophase structures within the organogels, which will be discussed in the following.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt last, the CP-PVA organogels exhibited higher resistance to environmental humidity and high/low temperature than its hydrogel counterpart with only water as the dispersed medium, due to the low volatility of glycerol (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;10–17 and Supplementary Note 4). For example, upon exposure to a high-temperature environment of 80°C, the CP-PVA organogels showed satisfactory stability in terms of mechanical and electrical properties. Such high intactness could not only enhance the system’s reliability but also greatly expand the methodological toolbox for rational control over the conductive network by regulating nanophase structure, a key for the reconfigurable system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eMechanism on the formation of bi-continuous phase\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe successful decoupling of electrical and mechanical performances of the CP-PVA organogel could be attributed to the formation a bicontinuous nanophase structure composed of PVA-rich and CP-rich domains (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eg). This unique nanophase structure was a thermodynamic-favored state as a delicate balance between the miscibility and self-aggregability of the CP and PVA chains in the glycerol medium, driven by hydrogen bonds and π-π interaction. On the one hand, the PVA and CP could strongly interact with each other through ionic hydrogen bonds, according to Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra. In the FT-IR spectra, with the addition of CP, the hydroxyl absorption peak of PVA exhibited an obvious redshift from 3282 cm⁻¹ to 3263 cm⁻¹, which could be mainly ascribed to the formation of ionic hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl groups of PVA and sulfonate groups CP (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eh, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;18 and Supplementary Tables\u0026nbsp;2, 3, and 4). This intermolecular interaction could be further confirmed by the structural disordering of the PVA network, as revealed by the decrease of average lattice size of PVA from 2.4 to 1.8 nm as calculated by the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of diffraction peak of (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:10\\stackrel{-}{1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) crystalline face (2\u003cem\u003eθ\u003c/em\u003e = 19.5°) in the XRD spectra (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;19).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the other, both PVA and CP chains were prone to self-assemble themselves solely especially after thermal annealing at 80°C. In detail, firstly, the thermal annealing could significantly activate the segmental motion of PVA and CP by partially dissociating the hydrogen bonds, as shown by the blue shift of the hydroxy peak in the temperature-dependence FT-IR spectra (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ei and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;20). During this annealing process, both the PVA and CP chains transited into more ordered molecular configurations mainly driven by hydrogen bonds, π-π interaction, and hydrophobic interaction. The PVA chains exhibited a higher crystalline degree with lattice size increasing from 1.8 to 4.3 nm whereas the CP chains conjugated in a more delocalized degree through π-π interaction and hydrophobic interaction as revealed by the redshift of thiophene-derived C\u003csub\u003eα\u003c/sub\u003e=C\u003csub\u003eβ\u003c/sub\u003e peak from ~ 1428 to 1421 cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e in Raman spectra (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ej and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;21). Such transformation of CP under thermal annealing was consistent with the results reported previously, where the PEDOT:PSS chains would extended and stacked with each other, thus allowing for a better interchain contact\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith the synergy of the two opposite tendencies as mentioned above, phase separation in the nanometer scale, therefore, occurred within the PVA-CP organogels, leading to the formation of a bicontinuous phase structure composed of PVA- and CP-rich domains. In detail, after thermal annealing, the CP-PVA organogels exhibited an improved degree of nanophase separation as shown by a significantly decreased interphase distance with high contrast in the phase images according to atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterizations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ek). The nanophase separation structure could greatly benefit the electrical interconnecting of CP chains while preventing their over-aggregation, thus leading to a uniform conductive percolation network throughout the PVA matrix (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ek). Additionally, the phase separation degree was quantified by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). In SAXS, the scattering peak of PVA-CP organogels turned more pronounced with a positive shift after thermal annealing, corresponding to a decrease in the average interphase distance from 10.6 to 8.2 nm (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;22).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorthy to note, the bi-continuous nanophase was thermodynamic-favored in the glycerol medium and could be regulated by altering the chain mobility and intermolecular interaction (this will be discussed in the following). As a whole, driven by the hydrogen bonds, π-π stacking, and hydrophobic interaction, a delicate balance between the miscibility and self-aggregability of the CP and PVA chains was realized, thus leading to a bicontinuous nanophase structure composed of PVA-and CP-rich domains, where the former account for mechanical performance and the latter responsible for electrical performance. The phase separation in the nanoscale could ensure the uniform distribution of conductive percolation networks and stress transfer pathways, thus rendering a successful integration of excellent electrical and mechanical performances (toughness).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eRegulable conductance through specific ion effect\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven that it is bicontinuous nanophases accounting for the successful decoupling of electrical and mechanical performance, the CP-PVA organogels’ conductance was therefore expected to be regulable if the nanophase structure could be engineered on demand. Herein, this hypothesis was successfully verified by introducing the specific ion effect into the organogel system (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;23). The specific ion effect, encompassing the Hofmeister series, originally described a persistent trend in the effect of ions on the secondary structure and dispersibility of bio-macromolecules\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In general, cations with high charge density or anions with low charge density usually led to higher solvation degrees of bio-macromolecules, while cations with low charge density or anions with high charge density usually induced the opposite effect. A widely accepted mechanism behind this phenomenon involves the ions impacting the solvation shell of molecules by electrostatic and polarization effects\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This phenomenon has also been extended to hydrogel systems recently, with examples including PVA\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, polyampholyte\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNiPAM) hydrogels\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These hydrogels exhibited regulable mechanical properties (e.g., Youngs’ modulus) depending on the types of ions introduced in the system\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the CP-PVA organogels developed here, their conductance showed a high dependency on the types of ions introduced. Overall, cations showed a pronounced impact on the conductance of the organogels, following a similar ranking to the traditional Hofmeister series, whilst anions imposed a weak influence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea, b). Particularly, after being subject to treatment with glycerol solution containing 2 mol L\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e ion for 3 days (followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment to evaporate most of the water), the CP-PVA conductive organogels (CP’s relative content: 22 wt%, solid content: 51 wt%) could be transformed from a high-conductance state (27.3 S cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) (denoted as State I) to a high-resistance state (1.9×10\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e S cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) (denoted as State II) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb) with no significant change in organogel’s solid contents (solid content changing from 51–44%, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;23a and b); when the anions such as NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2−\u003c/sup\u003e and I\u003csup\u003e−\u003c/sup\u003e were introduced, 65% and 70% of reduction in conductance were observed, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb). Furthermore, the high resistance in State II could be maintained or even further increased by dialyzing out the Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e ion from the organogels with glycerol solution followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment (denoted as State III). As the partial removal of ionic conductive species, the conductivity was measured to decrease from 1.9×10\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e to 3.3×10\u003csup\u003e− 3\u003c/sup\u003e S cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, the organogels in State III could be re-engineered to the high conductive state (back to State I, denoted as State I\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) by thermal annealing at 80°C for 2 hours, so that a closed cycle of regulation over the conductance state with a high on-off ratio was successfully realized (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;23c). At last, this regulation cycles could be repeated several times with no significant alteration in the electrical performance (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;24).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eMechanism on the nanophase structure reconfiguration\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch excellent adjustability of conductance could be ascribed to the reversible swinging of the nanophase structure within the CP-PVA organogels in three different thermodynamic states, highly distinct from previously reported cases that conductance reconfiguration of gels commonly relied on swelling/deswelling of the system (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec, d). In detail, firstly, the State I exhibited a bi-continuous phase structure as discussed in the above section, and should be thermodynamically favored given that thermal annealing was applied. Secondly, for State II, the bi-continuous phase was erased through Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e treatment driven by thermodynamics. In detail, the kosmotropic cations Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e could bind with PVA chains to break the hydrogen bonds among them as confirmed by FT-IR, XRD, and SAXS spectra\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, thus leading to the higher mobility and immiscibility of PVA and CP chains (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ee and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;25, 26). As a result, the bi-continuous phase structure within the organogel was transformed into a more homogenous phase structure so that the CP-PVA organogel in State II became highly resistant (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;23c). Worth to note, that such transformation should not be ascribed to the swelling of organogels given there is no significant change in organogels’ solid contents as discussed above (selective evaporation at an ambient environment were implemented to evaporate most of the water absorbed during salt treatment before resistance measurement). Meanwhile, State II was also thermodynamically favored, as proved by the negligible change in resistance of the organogel (containing CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) when being subjected to thermal annealing at a high temperature of 60°C if CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e was not being dialyzed out (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;27).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThirdly, unlike the thermodynamically stable State I and II, State III was thermodynamically unstable but kinetically stable. The CP-PVA organogels after dialysis could remain highly resistant for a long duration at room temperature (\u003cem\u003ee.g.\u003c/em\u003e, 30 ℃ for more than 7 days) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ef). Such good kinetic stability could be attributed to the low chain mobility seriously retarded by hydrogen bonds among PVA and PSS chains. Subsequently, because of its thermodynamic instability, the organogel without CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e could be transformed back to a high conductance state (State I\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) through thermal annealing at a high temperature of 80°C for 2 hours, accompanied by the recovery of bi-continuous structure, as proved by AFM images, SAXS and XRD spectra (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ee, g and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;26).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, with the strong influence of the specific ion effect in the dynamic non-covalent interactions of polymer chains, reversible control over the organogels’ conductance with an outstanding on-off ratio was successfully achieved. To further confirm this conclusion, three sets of control samples were prepared, including CP-PVA organogels with varying contents of CP, glycerol-free CP-PVA hydrogels, and CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels (PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e: methacrylate modified PVA). In detail, (\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e) for the PVA-CP organogels with varying contents of PVA, decreasing the relative contents of PVA benefited the overall conductivity of the organogels but at the compromise of on-off ratio (Supplementary Figs.\u0026nbsp;28 and 29). This could be well explained by the lower dynamics of polymer chains because of the high content of CP in the composite network, where salt-resistant π-π stacking of PEDOT chains gradually dominated. (\u003cem\u003eii\u003c/em\u003e) For the glycerol-free CP-PVA hydrogels, they showed a weaker specific ion effect than the organogel system, as revealed by a low change ratio of only 31% in conductance (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eh and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;30). The weak response of CP-PVA hydrogels to the specific ion effect proved the strong effect of glycerol in the chain dynamics of PVA. According to the XRD characterization, glycerol could serve as an efficient plasticizer to improve the chain mobility by weakening the hydrogen bonds and crystalline degrees of PVA (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;31)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e; (\u003cem\u003eiii\u003c/em\u003e) For the CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels, once the PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e were chemically crosslinked in previous, conductive percolation networks could no longer be formed even upon the application of thermal annealing. Instead, the CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels, if not crosslinked, could be regulated between high conductance state and high resistance state by the specific ion effect, similar to its CP-PVA counterparts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ei, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;32). This phenomenon further confirmed the essential role of chain dynamics in the conductance tunability of CP-PVA composite system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, in contrast to the previously reported cases in pure PVA hydrogel system\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, cations showed a significantly stronger influence, on the CP-PVA organogels than that of anions, as discussed above. This abnormal phenomenon suggested the negatively charged CP (PEDOT:PSS) probably inhibited the anion penetration through electrostatic repulsion. As a whole, reversible control over the conductance of CP-PVA organogels was successfully achieved through nanophase structure engineering, leveraging the thermodynamically-driven reversible transformation of dynamic polymer networks in various ionic environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eReconfigurable bionic printing circuit board (Rec-PCB) with robust interfaces\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith the highly dynamic characteristic of phase structure, the PVA-CP organogels provided an ideal platform for neuron-like bionic circuitry with remarkable reconfigurability at the hardware level, surpassing the limitations of previously reported intact conductive hydrogels or organogels. To showcase this unique feature, Rec-PCBs were fabricated by selectively annealing pristine CP-PVA organogels via laser irradiation, enabling the in situ formation of patternable conductive domains through photothermal conversion (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo optimize the fabrication conditions, we first investigated the influence of the laser power on the conductivity and structural stability of CP-PVA organogels (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;33). With the laser power increasing (50–400 W m\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e), all the CP-PVA organogels with varied CP’s and solid contents exhibited a similar conductivity trend: an initial increase with peak conductivities in a range of 4.5 S cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e-107.1 S cm\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e at a laser power of 150 W m\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e (corresponding to a local temperature of ~ 85°C), followed by a decline at higher power. This reduction at relatively elevated power was likely due to the thermal-induced deswelling of organogels, as confirmed by infrared thermography (IRT) images and mechanical tensile tests, which showed localized overheating (\u003cem\u003ee.g.\u003c/em\u003e, ~ 200°C for 250 W·m\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e) and deteriorated mechanical performance (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;33–35). Based on these results, a laser power of 150 W m\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e was identified as an optimum condition for the patterning of conductive pathways, using CP-PVA organogels with a solid content of ~ 50 wt% (relative to the total mass of organogels) and CP’s content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA) as the workpiece.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpon laser irradiation, electrical circuits could be fabricated in situ within one CP-PVA organogel (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec, d). The locally transformed conductive pathway, generated at a laser power of 150 W m\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e, exhibited a low optical contrast to the naked eye, but with boundaries visible under backlighting conditions due to the slight dehydration under irradiation (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;34). To quantitively study the photothermal-induced formation of conductive pathways, CP-PVA organogels were subject to laser irradiation through a photomask. First, all the conductive traces with line widths ranging from 50 to 200 µm showed conductivities comparable to that of corresponding bulky materials, indicating the good size scalability of the laser-induced patterning (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;36). Second, the spatial resolution of the micropatterning process was evaluated by laser-writing pairs of adjacent conductive traces (Supplementary Figs.\u0026nbsp;37 and 38). Restrained by the inevitable thermal diffusion and resolution limit of photomask used here, the minimum inter-line spacing between two conductive traces to avoid electrical cross-talk was determined to be 100 µm. Below this threshold, adjacent conductive traces became partially electrically connected. The resolution was expected to further improve by downsizing the laser spot through optical engineering in the future. Thirdly, the laser-induced conductive traces exhibited good uniformity and homogeneity in both horizontal and vertical directions: the absolute resistance of conductive traces followed Ohm’s law as shown by a good linear relationship with the trace length (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ee-g), and exhibited good consistency for both the upper (directly exposed to laser) and lower surfaces (Supplementary Figs.\u0026nbsp;39 and 40).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, distinct from the conventional circuit with fixed trace layout determined fabrication, the CP-PVA organogels developed here possessed remarkable dynamic characteristics, enabled by the reconfigurable nanophase structure, resembling the adaptive nature of biological neuron networks. To showcase this characteristic, a Rec-PCB model with an array of dumbbell-shaped conductive traces was fabricated by selectively irradiating a CP-PVA organogel. The conductance between pairs of contact pads in the array (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eh and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;41) was measured and found to lie in line with the traces of laser irradiation, where the patterned traces exhibited conductance values up to 3–4 orders of magnitude higher than those of not-irradiated regions. Moreover, the conductive pathway could be erased by CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e treatment (followed by dialysis), resulting in a sharp resistance increase of 3–4 orders of magnitude. The pathways could then be rewritten through subsequent laser irradiation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ei). This erasing-rewrite procedure could be repeated for more than 5 cycles, indicating the excellent reconfigurability of the Rec-PCB (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;42).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to enabling high reconfigurability, the in situ laser-assisted fabrication strategy also ensured the formation of a robust interface between the conductive traces and the surrounding matrix, attributed to the thermal gradient zone arising from inevitable heat diffusion within the organogels during irradiation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ej). AFM analysis confirmed the presence of an interface layer between conductive and non-conductive domains. This layer facilitated remarkable interfacial adhesion and structural integrity through chain entanglement and non-covalent interactions (hydrogen bonds, π-π interactions, \u003cem\u003eetc\u003c/em\u003e.) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ek, l). The interfacial stability was successfully proved by tensile testing of CP-PVA organogels that were partially laser irradiated (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003em and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;43). The laser-patterned organogels showed mechanical performance comparable to those of pristine samples, with crack propagation formed upon strain commonly initiating at a random position rather than at the interface between irradiated and non-irradiated areas (Supplementary Video 1). Meanwhile, the patterned traces maintained stable electrical response under cyclic tensile strain, with no noticeable interfacial delamination (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;44). In contrast, most previously reported gel-based circuits lack in situ patternability and reconfigurability, and usually had to rely on adhesives for structural integrity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eConformal soldering and closed-loop recycling\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond their electrical versatility, the high reconfigurability of CP-PVA organogels also enabled conformal soldering and closed-loop recyclability, advancing their utility in 3-dimensional (3D) and sustainable electronics. A widely used approach for the soldering of conductive gels involved a drying-reswelling procedure, where the conductive gels were dehydrated to achieve imitate contact with targeted substrates\u003csup\u003e47–49\u003c/sup\u003e. However, this strategy led to severe deformation or collapse of gels with complex 3D geometries. Herein, leveraging the high reconfigurability of the CP-PVA organogels, a geometry-preserving soldering strategy was developed to achieve strong and shape-retentive bonding between CP-PVA organogels and various substrates, without the need for complete dehydration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn detail, for soldering, CP-PVA organogels at State III were coated with a thin layer of sans-glycerol CP/PVA aqueous solution (mass loading: 10 µL cm\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e), gently pressed against the targeted adherend (5 kPa), selectively dried overnight (for mechanical bonding), and then thermally annealed at 80°C (for electrical connect). With this method, broken CP-PVA organogels could be healed together with no noticeable deterioration in mechanical and electrical performance (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea-c). Importantly, complex geometries such as Möbius band structure could be preserved after soldering (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ed). In addition, CP-PVA organogels could also be strongly bonded to Cu, Sn, and Au substrates, achieving high adhesion toughness values of 1295, 1051, and 660 J m\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ee-g and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;45–47). The electrical contacts between CP-PVA organogel and metals were proved ohmic contact as indicated by the linear current-voltage response (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;48). Furthermore, the electrical contact could also be spatially patterned by levering local laser irradiation, where only the irradiated domains were electrically connective (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eh). This method allowed for a multichannel board-to-board connection between CP-PVA organogel and flexible PCB (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eh), a capability not easily achieved with previously reported adhesion strategy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mechanism underlying the wet soldering capability involved the solvent-mediated dynamic reconfiguration of the CP-PVA organogel network in the presence of the aqueous solder (sans-glycerol CP/PVA solution, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ei). Specifically, when aqueous CP/PVA solder was applied to the CP-PVA organogel at State III, the glycerol within the organogel and water from the solder underwent diffusion driven by a concentration gradient. On one hand, water infiltration partially loosened the original polymer network of organogels, enabling the interfacial assembly with the CP and PVA chains from the aqueous solder via hydrogen bonds and polar interaction. As a result, a semi-interpenetrated network with high interfacial toughness was obtained at the interface after selective drying (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;49). Concurrently, the low glycerol contents at the interface promoted the crystallization of PVA chains, further strengthening the joints via the high-energy domains (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;50a). Meanwhile, the glycerol in the organogels diffused into the aqueous solder and then induced the configuration transformation of CP (from solder) from benzenoid to quinoid structure under thermal annealing (80°C), thus reducing the contact resistance between CP-PVA organogels and substrates (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;50b).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo validate this mechanism, control soldering experiments were performed using solders with different components, including PVA/CP glycerol solution, CP sans-glycerol aqueous solution, and PVA sans-glycerol aqueous solution (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;51). The glycerol-containing solder yielded poor interfacial adhesion, with a significant reduction in fractural strain from 687–254% along with cracks commonly initiating at the interface along. Such a significant deterioration in adhesion performance implied the essential role of the solvent recipe. The glycerol suppressed both the re-assembly of polymer networks and the crystallization of PVA chains, key processes for robust adhesion (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;31). Meanwhile, sans-glycerol solder lacking either CP or PVA failed to provide both strong adhesion and reliable electrical contacts, as shown by the sharp rise in the resistance of soldered samples upon strain or significant reduction in adhesion toughness, highlighting the necessity of CP and PVA (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;51).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor recycling, the CP-PVA organogels could be reprocessed in a closed-loop route, enabled by the highly dynamic organogel networks and the low volatility of glycerol. In detail, through dialysis with minimal water to remove glycerol (the glycerol-containing solution was retained for reuse), the CP-PVA organogels could be well dissolved in water by heating at 80°C for 2 hours (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ej). The resulting dispersion displayed excellent colloidal stability, with a zeta potential of − 55 mV and uniform size distribution (295 nm), closing matching the original (− 50 mV, 255 nm; Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;52). Subsequently, new organogels could be regenerated by re-introducing the recovered glycerol solution (obtained in the dialysis process), drop-casting, and selective evaporation at ambient environments. The regenerated organogels exhibited only mild reduction in mechanical performance and electrical properties (\u003cem\u003ee.g.\u003c/em\u003e, 16.5% and 9.0% decreases in Young’s modulus and toughness, respectively; Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;53). In addition, the regenerated organogels also inherited excellent electrical reconfigurability, in which conductive pathway could be erased via CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e treatment and then be re-constructed through laser irradiation (Supplementary Figs.\u0026nbsp;54 and 55).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eDemonstrations\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs a whole, by in situ tuning of the nanophase structure of conductive organogels through specific ion effect, three pairs of inherently conflicted properties were successfully integrated within one system: (\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e) high electrical and mechanical performance, (\u003cem\u003eii\u003c/em\u003e) patternability and reconfigurability of highly conductive pathways, and (\u003cem\u003eiii\u003c/em\u003e) in situ solderability and closed-loop recyclability of conductive gels. To showcase these capabilities, four representative applications were developed, including (\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e) organogel-based printing circuit boards (PCBs) for plug-and-play interconnection with conventional rigid PCBs, (\u003cem\u003eii\u003c/em\u003e) organogel-based integrated electronic wrist bands for electrophysiological signal capture, (\u003cem\u003eiii\u003c/em\u003e) in situ rewritable electroluminescent devices and rewritable LED bands, and (\u003cem\u003eiv\u003c/em\u003e) organogel-based stretchable circuitry models for audio playing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs a first example, a 6-channel organogel-based printing circuit board (GPCB) was fabricated (line spacing: 5.5 mm, line width: 1 mm) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea). The GPCB was soft, stretchable, and could be connected to conventional rigid PCBs through zero-insertion-force (ZIF) connectors for analog signal transmission (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb). Attributed to the high structural integrity with high toughness, the electrical connection/disconnection of GPCB to the conventional rigid PCB could be repeated for \u0026gt; 1000 cycles, with no noticeable deterioration in electrical performance (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;56). Moreover, the GPCB demonstrated a broader operational frequency range compared to its hydrogel counterpart, probably due to the lower relative permittivity of the organic system (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;57).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, a CP-PVA organogel-based digital wristband in situ patterned with 8 pairs of electrodes was prepared for electrophysiological signal recording (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ec). The digital wrist could be connected to a commercially available flexible PCB through wet soldering by using CP/PVA aqueous solder with laser patterning. Compared to the previously reported bioelectrodes, the digital wrist band developed here combined several advantages, including mixed electronic-ionic conductance for a low impedance, high conformability to wrinkled skins, high interfacial robustness with no extra introduction of insulative elastomer, and excellent environmental stability (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;58). Consequently, high signal-to-noise ratio electrophysiological recordings were achieved, surpassing those obtained with commercially available electrodes (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;59). As an example, real-time monitoring of muscle activity was demonstrated by recording the surface electromyography (sEMG) maps in space and time domains, highlighting potential applications in medical diagnosis or human-machine interaction (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ed, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ee, and Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;60).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThirdly, to showcase the reconfigurability, organogel-based electroluminescence (EL) devices and rewritable LED bands were prepared (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ef and g). The EL devices consisted of a laser-patterned PVA-CP bottom electrode, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-ZnS EL layer, and Cu top electrodes. Upon electric power, the EL emission accurately replicated the layout of the electrical traces patterned within the CP-PVA organogels. More importantly, the layout could be dynamically altered by in situ rewriting the conductive traces through sequential treatment with CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e solution, dialysis, and laser scribing (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ef, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;61 and Supplementary Video 2). The reconfigurable LED band featured an LED matrix soldered onto the CP-PVA organogel substrate using PVA/CP aqueous solder. Its conductive pathways could be adjusted by leveraging the electrical reconfigurability of CP-PVA organogel, enabling on-demand modification of the electrical layout (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eg, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;62). Notably, beyond these examples, the hardware-level reconfigurability is expected to inspire the design of novel next-generation biomimetic electronics for a variety of applications including tissue engineering, information processing, and cyborgs. For example, dynamically reconfigurable conductive organogels could support neural tissue culture with spatiotemporal plasticity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, to demonstrate the excellent solderability of the CP-PVA organogels for use as printing circuit boards, a functional stretchable audio-playing circuit was assembled. The circuit comprised resistors, capacitors, switches, an LED, a speaker, and an FLM038A integrated circuit (IC) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eh, Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;63). The electronic components were soldered onto a laser-patterned CP-PVA GPCB using CP/PVA aqueous solder followed by thermal annealing, resulting in strong bonding and reliable electrical connectivity. The final circuit was highly soft, stretchable, and capable of playing preloaded audio tracks stored in the FLM038A chip during operation (Supplementary Video 3).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work presents a general strategy for constructing neuron-imitating reconfigurable new-generation electronics by leveraging reversible nanophase regulation of dynamic non-covalent conductive networks. Specifically, the nanophase structure of the non-covalent conductive networks exhibits significant response to specific ions, governed by thermodynamics, allowing for reversible modulation of both electrical and mechanical properties. As a result, the organogel-based conductive networks could successfully integrate high electrical performance with several additional features that are typically challenging to combine: mechanical performance, conductance reconfigurability, in situ patternability of conductive pathways, in situ solderability with spatial resolution, and closed-loop recyclability. Furthermore, the strategy here has also proved applicable to conductive organogels from other conductive components such as Ag and polyaniline (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;64).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith these unique features, neuron-tissue-like reconfigurable printing circuit boards can be designed and utilized for the application of reconfigurable bioelectronics and sustainable electronics. Moreover, the integration of in situ patterning of conductive traces and soldering capability successfully addressed a long-standing challenge in gel-based bioelectronics: achieving robust, multichannel interconnection between gel systems and conventional rigid electronics (such as IC and PCB). A reliable board-to-board connection between CP-PVA organogel and commercial flexible PCB is demonstrated here, a capability not easily realized using conventional adhesion strategies for conductive gels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt last, this study greatly deepens the fundamental understanding of the evolution of the nanophase microstructure of conductive gel and more essentially elucidates the underlying mechanism of ion-driven modulation. The conceptual framework introduced here is expected to inspire the development of novel reconfigurable bionic devices and help bridge the interface among the biological world, aqueous gel electronics, and conventional rigid electronics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS, solid content: ~1.1 wt%) was ordered from Heraeus Epurio Ltd. Glycerin (AR, 99%), Acrylamide (AR, 99%), ammonium persulphate (APS, AR, 98%), methacrylic anhydride were (94%, Contains 2% stabilizer), triethylamine (AR, 99%), α-Ketoglutaric acid (98%) were supported by Haohong Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Poly(vinyl alcohol (PVA, Mw:89000\u0026ndash;98000, 99% alcoholysis), aniline (AR, 99%), silver powder (Ag, 5 um), sodium chloride (NaCl, 98%), potassium chloride (KCl, 98%), cesium chloride (CsCl, 98%), lithium chloride (LiCl, 98%), calcium chloride (CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, 98%), sodium sulfate (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, 98%), sodium carbonate (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, 98%), sodium citrate (98%), sodiumiodide (NaI, 98%), acetone (98%), ethanol (98%), hydrochloric acid (HCl, analytical reagent grade), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were purchased from Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of CP-PVA organogels and CP organogels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCP-PVA organogels were prepared by selectively evaporating glycerol solution containing PEDOT:PSS and PVA at room temperature followed by thermal annealing at 80\u0026deg;C for 2 h. Typically, pristine PEDOT:PSS aqueous solutions were first filtered through a syringe filter with a pore size of 0.45 \u0026micro;m to remove large particles and then added to a PVA glycerol solution (the content of glycerol was 4 wt% relative to the total mass of final solution, and the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 26.1 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e respectively, if not particularly mentioned). The obtained suspension was drop-casted on a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.1 mL cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e) and dried at the ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25 ℃) overnight to obtain free-standing p-CP-PVA organogels with a thickness of ~\u0026thinsp;92 um. The solid contents of p-CP-PVA organogels could be controlled by varying the glycerol\u0026rsquo;s relative contents in the precursor solutions. The resultant organogel exhibited a high resistance. To improve the conductance, a further thermal annealing process was implemented at 80\u0026deg;C for 2 h.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the preparation of thin CP-PVA organogels with high optical transparency, a spin-coating method was employed, where the precursor glycerol solutions containing CP and PVA were spin-coated onto glass plates or elastomer films (EcoflexTM 00\u0026ndash;45 Near Clear\u0026trade;) previously treated by oxygen plasma at speeds of 500, 700, 900, 1100, 1300, and 1500 rpm and dried at the ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25 ℃) overnight. To improve the conductance, a further thermal annealing process was implemented at 80\u0026deg;C for 2 h.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the control experiments, pure CP and PVA organogels were prepared. For the preparation of pure CP organogels, PEDOT: PSS suspensions were added with glycerol (4 wt%, relative to the total mass of solution), and then drop-casted onto glass plates previously treated with O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e plasma for 5 minutes (volumetric loading: 75 \u0026micro;L cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), followed by thermal annealing at 80\u0026deg;C for 2 hours. For the preparation of pure PVA organogels, PVA glycerol suspensions (the content of glycerol was 4 wt% relative to the total mass of final solution; the content of PVA was 10 wt% relative to the total mass of suspensions) were drop-casted onto glass plates previously treated with O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e plasma for 5 minutes (volumetric loading: 30 \u0026micro;L cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), and annealed at 80\u0026deg;C for 2 hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of methacrylate PVA (PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e) and CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e was synthesized by the esterification reaction between PVA and methacrylic anhydride, following the previous literarure\u003csup\u003e50\u003c/sup\u003e. First, PVA (Sigma-Aldrich, 89000\u0026ndash;98000 kDa, 98% hydrolyzed) was dissolved in water by heating at 90\u0026deg;C for 2 hours to obtain 10 wt% PVA solution. Then, the PVA solution was added with methacrylic anhydride (5 mol% relative to PVA) under stirring, left to react at 60\u0026deg;C for 48 h, and then quenched by neutralizing with triethylamine. At last, PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e power was obtained by slowly dropping the reaction solution into acetone (5 equivalent volumes relative to the solution) under vigorous agitation, filtering, washing with excessive acetone, and drying at 60\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the preparation of the CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels, glycerol suspensions (4 wt%, relative to the total mass of solution) containing 7.4 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of CP, 0.3 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of α-ketoglutaric acid, and 26.1 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e (CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content: 22 wt%) was dropped-casting on a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.1 mL cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), and dried under ambient conditions (25 ℃) for 24 hours to selectively evaporate most of the water. At last, free-standing CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogel was successfully obtained and crosslinked by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light (wavelength: 365 nm) for 30 min. For the preparation of CP-PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e organogels without chemical crosslinking, a polymerization inhibitor was added to a sans-photoinitiator glycerol solution (4 wt%, relative to the total mass of solution) containing 7.4 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of CP and 26.1 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of PVA\u003csub\u003eMA\u003c/sub\u003e (CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content: 22 wt%, relative to the total mass of PVA and CP), and then followed with a similar procedure as described above except without UV exposure step.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of CP-PVA organogels at different states\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CP-PVA organogels used for the tests had a solid content of ~\u0026thinsp;50 wt% with CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content of 22 wt%. The thermally-annealed CP-PVA organogels were donated as State I. For the preparation of CP-PVA organogels at State II, the thermally-annealed CP-PVA organogels (State I) were soaked with a glycerol solution containing 2 mol L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e ion for 3 days, followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) for 24 hours. For the preparation of CP-PVA organogels at State III, the CP-PVA organogels at State II were dialyzed in a 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and partially dried in an ambient environment for 24 hours to evaporate most of the water. At last, the CP-PVA organogel at State III could be transformed back to State I (denoted as State I\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) through thermal annealing at 80\u0026deg;C for 2 hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of sans-glycerol CP-PVA hydrogels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSans-glycerol CP-PVA conductive hydrogels were prepared from conductive CP-PVA organogel by employing a popular drying-reswelling strategy reported previously\u003csup\u003e51\u003c/sup\u003e. In detail, p-CP-PVA organogels (CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content: 22 wt%, relative to the mass of PVA and CP; solid content: ~40%) were thermally annealed at 80 C for 2 hours followed by dialyzing the organogels in water, followed by drying at the ambient environment (25\u0026deg;C) and reswelling in purified water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of polyaniline (PANi)-PVA and Ag-PVA organogels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePANi-PVA organogels were synthesized following an ice-templated polymerization method reported previously\u003csup\u003e52\u003c/sup\u003e. In detail, a monomer-containing solution (solution A) was first prepared by adding 80 \u0026micro;L of HCl solution (35 wt%) and 28 mg of aniline in 1 mL of 10 wt% PVA solution, followed by vigorous stirring until a clear and transparent solution was formed. The mixture solution was cooled in an ice bath. Subsequently, 0.5 mL of ammonium persulfate (APS) solution (162 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) was added to solution A. The resulting solution was poured into a mold and frozen in liquid nitrogen for 2 hours. Finally, the frozen samples were transferred to a refrigerator at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C and kept static for 24 hours, during which aniline was polymerized to form PANi. PANi-PVA organogels were obtained by thawing the frozen samples at room temperature, followed by dialysis in 50 wt% glycerol solution for 12 h and drying at ambient temperature for 24 hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the preparation of the Ag-PVA organogels, 0.15 g of silver flake powder (diameter: 5 \u0026micro;m) and 0.6 mL of a glycerol solution (50 wt%) were added to 2 mL of a 10 wt% PVA solution and mixed with a planetary-type mixer at 2500 rpm for 10 min (HMV200D, Shenzheng Hasai Technology, China). Then, the mixture solution was drop-casted onto a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.1 mL cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e) and dried at ambient temperature (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) for 24 hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWriting and erasing the conductive pathway of organogels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo pattern the conductive traces, the p-CP-PVA organogels or CP-PVA organogels at State III were irradiated by a continuous laser (DT1-3W; Lighthouse photonics, China) with an optical power density of 150 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, if not particularly mentioned. An infrared thermal imager (A615, Teledyne FLIR, U.S.) was employed to record the temperature variations and infrared thermal images of the CP-PVA organogels during laser irradiation, capturing their photothermal response.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo quantitatively study the photothermal-induced patterning of conductive traces, CP-PVA organogels at State III were subject to laser irradiation through a photomask. The pre-patterned photomask was then brought into intimate contact with the organogel surface and precisely aligned under microscopic observation (the design of the photomask is shown in Supplementary Figs.\u0026nbsp;36 and 37. Laser irradiation under default laser parameters was subsequently applied through the photomask apertures to induce conductive traces. The characterization of laser-irradiated CP-PVA organogels via digital source meter (2450 Graphical SourceMeter, Keithley, U.S.) and probe station (YZ-50, Yuxin Technology, China) measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reconfigurability of laser-induced conductive traces was investigated through the ion-specific effect and laser photothermal effect. Specifically, a pre-patterned photomask was brought into intimate contact with the CP-PVA organogel surface and precisely aligned under microscopic observation (the design of the photomask is shown in Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;35). Laser irradiation was applied through the photomask apertures to induce conductive traces. The resistance values between arbitrary pairs of contact pads were measured using the digital source meter and probe station. The conductive traces of CP-PVA organogels were strongly influenced by their nanophase structure, which could be modulated through treatment with different salt solutions. Typically, to erase the conductance of the CP-PVA organogels, the CP-PVA organogels with conductive traces (State I) were immersed in a 15 wt% glycerol salt solution with a salting-in effect (e.g., 2 M CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e solution) for 3 days, followed by selective evaporation at an ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) for 24 hours (State II). Worth noting, the organogels could maintain a high resistance after dialysis in 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and drying in an ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) for 24 hours (State III). Subsequently, new conductive traces were patterned on the CP-PVA organogels through photomask-guided laser irradiation (State I\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e). The resistance values between arbitrary pairs of contact pads were measured via the digital source meter and probe station, where probes were pre-coated with silver paste to minimize contact resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConformal soldering of conductive organogels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CP-PVA organogels could be soldered to themselves or some common metals used in conventional electronics, such as Cu, Sn, and Au. Typically, CP-PVA organogel was first dip-coated with a sans-glycerol CP/PVA aqueous solution (containing 26.1 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of PVA and 7.4 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of CP) and then gently pressed against the targeted adherend (5 kPa), and selective evaporation at an ambient temperature (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) for 12 hours. Afterward, the assembly was thermally annealed at 80 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 2 hours to establish the electrical connection. Particularly, for bonding with metal substrates, the surface was first cleaned with ethanol to remove organic contaminants, followed by 5 minutes of oxygen plasma treatment to enhance surface hydrophilicity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo validate the dynamic reconfiguration of the CP-PVA organogels, control soldering experiments were performed using different soldering solutions, including PVA/CP glycerol solution (the content of glycerol was 4 wt% relative to the total mass of the final solution, and the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of CP and 26.1 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), CP sans-glycerol aqueous solution (solid content: 1.1\u0026ndash;1.3 wt%), and PVA sans-glycerol aqueous solution (solid content: ~ 10 wt%). Subsequently, conformal soldering was performed using the aforementioned procedures to assess the effectiveness of each solder under controlled conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClosed-loop recycling of conductive CP-PVA organogels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCP-PVA organogels can be closed-loop recycled through dissolution followed by selective solvent evaporation. Specifically, CP-PVA organogels (30 mm in length and 20 mm in width) with laser-patterned conductive traces were dialyzed in a small amount of water to remove glycerol, and the resulting dialysis solution containing glycerol was collected for subsequent reuse. The dialyzed sample was then dispersed in 1 mL of deionized water and stirred at 80\u0026deg;C until a clear solution was obtained. After cooling to room temperature, the previously collected dialysis solution was added to recover the glycerol content (2 wt%, relative to the total mass of the solution). The resulting mixture was filtered through a 220 \u0026micro;m pore size membrane, drop-cast onto a glass plate (volumetric loading: 0.2 mL cm⁻\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), and allowed to dry under ambient conditions (25\u0026deg;C) for 24 hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFabrication of organogel-based printing circuit boards\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CP-PVA organogels, with a solid content of ~\u0026thinsp;50 wt% and CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), were used for experiments. The CP-PVA organogels were cut into rectangular strips measuring 10 cm in length and 3.5 cm in width using a scalpel. Subsequently, 6 channels conductive traces (spacing: 5.5 mm, width: 1 mm) were induced on the CP-PVA organogels via continuous laser direct writing with an optical power density of 150 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The organogel-based printing circuit traces could be connected to two zero-insertion-force (ZIF) connectors, capable of transmitting analog signals within a wide range of frequencies (10 MHz-100 HZ).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of electrode arrays for EMG recording\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe p-CP-PVA organogels with a solid content of ~\u0026thinsp;40 wt% and CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA) were used for experiments. Specifically, p-CP-PVA organogel (180 mm in length and 50 mm in width) was selected for patterning electrode traces by a continuous laser (150 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm, speed: 6 cm min\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) to serve as surface electromyography (sEMG) electrodes. The PVA solution containing 50 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e PVA and 20 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e glycerol was applied over the electrode surface and dried at ambient temperature (30\u0026deg;C) as an insulating layer. Before this, a suitable size PDMS membrane was placed over the electrode area and interface region for protection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFabrication of in situ rewritable electroluminescence devices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganogel-based electroluminescence devices adopted a sandwich structure\u003csup\u003e53\u003c/sup\u003e, consisting of a patterned organogel bottom electrode, an electroluminescent layer, an insulating layer, and a Cu top electrode. In detail, the CP-PVA organogel with laser-patterned conductive traces was used as an electrode. ZnS electroluminescent powder was dispersed in uncured PDMS (at a mass ratio of 1.4:1) and applied to the surface of the CP-PVA organogels to form the light-emitting layer. The samples were then solidified in the ambient environment (25 ℃) for 4 hours. Next, barium powder was dispersed in uncured PDMS at a 1:1 mass ratio and applied to the surface of the light-emitting layer to serve as the insulating layer. These samples were also solidified in the ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25 ℃) for 2 hours. Finally, conductive copper paste was applied to the surface of the insulating layer to form the electrode layer. Lastly, alternating currents 100 V and 3 kHz were applied between the CP-PVA organogel and the conductive copper paste to activate the electroluminescent powder.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo study the in situ rewritable of the CP-PVA organogel-based electroluminescence devices. The CP-PVA organogel-based electroluminescence devices were immersed in 15 wt% glycerol solutions (relative to the total mass of solution) with a salting-in effect (e.g., 2 M CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e solution) for 3 days. Then, the devices were dialysis in 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and selectively evaporation in an ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) overnight to erase the conductive traces of CP-PVA organogels. The CP-PVA organogels were subsequently repatterned with conductive traces via continuous laser direct writing with an optical power density of 150 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFabrication of in situ rewritable LED bands\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe p-CP-PVA organogels, with a solid content of ~\u0026thinsp;40 wt% and CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), were used for experiments. Subsequently, conductive traces were patterned on the CP-PVA organogel by a continuous wave laser (power density: 150 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm, speed: 6 cm min\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). The conductive traces as shown in Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;53. The aqueous CP/PVA solder (the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of CP and 26.1 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) was printed onto the CP-PVA organogel through a customized stencil, serving as contact pads for LEDs. Then, the LEDs are placed on the corresponding contact pads. Finally, the LED bands were left at ambient temperature (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) to selectively evaporation excess water from the CP/PVA aqueous solder, and powered by a constant current of 20 mA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo study the in situ rewritable of the CP-PVA organogel-based LED bands. The CP-PVA organogel-based LED bands were immersed in 15 wt% glycerol solutions (relative to the total mass of solution) with a salting-in effect (e.g., 2 M CaCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e solution) for 3 days. Then, the LED bands were dialysis in 15 wt% glycerol solution for 24 hours and selectively evaporation in an ambient environment (~\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;C) overnight to erase the conductive traces of CP-PVA organogels. The CP-PVA organogels were subsequently rewritten with new conductive traces via continuous laser direct writing with an optical power density of 150 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e (wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm) at a fixed scanning speed of 6 cm s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;53).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFabrication of organogel-based stretchable circuitry model for audio playing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe organogel-based stretchable circuitry model was fabricated by constructing an audio circuit with a patterned CP-PVA organogel serving as a printing circuit board. Here, we patterned the p-CP-PVA organogels to create conductive traces and contacts for circuit applications. The p-CP-PVA organogels, with a solid content of ~\u0026thinsp;40 wt% and CP\u0026rsquo;s relative content of 22 wt% (relative to the total mass of CP and PVA), were used for experiments. Subsequently, conductive traces were constructed on the p-CP-PVA organogels by a continuous wave laser (power density: 150 W m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, wavelength: 532 nm, spot size: 0.3 mm, speed: 6 cm min\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). The CP/PVA aqueous solder (the concentrations of CP and PVA were 7.4 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of CP and 26.1 mg mL\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) was printed onto the p-CP-PVA organogel, serving as contact pads for electronic components. The electronic components are placed on the corresponding contact pads. Finally, the electronic components were left at room temperature to allow the evaporation of excess water from the CP/PVA aqueous solder. Detailed circuit diagram and printed circuit board design are provided in Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;54, and the list of components can be found in Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;5. The organogel-based audio player circuit is powered by a lithium-ion battery.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOnline content\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAny methods, additional references, Nature Portfolio reporting summaries, source data, supplementary information, acknowledgments, peer review information; details of author contributions and competing interests; and statements of data and code availability are available at\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll experiments were conducted with a sample size of at least four (n\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;4) and results were presented as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviations (SD) or as box-and-whisker plots. Statistical analyses were performed using the two-sided \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test for comparisons between two groups or one-way analysis of variances (ANOVA) for comparison among multiple groups, using Origin software. Significance levels were defined as \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.05 (not significant, NS), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 (*), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01 (**), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 (***). Electrophysiological recording data were pre-processed using a bandpass filter (5\u0026ndash;50 Hz) implemented in Origin software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll human-related experiments were conducted with the consent of volunteers and approved by the Institute Animal Ethics Committee of Nanjing University of Science and Technology (210913001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main data supporting the results in this study are available within the paper and its Supplementary Information.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52203002, 52072177, and 52272084), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 30923010204, 30918012201, 2023102003 and 30919011405), and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFB3808800). All the experiments involving humans were conducted in full compliance with local laws and approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Nanjing University of Science and Technology (ACUC-NUST-202402280091). Informed written consent from all human participants was obtained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB.Y and J.F. initiated the concept and designed the overall studies. W.Z. and H.Z. led the experiments and collected the overall data. Z.L, and Y.G. contributed to microelectrode fabrication. Z.W., contributed to the small-angle X-ray scattering spectroscopy characterization. All authors contributed the data analysis and provided feedback on the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eAdditional information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupplementary information is available at\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Bowen Yao or Jiajun Fu.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeer review information\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, Y.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Morphing electronics enable neuromodulation in growing tissue. \u003cem\u003eNat. Biotechnol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e38\u003c/strong\u003e, 1031-1036 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMadhvapathy, S. R.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Implantable bioelectronic systems for early detection. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e381\u003c/strong\u003e, 1105-1112 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYoo, J.-Y. et al. Wireless broadband acousto-mechanical sensing system for continuous physiological monitoring. \u003cem\u003eNat. Med.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e29\u003c/strong\u003e, 3137-3148 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYe, C. et al. A wearable aptamer nanobiosensor for non-invasive female hormone monitoring. \u003cem\u003eNat Nanotechnol\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e19, \u003c/strong\u003e330\u0026ndash;337 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFang, Y.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Micelle-enabled self-assembly of porous and monolithic carbon membranes for bioelectronic interfaces. \u003cem\u003eNat. Nanotechnol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e16\u003c/strong\u003e, 206-213 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhou, A.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. A wireless and artefact-free 128-channel neuromodulation device for closed-loop stimulation and recording in non-human primates. \u003cem\u003eNat. Biomed. Eng.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e, 15-26 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuang, Y. et al. Bioelectronics for electrical stimulation: materials, devices and biomedical applications. \u003cem\u003eChem. Soc. Rev.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e53\u003c/strong\u003e, 8632-8712 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMinev, I. R. et al. Electronic dura mater for long-term multimodal neural interfaces. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e347\u003c/strong\u003e, 159-163 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYi, J. et al. Water-responsive supercontractile polymer films for bioelectronic interfaces. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e624\u003c/strong\u003e, 295-302 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYin, J., Wang, S., Tat, T. \u0026amp; Chen, J. Motion artefact management for soft bioelectronics. \u003cem\u003eNat. Rev. Bioeng.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e, 541-558 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWu, X. S.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Self-assembly of biological networks via adaptive patterning revealed by avian intradermal muscle network formation. \u003cem\u003eProc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e116\u003c/strong\u003e, 10858-10867 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHomberger, D. G. et al.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eThe role of mechanical forces on the patterning of the avian feather-bearing skin: a biomechanical analysis of the integumentary musculature in birds. \u003cem\u003eJ. Exp. Zool. B Mol. Dev. Evol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e298\u003c/strong\u003e, 123-139 (2003).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eH\u0026uuml;tt, M.-T. et al.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003ePerspective: network-guided pattern formation of neural dynamics. \u003cem\u003ePhilos. Trans. R. Soc. B, Biol. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e369\u003c/strong\u003e, 20130522 (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarder, E. Neuromodulation of neuronal circuits: back to the future. \u003cem\u003eNeuron\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e76\u003c/strong\u003e, 1-11 (2012).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHempel, C. M. et al. Spatio-temporal dynamics of cyclic AMP signals in an intact neural circuit. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e384\u003c/strong\u003e, 166-169 (1996).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBargmann, C. I. Beyond the connectome: how neuromodulators shape neural circuits. \u003cem\u003eBioessays\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e34\u003c/strong\u003e, 458-465 (2012).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMazlouman, S. J. et al. A reconfigurable patch antenna using liquid metal embedded in a silicone substrate. \u003cem\u003eIEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e59\u003c/strong\u003e, 4406-4412 (2011).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRamachandran, V. et al. Elastic instabilities of a ferroelastomer beam for soft reconfigurable electronics. \u003cem\u003eExtreme Mech. Lett.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e, 282-290 (2016).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFink, Z.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Repairable and reconfigurable structured liquid circuits. \u003cem\u003eAdv. Funct. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e 2402708 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark, J.-E.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Rewritable, printable conducting liquid metal hydrogel. \u003cem\u003eACS Nano\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 9122-9130 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOhm, Y. et al. Reconfigurable electrical networks within a conductive hydrogel composite. \u003cem\u003eAdv. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e, 2209408 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, Y. et al. Rewritable electrically controllable liquid crystal actuators. \u003cem\u003eAdv. Funct. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e33\u003c/strong\u003e, 2302110 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, Y. et al. Somatosensory actuator based on stretchable conductive photothermally responsive hydrogel. \u003cem\u003eSci. Robot.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e, eabd5483 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLin, Y. L.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Light-responsive MXenegel via interfacial host-guest supramolecular bridging. \u003cem\u003eNat. Commun.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e, 916 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen, S. \u0026amp; Jonsson, M. P. Dynamic conducting polymer plasmonics and metasurfaces. \u003cem\u003eACS Photonics\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e, 571-581 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDoshi, S.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Electrochemically mutable soft metasurfaces. \u003cem\u003eNat. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e24\u003c/strong\u003e, 205-211 (2025).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKeene, S. T.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. A biohybrid synapse with neurotransmitter-mediated plasticity. \u003cem\u003eNat. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e19\u003c/strong\u003e, 969-973 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLee, Y.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. A low-power stretchable neuromorphic nerve with proprioceptive feedback. \u003cem\u003eNat. Biomed. Eng.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e, 511-519 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, W.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Neuromorphic sensorimotor loop embodied by monolithically integrated, low-voltage, soft e-skin. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e380\u003c/strong\u003e, 735-742 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAndreev, M. et al. Influence of ion solvation on the properties of electrolyte solutions. \u003cem\u003eJ. Phys. Chem. B\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e122\u003c/strong\u003e, 4029-4034 (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Y. J. \u0026amp; Cremer, P. S. Interactions between macromolecules and ions: the Hofmeister series. \u003cem\u003eCurr. Opin. Chem. Biol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e, 658-663 (2006).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHofmeister, F. Zur lehre von der wirkung der salze: zweite mittheilung. \u003cem\u003eNaunyn-Schmiedeberg\u0026apos;s Arch. Pharmacol. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e24\u003c/strong\u003e, 247-260 (1888).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNanou, E. \u0026amp; Catterall, W. A. Calcium channels, synaptic plasticity, and neuropsychiatric disease. \u003cem\u003eNeuron\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e98\u003c/strong\u003e, 466-481 (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLittleton, J. T. \u0026amp; Ganetzky, B. Ion channels and synaptic organization. \u003cem\u003eNeuron\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e26\u003c/strong\u003e, 35-43 (2000).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLee, H.-K.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Phosphorylation of the AMPA receptor GluR1 subunit is required for synaptic plasticity and retention of spatial memory. \u003cem\u003eCell\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e112\u003c/strong\u003e, 631-643 (2003).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuang, J. et al. Influence of thermal treatment on the conductivity and morphology of PEDOT/PSS films. \u003cem\u003eSynth. Met.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e139\u003c/strong\u003e, 569-572 (2003).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, Y.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Morphing electronics enable neuromodulation in growing tissue. \u003cem\u003eNat. Biotechnol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e38\u003c/strong\u003e, 1031-1036 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHe, H.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Enhancement in the mechanical stretchability of PEDOT:PSS films by compounds of multiple hydroxyl groups for their application as transparent stretchable conductors. \u003cem\u003eMacromol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e54\u003c/strong\u003e, 1234-1242 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRecord, M. T. et al. Introductory lecture: interpreting and predicting Hofmeister salt ion and solute effects on biopolymer and model processes using the solute partitioning model. \u003cem\u003eFaraday Discuss.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e160\u003c/strong\u003e, 9-44 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGregory, K. P.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al.The electrostatic origins of specific ion effects: quantifying the Hofmeister series for anions. \u003cem\u003eChem Sci\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e, 15007-15015 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHua, M. T.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Strong tough hydrogels via the synergy of freeze-casting and salting out. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e590\u003c/strong\u003e, 594-599 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, X.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Effect of salt on dynamic mechanical behaviors of polyampholyte hydrogels. \u003cem\u003eMacromol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e56\u003c/strong\u003e, 535-544 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJin, Y.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Time-salt type superposition and salt processing of poly(methacrylamide) hydrogel based on Hofmeister series. \u003cem\u003eMacromol. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e57\u003c/strong\u003e, 2746\u0026ndash;2755 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Y.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Effects of Hofmeister anions on the LCST of PNIPAM as a function of molecular weight. \u003cem\u003eJ. Phys. Chem. C\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e111\u003c/strong\u003e, 8916-8924 (2007).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWu, S. et al. Poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels with broad-range tunable mechanical properties via the hofmeister effect. \u003cem\u003eAdv. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e33\u003c/strong\u003e, 2007829 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMohsin, M., Hossin, A. \u0026amp; Haik, Y. Thermal and mechanical properties of poly (vinyl alcohol) plasticized with glycerol. \u003cem\u003eJ. Appl. Polym. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e122\u003c/strong\u003e, 3102-3109 (2011).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eInoue, A. et al. Strong adhesion of wet conducting polymers on diverse substrates. \u003cem\u003eSci. Adv.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e, eaay5394 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDaeyeon, W.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Laser-induced wet stability and adhesion of pure conducting polymer hydrogels. \u003cem\u003eNat. Electron.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e, 475\u0026ndash;486 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXue, Y. et al. Mechanically-compliant bioelectronic interfaces through fatigue-resistant conducting Polymer Hydrogel Coating. \u003cem\u003eAdv. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e, e2304095 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHua, M.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. 4D Printable tough and thermoresponsive hydrogels. \u003cem\u003eACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 12689-12697 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLu, B.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Pure PEDOT:PSS hydrogels. \u003cem\u003eNat Commun\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e, 1043 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, Y.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Hierarchically structured stretchable conductive hydrogels for high-performance wearable strain sensors and supercapacitors. \u003cem\u003eMatter\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e, 1196-1210 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZheng, S.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eet al. Pressure-stamped stretchable electronics using a nanofibre membrane containing semi-embedded liquid metal particles. \u003cem\u003eNat. Electron.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e, 576-585 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-portfolio","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Nature Portfolio","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6540613/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6540613/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBionic electronics are designed to bridge the gap between biological realms and conventional electronics by imitating the mechanical performance and versatile functionalities of biological tissue. However, it remains a great challenge to replicate the high dynamics and reconfigurability of living tissues at the hardware level without compromising electrical performance, spatial resolutions, and structural integrity. This issue is mainly rooted in the inherent conflict between excellent electrical performance and dynamic properties, in which the former requires electrical active components to have an intimate electrical connection at the molecular level while the latter nevertheless necessitates weak and responsive intermolecular interaction. To address this problem, a novel methodology of reversible nanophase regulation is proposed, inspired by the well-known ion-specific effect discovered in biological systems. As an exemplary model, physically crosslinked conductive networks are prepared with conducting polymers and polyvinyl alcohol as building blocks. With the benefits of the dynamic response to specific ions, the conductive network can successfully integrate multiple, traditionally contradictory properties\u0026mdash;combining outstanding electrical/mechanical performance with excellent reconfigurability features such as micro-patternability and erasability of conductive pathways, in-situ wet solderability with good spatial resolution, and closed-loop recyclability. At last, the methodology proposed here showed good generality and could be extended to other material systems, promising to inspire the design of novel reconfigurable bionic devices for the integration of biological tissue and electronics in a diverse range of applications including human-machine interactions, neural tissue engineering, and degradable bioelectronics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Highly reconfigurable neuron-mimicking conductive networks through nanophase structure engineering","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-17 07:17:20","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6540613/v1","editorialEvents":[],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-communications","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"NCOMMS","sideBox":"Learn more about [Nature Communications](http://www.nature.com/ncomms/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://mts-ncomms.nature.com/","title":"Nature Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature Communications","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5068b57b-5a89-4ce9-8def-afae40a3b861","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":50124230,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Soft materials/Gels and hydrogels"},{"id":50124231,"name":"Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology/Nanoscale materials/Molecular self-assembly"},{"id":50124232,"name":"Physical sciences/Chemistry/Physical chemistry"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-05T08:07:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6540613","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-68088-3","journal":{"identity":"nature-communications","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Nature Communications"},"publishedOn":"2025-12-29 05:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 29th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-17 07:17:20","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41467-025-68088-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-68088-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6540613","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6540613","identity":"rs-6540613","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}